Informal Social Learning Activities at the Workplace: Interrelations of Learning Activities, Contexts, Triggers, Outcome, and Domain Specifics vorgelegt von Veronika Anselmann, Dipl. Päd. 2016 Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät II (Psychologie, Pädagogik und Sportwissenschaft) der Universität Regensburg
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Informal Social Learning Activities at the
Workplace:
Interrelations of Learning Activities, Contexts, Triggers,
Outcome, and Domain Specifics
vorgelegt von
Veronika Anselmann, Dipl. Päd.
2016
Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde
der Philosophischen Fakultät II (Psychologie, Pädagogik und Sportwissenschaft)
der Universität Regensburg
Erstgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Regina H. Mulder, Universität Regensburg
Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Johannes Bauer, Universität Erfurt
This dissertation is based on the following peer reviewed publications:
Study I
Leicher, V., Mulder, R. H., & Bauer, J. (2013). Learning from errors at work: a replication
study in elder care nursing. Vocations and Learning, 6(2), 207-220.
Study II
Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (2016). Individual and contextual factors influencing engagement
in learning activities after errors at work: A replication study in a German Retail Bank.
Journal of Workplace Learning, 28(2), 66-80.
Study III
Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (2016). Team learning, team performance and safe team climate
in elder care nursing. Team Performance Management: An International Journal
(TPM), 22(7/8), 399-414.
Study IV
Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (online first). Development of vignettes for learning and
professional development. Gerontology and Geriatrics Education. DOI:
10.1080/02701960.2016.1247065.
Peer reviewed book chapter:
Chapter 5
Bauer, J., Leicher, V. & Mulder, R. H. (2016). On nurses' learning from errors at work. In S.
Billett, D. Dymock & S. Choy (Eds.), Supporting learning across working life: Models,
processes and practices (pp.129-147). Dordrecht: Springer.
4
Table of content
1. Introduction to informal learning at work .............................................................................. 5
2. Conceptualisation of informal social learning at the workplace ............................................ 7
2.1 Learning – process and activity ........................................................................................ 7
2.2. Framework of informal learning activities at the workplace ........................................... 8
2.2.1. Learning activities and contexts .............................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.2 Triggers, outcomes and domain specifics .............................................................................................................. 10
2.3. Theoretical foundation of the key concepts ................................................................... 11
2.3.1 Experiential learning and social learning ............................................................................................................... 11
2.3.2. Trigger for informal learning at the workplace ..................................................................................................... 13
2.3.3. Outcomes of informal learning at the workplace .................................................................................................. 15
3. Aim of this thesis and overview of the studies ..................................................................... 17
9.4. Implications for Practice .......................................................................................................................................... 35
9.5. Implications for Future Research ............................................................................................................................. 36
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 5
1. Introduction to informal learning at work
Past and present research seems to agree that learning at the workplace is necessary for
employees and almost unavoidable for those who want to sustain their employability (Russ-Eft,
Watkins, Marsick, Jacobs, & McLean, 2014; Van der Klink, Van der Heijden, Boon, & van
Rooij, 2014).
Learning at the workplace has gained importance while its meaning and goals have changed.
Economic, social and cultural changes such as globalisation and digitalization have altered the
needs and demands of our society. Current world reality has brought forth new challenges and
turbulences such as financial crises and climate change (Russ-Eft et al., 2014).
Informal learning happens through work and, at the same time, seems to be desired for work.
Informal learning is not perceived as learning, in terms of effort or expense. Informal learning
activities at the workplace occur when people have the need or the opportunity to learn; for
instance, in the case of solving problems or finding solutions at critical moments (Marsick &
Noe, R. A., Tews, M. J., & Marand, A. D. (2013). Individual differences and informal learning
in the workplace. Journal of vocational behavior, 83(3), 327-335
Piaget, J. (1977), The Development of Thought. Equilibration of Cognitive Structures, Basil
Oxford: Blackwell.
Proehl, R. A. (2013). Enhancing the effectiveness of cross‐functional teams. Leadership &
Organization Development Journal, 17 (5), pp. 3-10
Rasmussen, J., Pejtersen, A. M., & Schmidt, K. (1990). Taxonomy for Cognitive Work
Analysis. Riso National Laboratory. Roskilde: Cognitive Systems Group.
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 23
Russ-Eft, D., Watkins, K.E., Marsick, V.J., Jacobs, R.L., & McLean, G.N. (2014). What do
next 25 years hold for HRD research in areas of our interest? Human Resource
Development Quarterly, 25(1), 5-27.
Ryu, S., & Sandoval, W. A. (2015). The influence of group dynamics on collaborative scientific
argumentation. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education,
11(2), 335-351.
Schippers, M., Den Hartog, D. & Koopman, P. (2007). Reflexivity in Teams: A Measure and
Correlates, Applied Psychology, 56(2), 198-211.
Schippers, M. C., West, M. A., & Dawson, J. F. (2015). Team Reflexivity and Innovation.The
Moderating Role of Team Context. Journal of Management, 41(3), 769-788.
Schoenberg, N., & Ravdal, H. (2000). Using vignettes in awareness and attitudinal research.
Social Research Methodology, 3(1), 63-74.
Simons, P. R. J., & Ruijters, M. C. (2004). Learning professionals: towards an integrated model.
In Professional learning: Gaps and transitions on the way from novice to expert (pp. 207-
229). Springer Netherlands.
Timmermans, O., Van Linge, R., Van Petegem, P., Van Rompaey, B., & Denekens, J. (2012).
Team learning and innovation in nursing, a review of the literature. Nurse Education
Today, 32(1), 65-70.
Tynjälä, P. (2008). Perspectives into learning at the workplace. Educational Research Review,
3(2), 130-154.
Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, W.H., Segers, M., & Kirschner, P.A. (2006). Social and
cognitive factors driving Teamwork in collaborative learning environments: Team
learning beliefs and behaviors. Small Group Research, 37(5), 490-521.
Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, W., Segers, M. Woltjer, G., & Kirschner, P. (2011). Team
learning: building shared mental models, Instructional Science, 39(3), 283-301.
van der Haar, S., Segers, M., Jehn, K., & Van den Bossche, P. (2014). Investigating the
relation between team learning and the team situation model. Small Group Research,
1-33, DOI: 10.1177/1046496414558840.
Van der Klink, M., Van der Heijden, B. I., Boon, J., & van Rooij, S. W. (2014). Exploring the
contribution of formal and informal learning to academic staff member employability.
Career Development International, 19(3), 337-356.
Van Merriënboer, J.J.G. & Kirschner, P.A. (2001). Three worlds of instructional design: State
of the art and future directions, Instructional Science, 29, 429-441.
Van Merriënboer, J.J.G., Kirschner, P.A., & Kester, L. (2003). Taking the load off a learner´s
mind: instructional design for complex learning, Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 5-13.
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 24
Van Woerkom, M. (2004). The concept of critical reflection and its implications for human
resource development. Advances in developing human resources, 6(2), 178-192.
van Woerkom, M., & Croon, M. (2009). The relationships between team learning activities and
team performance. Personnel Review, 38(5), 560-577.
Wageman, R. Hackman, J.R. & Lehman, E. (2005). Team diagnostic survey: development of
an instrument. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 41(4), 373-98.
Watkins, K. E., & Marsick, V. J. (1992). Towards a theory of informal and incidental learning
in organizations. International journal of lifelong education, 11(4), 287-300.
Weick, K. E., & Roberts, K. H. (1993). Collective mind in organizations: Heedful interrelating
on flight decks. Administrative science quarterly, 38(3), 357-381.
Webb, N.M., Troper, J. D., & Fall, R. (1995). Constructive activity and learning in collaborative
small groups. Journal of educational psychology, 87(3), 406.
25
This chapter is based on:
Leicher, V., Mulder, R. H., & Bauer, J. (2013). Learning from errors at work: a replication study in elder care nursing. Vocations and
Learning, 6(2), 207-220.
4. Study I
Learning from errors at work: A replication study in elder care
nursing
26
This chapter is based on: Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (2016). Individual and contextual factors influencing engagement in learning activities after errors at work: A
replication study in a German Retail Bank. Journal of Workplace Learning. 28(2), 66-80. doi: 10.1108/JWL-03-2015-0022
5. Study II
Individual and contextual factors influencing engagement in
learning activities after errors at work:
A replication study in a German Retail Bank
27
This chapter is based on: Bauer, J., Leicher, V. & Mulder, R. H. (2016). On nurses' learning from errors at work. In S. Billett, D. Dymock & S. Choy (Eds.),
Supporting learning across working life: Models, processes and practices (pp.129-147). Dordrecht: Springer
6. Book Chapter
On nurses’ learning from errors at work
28
This chapter is based on:
Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (2016). Team learning, team performance and safe team climate in elder care nursing. Team Performance Management: An International Journal (TPM), 22(7/8), 399-414.
7. Study III
Team Learning, Team Performance, and Safe Team Climate in
Elder Care Nursing
29
This chapter is based on:
Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (2016). Team learning, team performance and safe team climate in elder care nursing. Team Performance Management: An International Journal (TPM), 22(7/8), 399-414.
8. Study IV
Development of vignettes for learning and professional
development
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 30
9. Discussion
The aim of this chapter is to integrate the results of our studies and the described theoretical
framework. Four discrete studies were conducted to answer the research question. Based on the
findings of these studies an answer to our general research question is given. Further, we will
describe limitations as well as implications for practice and further research.
9.1. Key findings
The aim of this thesis was to increase insight into informal social learning activities at the
workplace. Based on the specific research questions, the key findings of the different studies
will be discussed.
Can findings on learning from errors be replicated and generalized to other domains?
Shavelson and Towne (2002) pointed out that replication is an important principle of empiric
inquiries because it enables the researcher to verify the accuracy of studies. Replication, as the
use of a set of variables across studies, enables a better understanding of the extent to which
findings from one study could be generalized to another field or another situation.
Therefore, results of our studies on learning from errors in the domains of elder care nursing
and retail banking matter with regard to two different aspects: first, results of the original study
on learning from errors in the domain of hospital nursing from Bauer and Mulder (2011) could
be replicated; and second, because results could be generalized in the domain of retail banking,
normative questions arise. In comparing the nursing and retail banking domains with regard to
learning from errors, results indicate that the same mechanism is at work. Results show that the
estimation of an error as relevant for learning predicts employees’ engagement in social
learning activities. Moreover, the tendency to cover up errors has a negative effect on
employees’ engagement in social learning activities. Error strain fosters the estimation of an
error situation as relevant for learning, and, by this, influences the engagement in social learning
activities indirectly. Also, the perception of a safe team climate influences engagement in social
learning activities indirectly by reducing the tendency to cover up errors. These results could
be replicated in the domains of elder care nursing and retail banking. Although it could be
assumed that it makes a difference if errors are harmful to the health of elderly people or result
in financial loss, the results of our studies indicate that in both domains the same factors do
influence employees’ learning activities. Systems and, therefore, organizations have norms and
standards that determine what characterizes an error or an incorrect action. These
determinations depend on the specific domain (Bauer, 2008). However, the content and the
consequences of an error are not the most important factors with regard to learning from errors.
In fact, an error that is life-threatening in one domain is also as meaningful as an error that
results in financial loss in another domain. The replication of these results in two different
domains broadens our understanding of errors and learning from errors.
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 31
Do elder care nurses engage in team learning activities?
Results of our study on team learning indicate that team learning activities are important
learning activities in the domain of elder care nursing. Elder care nurses engage in team learning
activities, and, especially, knowledge sharing frequently occurs. With regard to reflection, the
results of our study show that it is important to differentiate between different types of
reflection. Reflection on more general topics can influence reflection on narrower topics, such
as specific strategies to accomplish work goals. But only when knowledge is shared can it
influence the team’s performance. Furthermore, reflection can be performed individually and
socially shared, and it can vary with regard to the depth of reflection and with regard to different
topics. Our results indicate that it is important to analyse sequences of learning activities and,
by doing this, emphasize the dynamic structure of the learning activities. Informal learning at
the workplace often does not have a temporal or chronological order. Additionally, learning
activities are not accomplished in a logical order, and the situation and opportunities the
workplace offers directly affect employees’ engagement in different learning activities.
Research on workplace learning often neglects the dynamic structure of informal learning
activities at the workplace. Salas, Cook and Rosen (2008) emphasized that it is necessary to
study teams “in the wild” (p.544) because this enables the researcher to examine teams, their
learning activities and the facilitating factors for team learning that are embedded in
organizations and broader systems. In this way, all components of a team and team processes
can be included.
How are team learning activities of elder care nursing teams related to their team’s
performance?
Team performance is a multidimensional construct and can be regarded as a multilevel process
that arises when team members engage in individual and team learning activities while
accomplishing their team-related task work (Kozlowski & Klein, 2000; Salas, Cooke, & Rosen,
2008). Results of our studies show that team performance can only be conceptualized by
incorporating different perspectives and different performance indicators. Research shows that
nursing teams can influence patient outcomes with regard to quality of care and patient safety
(Van Boegert, Van Heusden, Timmermans, & Franck, 2013). But, nursing teams are also
supposed to be effective and efficient as well as innovative (e.g., Timmermans, Van Linge, Van
Petegem, Van Rompaey, & Denekens, 2012). While the effectiveness, efficiency and
innovativeness of teams can be measured based on reliable indicators (e.g., Van Woerkom &
Croon, 2009), the complexity of the construct of quality of care makes it difficult to find an
appropriate measurement tool. There is no common theory-driven pattern that provides a basis
to define, organize and operationalize nursing care performance by encompassing diverse
dimensions and different perspectives (Dobius. D´Amour, Pomey, Girard, & Brault, 2013;
Mukamel et al., 2006; Temkin-Greener, Gross, Kunitz, & Mukamel, 2004).
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 32
Results of our study show that there could be an appropriate way to combine different
performance indicators and different perspectives on performance. For this, we measured team
performance with regard to effectiveness, efficiency and innovativeness, and we included a
performance assessment of team members and a performance assessment of health insurance
medical services. Our results show that the team learning activity of knowledge sharing
significantly predicts positive team efficiency, effectiveness and innovativeness. However,
knowledge sharing is negatively related to the performance estimation by health insurance
medical services. Our results also show that performance estimation by team members and
performance estimation by health insurance medical services differ. Based on our results, it
could be assumed that performance measurement in nursing depends on the objectives of the
assessment. This influences the selection of the variables for the measurement of performance,
such as measuring the effectiveness of the nursing team versus measuring the quality of care.
Moreover, the particular perspective on team performance matters. The measurement of
performance in elder care nursing depends on the perspective. This could be subjective, or more
objective. Our results are in line with the current call to overcome the lack of objective
healthcare outcomes and to find a measurement that reflects nurses’ contribution to healthcare
outcomes and quality of care (Przylog, Storka, Engel, & Linder, 2015).
How do vignettes have to be designed to use them as a trigger for learning and professional
development?
Professional development plays a significant role in helping elder care nurses to cope with
changes in their work field and to ensure high standards of quality (Collin, Paloniemi, &
Mecklin, 2010; Lammintakanen & Kivinen, 2012). Informal learning at the workplace and
authentic learning environments have great potential to enable elder care nurses to achieve
competent task performance and handle the new demands in their work field (Herrington &
Oliver, 2000; Mulder, 2004; Van Merriënboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003). By developing
vignettes as an authentic description of realistic work tasks and situations, we attempted to find
a way to foster learning and professional development for elder care nurses in vocational
education and training.
We developed a criteria framework for vignettes that included the construction process, the
content and the style. The criteria for the construction process are collaboration with
professionals and evaluation of the vignettes by professionals. Criteria for the content of
vignettes, for example, consist of the description of a realistic situation, relevance to participants
or inclusion of characteristics regarding the professional activity. Inclusion of frequently used
terms and adaption of the writing style to the type of respondent are criteria for the style of
vignettes. We developed vignettes and validated them in an interview study with experts.
Results of our study indicate that collaboration with experts in the work area is necessary
because this enabled us to ensure that the vignettes approximated the reality of the work and to
specify practical solutions for the described work tasks. The developed work task vignettes
could be used in various learning settings and combined with different learning methods and
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 33
content. They are developed to be a trigger for independent learning processes for a specific
learning goal.
9.2. Conclusion
Four different studies were conducted to answer the general research question of this thesis.
The research question is:
Which informal social learning activities in different contexts at the workplace can be
described, and how are they interrelated to triggers, outcomes and domain specifics?
Informal learning is defined as learning from experience that can be planned or unplanned and
that is not formally structured or intuitionally organized (Marsick & Watkins, 1999). In order
to conceptualize informal social learning activities at the workplace, a framework of learning
activities, context, trigger for learning activities, outcome and domain specifics was developed.
Based on the assumption that learning activities can be individually or socially shared and can
be embedded in a social or non-social context, we conducted studies on individual engagement
in social learning activities after errors and social learning activities in teams. Results of our
studies indicate that informal social learning at the workplace could be conceptualized as the
individual engagement in social learning activities and as social learning activities in teams.
With regard to the context, results show that informal learning after errors can be
conceptualized as an individual learning activity embedded in a social context. Learning
activities were operationalized as general and specific cause analysis and the development of
new action strategies. The study on social learning activities in teams shows that social learning
activities of reflection and knowledge sharing are important for elder care nursing teams in
order to improve their performance. In this study, team learning activities are embedded in a
social context. Based on these results, it could be assumed that both individual and social
learning activities in social contexts could be informal social learning activities at the
workplace.
Informal learning at the workplace is often triggered by an internal or external cause. A trigger
can lead to individual or social learning activities in a social or non-social context. We
conducted two different studies to gain more insight into how triggers influence informal
learning activities at the workplace. Our results indicate that errors are triggers for informal
learning at the workplace in the way of individual engagement in social learning activities. We
also tried to develop vignettes as a trigger for learning activities. The developed vignettes
describe authentic work tasks and are assumed to foster learning activities and professional
development. The relation of informal social learning activities to outcome indicators was also
part of our studies. We conceptualized work performance with different performance indicators
and included subjective measures, as well as more objective assessment of performance. Our
results show that team learning activities can have a significant positive relation to team
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 34
performance and, therefore, are effective in enhancing outcomes at the workplace. Yet, it can
depend on the specific work domain as to which informal social learning activities are
important. Therefore, replication studies were conducted to compare different domains. Our
results indicate that with regard to learning from errors, the work domain does not matter.
To sum up and give an answer to our research question, results of our studies indicate that
individual engagement in social learning activities and social learning activities in teams can
be found in the workplace. Both learning activities are important in such different domains as
retail banking and elder care nursing. Informal learning activities can be triggered like for
instance from errors. Furthermore, informal learning activities can enhance performance.
We conducted studies on learning from errors, team learning and the development of work task
vignettes. In the following section we summarize limitations, practical implications and
directions for future research.
9.3. Limitations
To increase our insight into learning activities, individually performed or socially shared
longitudinal studies are necessary. All studies that are part of this thesis have a cross-sectional
design. Especially with regard to team learning and team performance, it would be important
to account for team development in empirical studies. To gain a more in-depth understanding
of these processes, different points of measurement are necessary.
Regarding our study on the development of work task vignettes, it would be necessary to
implement the developed vignettes in vocational education and training settings and evaluate
results. The study focuses on the development of vignettes. The implementation of the vignettes
in formal learning settings and their evaluation is the next important step.
All studies reported in this thesis have relatively small sample sizes. Research on learning at
the workplace is difficult with regard to comparable organizations and settings. This also means
finding ways to analyse small sample sizes. In particular, with regard to team learning, there
are different methods to account for the nested structure of the data. Multilevel models would
enable a comprehensive insight by analysing the between and within group differences, but this
would require large sample sizes. Therefore, it is important to ensure that analysing methods
are appropriate to answer research questions. Analysing methods should only be chosen
considering the specific research focus and goal.
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 35
9.4. Implications for Practice
Based on the introduced framework, practical implications concern the learning activities,
context, ways learning can be triggered and the outcome of learning activities with regard to
performance. The results of our studies indicate that, in order to trigger learning activities and
foster learning, it could be helpful to foster organizational developments to establish
possibilities for employees to learn. This is also necessary with regard to the context in which
a learning culture has to be created and is also important in handling error situations. With
regard to performance, we assume it is necessary to use different performance measures in order
to include different perspectives on performance.
Possibilities for employees to engage in learning activities
Results of our studies show that social learning activities are important for employees to learn
at their workplace. Informal learning at the workplace happens, for instance, when employees
have to solve problems to accomplish their work tasks. Which type of learning activities
employees chose depends on the individual’s attitude and motivation, but also on organizational
structures that offer employees the possibility to learn together. Learning through work is also
determined by the support individuals receive in their engagement in work activities and by
their access to direct or indirect guidance (Billett, 2001). For organizational development, it is
necessary to implement institutionalized arrangements that provide opportunities for employees
to learn. Variation in work tasks, participation in communities of practice or the possibility to
contact experts in the organization or outside of it and receive and give feedback could be
examples for arrangements that can be seen as learning opportunities (Eraut, 2004; Marsick &
Watkins, 1999; Skule, 2004).
Learning climate in organizations
With regard to learning from errors, it could be assumed that it is necessary for organizations
to implement a learning culture that offers employees the possibility to openly address errors
and engage in learning activities. Results of our studies show that a safe team climate has a
positive effect on the engagement of employees in learning activities, individually performed
as well as socially shared. A safe team climate could be fostered by employees and by leaders
of a team or organization. Leaders that show a management style that allows employees to
report errors, analyse errors and find alternative strategies for future actions could enable
employees to learn from errors (Edmondson, 2011). Additionally, leaders should encourage
employees to report their own perception of insufficient performance or inadequate strategies
so that errors do not happen at all. This also requires employees who have the courage to speak
up and ask for feedback (Anseel, Beatty, Shen, Lievens, & Sackett, 2015). Therefore, the
behaviour of leaders and employees could result in a safe and trustful organizational climate
that enables leaders and employees to engage in social learning activities after errors are made.
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 36
Performance in nursing: different perspectives, different measures
Practical implications derived from our research on team learning and team performance refer
to the adaption of the concept of performance in nursing. Measurement must include different
dimensions and different perspectives. Especially in geriatric nursing, performance
measurement must include elderly peoples’ perspectives and their satisfaction with the provided
care. Elderly patients who depend on the help and care of geriatric nurses have multiple needs
and require a complex set of services (Mukamel et al., 2006). Geriatric nurses’ work is
characterized by a prevalent tension that lies in the implementation of caregiving activities that
help elderly people, but do not restrict them in their autonomy and decisions. Elderly people
live in retirement homes in order to receive the help necessary to live their lives as
independently as possible. However, the success of this can only be determined by the
individuals being cared for.
Because of the reorganization of healthcare and the nursing crisis, performance measurement
with regard to effectiveness and efficiency becomes more and more important in the nursing
domain. External evaluation of retirement homes and nursing care organizations was introduced
with the goal to monitor quality of care and ensure patient safety. But, this also created a new
tension for nurses and nursing care organizations. External evaluation of performance
introduced different performance indicators, and results of external evaluation became a
competitive advantage for nursing care organizations, especially in the public perception.
To give nurses the opportunity to fulfil these demanding requirements for the individual
satisfaction of elderly people, on the one hand, and effectiveness and quality, on the other,
external and internal assessments should be combined. Performance measurement must include
the elderly people’s perceptions of the received care, the retirement homes’ effectiveness
criteria and commercial thinking, and the quality of care and patient safety measured by external
institutions.
9.5. Implications for Future Research
Implications for future research concern the measurement of learning activities, research on
facilitating factors for learning and the need to consider cultural aspects. This chapter closes
with implications for research on individual or socially shared learning activities.
Dynamic processes of team learning
Implications for future research concern the measurement of learning activities as dynamic
processes that vary with regard to their chronological, temporal and hierarchical order. Research
should focus on different learning activities and account for learning sequences. That means
that informal learning at the workplace does not happen in a specific order. It includes repeating
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 37
activities, combining different actions or turning back to already completed activities. To
account for this, sequence research on learning must find appropriate ways to measure the
whole of learning processes instead of identifying only their individual steps.
Facilitating factors for team learning and development
Further research on team learning should also focus on the variety of influencing factors on the
individual, team and organizational levels. Working and learning in teams can be influenced by
different factors that depend on the domain. A domain-specific selection of facilitating factors
would increase our understanding of team learning. Additionally, further research on reflection
in teams should include a more differentiated perspective on this learning activity. Less is
known about the content of reflection and if reflection about one’s own competencies is more
successful with regard to performance than reflection about strategies or work tasks. Also, the
combination of different types of reflection and the combination of reflection with other
learning activities should be focused on in further studies. Furthermore, research should also
examine team mental models as the shared understanding of team members with regard to their
work tasks and work strategies. Based on cognitive theories on team learning, it could be
assumed that such shared cognitive structures are interrelated with team learning processes.
Learning from errors: cultural differences, different error types and team learning from
errors
Results of our studies on learning from errors indicate that there is no difference between
influencing factors on the engagement in social learning activities after errors in different
domains. Further research should focus on cultural differences in coping with error situations.
Furthermore, our studies focus on knowledge and rule-based errors. Including different types
of errors and concrete error examples reported by the employees could enhance our
understanding of learning from errors. Additionally, it could be useful to get more insight into
how teams handle error situations when the error is caused by an individual team member. This
also relates to the team’s mental model on errors and error situations and can clarify what norms
and values determine an error in a specific domain.
Individually and/or socially shared?
Based on the assumption that informal learning activities can be individually performed or
socially shared, it can be assumed that these categories of learning activities are extremes in a
continuum of informal learning activities at the workplace. This depends, for instance, on the
context, the domain and the possibilities provided for employees as to which kind of learning
activities they engage in. Furthermore, to grasp the whole reality of learning at the workplace,
it must be taken into account that learning activities are interrelated with each other, can happen
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 38
in short intervals and can be repeated. Therefore, future research should develop a more holistic
approach to informal learning at the workplace and a broader concept of learning activities that
does not separate learning with regard to the type of accomplishment. Including different
conceptions of learning, individual learning, social learning and their combination would
deepen our understanding of informal learning activities at work. Furthermore, it is necessary
to take a broader perspective on informal learning at the workplace and make sure that types of
activities, contexts, triggers, outcomes and domain specifics are taken into account.
Informal social learning activities at the workplace 39
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