Ias

IASIndian Administrative Service Aspirant's blog

Countries with Most Land Borders02 January 2013 01:30

China share its borders with 14 countries:Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, North Korea, Pakistan, RussianFederation, Tajikistan, Vietnam

Russian Federation share its borders with 14 countries:Azerbaijan, Belarus, China, Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Mangolia, North Korea,Norway, Poland, Ukraine

Brazil share its borders with 10 countries:Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, French Guianya, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Uruguay, Venezuela

Congo Democratic Republic share its borders with 9 countriesAngola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Congo, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia

Germany share its borders with 9 countries:Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Switzerland,

Tips and Tricks for Quantitative Aptitude Tests02 January 2013 01:00

Finding number of FactorsTo find the number of factors of a given number, express the number as a product of powers of prime numbers.In this case, 48 can be written as 16 * 3 = (24 * 3)Now, increment the power of each of the prime numbers by 1 and multiply the result.In this case it will be (4 + 1)*(1 + 1) = 5 * 2 = 10 (the power of 2 is 4 and the power of 3 is 1)Therefore, there will 10 factors including 1 and 48. Excluding, these two numbers, you will have 10 – 2 = 8 factors.

Sum of n natural numbers-> The sum of first n natural numbers = n (n+1)/2-> The sum of squares of first n natural numbers is n (n+1)(2n+1)/6-> The sum of first n even numbers= n (n+1)-> The sum of first n odd numbers= n^2

Finding Squares of numbersTo find the squares of numbers near numbers of which squares are known

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To find 41^2 , Add 40+41 to 1600 =1681To find 59^2 , Subtract 60^2-(60+59) =3481

Finding number of Positive RootsIf an equation (i:e f(x)=0 ) contains all positive co-efficient of any powers of x , it has no positive roots then.Eg: x^4+3x^2+2x+6=0 has no positive roots .

Finding number of Imaginary RootsFor an equation f(x)=0 , the maximum number of positive roots it can have is the number of sign changes in f(x) ;and the maximum number of negative roots it can have is the number of sign changes in f(-x) .Hence the remaining are the minimum number of imaginary roots of the equation(Since we also know that theindex of the maximum power of x is the number of roots of an equation.)

Reciprocal RootsThe equation whose roots are the reciprocal of the roots of the equation ax^2+bx+c is cx^2+bx+aRootsRoots of x^2+x+1=0 are 1,w,w^2 where 1+w+w^2=0 and w^3=1Finding Sum of the rootsFor a cubic equation ax^3+bx^2+cx+d=o sum of the roots = - b/a sum of the productof the roots taken two at a time = c/a product of the roots = -d/aFor a biquadratic equation ax^4+bx^3+cx^2+dx+e = 0 sum of the roots = - b/a sum of the product of the rootstaken three at a time = c/a sum of the product of the roots taken two at a time = -d/a product of the roots =e/a

Maximum/Minimum-> If for two numbers x+y=k(=constant), then their PRODUCT is MAXIMUM if x=y(=k/2). The maximum productis then (k^2)/4-> If for two numbers x*y=k(=constant), then their SUM is MINIMUM if x=y(=root(k)). The minimum sum is then2*root(k) .

Inequalities-> x + y >= x+y ( stands for absolute value or modulus ) (Useful in solving some inequations)-> a+b=a+b if a*b>=0 else a+b >= a+b-> 2<= (1+1/n)^n <=3 -> (1+x)^n ~ (1+nx) if x<<<1> When you multiply each side of the inequality by -1, youhave to reverse the direction of the inequality.

Product Vs HCF-LCMProduct of any two numbers = Product of their HCF and LCM . Hence product of two numbers = LCM of thenumbers if they are prime to each other

AM GM HMFor any 2 numbers a>b a>AM>GM>HM>b (where AM, GM ,HM stand for arithmetic, geometric , harmonicmenasa respectively) (GM)^2 = AM * HM

Sum of Exterior AnglesFor any regular polygon , the sum of the exterior angles is equal to 360 degrees hence measure of any externalangle is equal to 360/n. ( where n is the number of sides)For any regular polygon , the sum of interior angles =(n-2)180 degreesSo measure of one angle inSquare-----=90Pentagon--=108Hexagon---=120Heptagon--=128.5Octagon---=135Nonagon--=140Decagon--=144

Problems on clocksProblems on clocks can be tackled as assuming two runners going round a circle , one 12 times as fast as theother . That is , the minute hand describes 6 degrees /minute the hour hand describes 1/2 degrees /minute .Thus the minute hand describes 5(1/2) degrees more than the hour hand per minute .The hour and the minute hand meet each other after every 65(5/11) minutes after being together at midnight.(This can be derived from the above) .

Co-ordinatesGiven the coordinates (a,b) (c,d) (e,f) (g,h) of a parallelogram , the coordinates of the meeting point of thediagonals can be found out by solving for [(a+e)/2,(b+f)/2] =[ (c+g)/2 , (d+h)/2]


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RatioIf a1/b1 = a2/b2 = a3/b3 = .............. , then each ratio is equal to (k1*a1+ k2*a2+k3*a3+..............) / (k1*b1+k2*b2+k3*b3+..............) , which is also equal to (a1+a2+a3+............./b1+b2+b3+..........)

Finding multiplesx^n -a^n = (x-a)(x^(n-1) + x^(n-2) + .......+ a^(n-1) ) ......Very useful for finding multiples .For example (17-14=3will be a multiple of 17^3 - 14^3)

Exponentse^x = 1 + (x)/1! + (x^2)/2! + (x^3)/3! + ........to infinity 2 <>GP-> In a GP the product of any two terms equidistant from a term is always constant .-> The sum of an infinite GP = a/(1-r) , where a and r are resp. the first term and common ratio of the GP .

MixturesIf Q be the volume of a vessel q qty of a mixture of water and wine be removed each t ime from a mixture n bethe number of times this operation be done and A be the final qty of wine in the mixture then ,A/Q = (1-q/Q)^n

Some Pythagorean triplets:3,4,5----------(3^2=4+5)5,12,13--------(5^2=12+13)7,24,25--------(7^2=24+25)8,15,17--------(8^2 / 2 = 15+17 )9,40,41--------(9^2=40+41)11,60,61-------(11^2=60+61)12,35,37-------(12^2 / 2 = 35+37)16,63,65-------(16^2 /2 = 63+65)20,21,29-------(EXCEPTION)

Appolonius theoremAppolonius theorem could be applied to the 4 triangles formed in a parallelogram.

FunctionAny function of the type y=f(x)=(ax-b)/(bx-a) is always of the form x=f(y) .

Finding SquaresTo find the squares of numbers from 50 to 59For 5X^2 , use the formulae(5X)^2 = 5^2 +X / X^2Eg ; (55^2) = 25+5 /25 =3025(56)^2 = 25+6/36 =3136(59)^2 = 25+9/81 =3481

Successive DiscountsFormula for successive discountsa+b+(ab/100)This is used for succesive discounts types of sums.like 1999 population increses by 10% and then in 2000 by 5% sothe population in 2000 now is 10+5+(50/100)=+15.5% more that was in 1999 and if there is a decrease then itwill be preceeded by a -ve sign and likewise.

Rules of Logarithms:-> loga(M)=y if and only if M=ay-> loga(MN)=loga(M)+loga(N)-> loga(M/N)=loga(M)-loga(N)-> loga(Mp)=p*loga(M)-> loga(1)=0-> loga(ap)=p-> log(1+x) = x - (x^2)/2 + (x^3)/3 - (x^4)/4 .........to infinity [ Note the alternating sign . .Also note that thelogarithm is with respect to base e ]

Schedules in The Constitution of India25 December 2012 17:04


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First Schedule: List of State and Union Territories.

Second Schedule: Salary of President, Governors, Chief Judges, Judges of High Court and Supreme Court ,Comptroller and Auditor General

Third Schedule: Forms of Oaths and Affirmations

Fourth Schedule: Allocate seats for each State of India in Rajya Sabha

Fifth Schedule: Administration and control of Scheduled area and tribes

Sixth Schedule: Provisions for administration of Tribal Area in Asom, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram andArunachal Pradesh.

Seventh Schedule: Allocation of power and function between Union and States. It contains three lists:

Union List (for Central Government): 98 subjectsState List (for State Government): 62 subjectsConcurrent List (both Union and State): 52 subjects

Eighth Schedule: List of 22 languages of India recognized by constitution. Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati,Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telegu, and Urdu were in list frombegining. Sindhi was added in 1967 by 21st amendment; Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali were added in 1992 by71st amendment; Santhali, Maithili, Bodo and Dogri were added in 2003 by 92nd amendment.

Ninth Schedule: Added by 1st amendment in 1951. Contains acts and orders related to land tenure, land tax,railways, industries.

Tenth Schedule: Added by 52nd amendment in 1985. Contains provisions of disqualification on grounds of defection.

Eleventh Schedule: Added by 73rd amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of Panchayati Raj.

Twelfth Schedule: Added by 74th amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of Municipal Corporation.

Bicameral Parliamentary System08 October 2012 12:09

A bicameral system is a parliamentary system of two legislative Chambers. Indian system is bicameral becauseboth the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha are involved in the process of making new laws. Bicameral literallymeans 'two chamber'.

Countries with Bicameral Parliamentary System:

Australia-Parliament–Senate–House of Representatives1.Austria-Parliament–Federal Council–National Council2.Antigua and Barbuda-Parliament–Senate–House of Representatives3.


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The Bahamas-Parliament–Senate–House of Assembly4.Barbados-Parliament–Senate–House of Assmebly5.Belize–National Assembly–Senate–House of Representatives6.Belgium-Federal Parliament–Senate–Chamber of Representatives7.Bhutan-Parliament (Chitshog)–Bhutan will become a Democratic Constitutional Monarchy in2008–National Council (Gyalyong Tshogde)– National Assembly (Gyalyong Tshogdu)

8.

Canada-Parliament–Senate–House of Commons9.Czech Republic-Parliament–Senate–Chamber of Deputies10.Ethiopia-Federal Parliamentary Assembly–House of Federation– House of People’s Representatives11.Germany–Bundesrat (Federal Council)–Bundestag (Federal Diet)12.Grenada-Parliament–Senate–House of Representatives13.India-Parliament–Rajya Sabha (Council of States)–Lok Sabha (House of People)14.Ireland-Oireachtas–Seanad Éireann–Dáil Éireann15.Iraq-National Assembly–Council of Union [2]–Council of Representatives16.Italy-Parliament–Senate of the Republic–Chamber of Deputies17.Jamaica-Parliament–Senate–House of Representatives18.Japan-Diet–House of Councillors–House of Representatives19.Malaysia-Parliament–Dewan Negara–Dewan Rakyat20.The Netherlands-States-General–Eerste Kamer–Tweede Kamer21.Pakistan-Majlis-e-Shoora–Senate–National Assembly22.Poland-Parliament–Senate–Sejm23.Romania-Parliament–Senate–Chamber of Deputies24.Saint Lucia-Parliament–Senate–House of Assembly25.Slovenia-Parliament–National Council–National Assembly26.South Africa-Parliament–National Council of Provinces–National Assembly27.Spain-Cortes Generales–Senate–Congress of Deputies28.Switzerland-Federal Assembly–Council of States–National Council29.Thailand-National Assembly [3]–Senate–House of Representatives30.Trinidad and Tobago-Parliament–Senate–House of Representatives31.United Kingdom-Parliament–House of Lords–House of Common32.

Unicameral Parliamentary System08 October 2012 12:09

In government, unicameral is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary chamber. Thus, a unicameralparliament or unicameral legislature is a legislature which consists of one chamber or house. Unicamerallegislatures typically exist in small and homogeneous unitary states, where a second chamber is consideredunnecessary.

Countries having Unicameral Parliamentary System

Albania–Kuvendi1.Bangladesh–Jatiyo Sangshad2.Bulgaria–National Assembly3.Burkina Faso–National Assembly4.Croatia–Sabor5.Denmark–Folketing6.Dominica–House of Assembly7.Estonia–Riigikogu8.Finland–Eduskunta9.Greece–Hellenic Parliament10.Hungary–National Assembly11.Iceland–Althing12.Israel–Knesset13.Kurdistan Region–Kurdistan National Assembly14.Latvia–Saeima15.Lithuania–Seimas16.Malta–House of Representatives17.Moldova–Parliament18.


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Mongolia–State Great Khural19.Montenegro–Parliament20.New Zealand–Parliament21.Norway*–Storting22.Palestinian Authority–Parliament23.Papua New Guinea–National Parliament24.Portugal–Assembly of the Republic25.Saint Kitts and Nevis–National Assembly26.Saint Vincent and the Grenadines–House of Assembly27.Samoa–Fono28.Serbia–National Assembly29.Singapore–Parliament30.Slovakia–National Council31.Sweden–Riksdag32.Turkey–Grand National Assembly33.Ukraine–Verhovna Rada34.Vanuatu–Parliament35.

Isopleths02 January 2013 01:05

These show lines of equal values

ISANOMAL – Isopleth of anomalyISARITHM – Any line representing continuous value on maps.ISOBARS – Lines of equal pressureISOHYET – Isopleth of rainfallISOBRONTS – Lines joining places experiencing a thunderstorm at the same time.ISOCHRONES – Lines joining places located at equal travel time from a common center.ISOPHENE – Isopleths of seasonal phenomena, Ex-flowering dates of plants.ISOPOTENTIAL – surface to which artesian water can rise.ISORYMES – Lines of equal frost.ISOTHERMS – Isopleth of temp.ISOHYPSESS – Lines of equal elevations or contours.ISOGONALS – Lines of equal magnetic declinationsISOHELS – Lines of equal sunshineISOBATH – Lines of equal depth below sea levelISONEPH – Lines of equal cloudinessISODAPANE – Lines of equal transportation cost for a distanceISOCLINE – Line of equal slopeISOHALINE – Line of equal salinityISOSEIMAL – Line joining the equal intensity of the earthquake.

by John Kanri

Winners of Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Awards 201228 September 2012 13:26


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Biological Sciences

Shantanu ChowdhuryInstitute of Genomics and Integrative Biology

Suman Kumar Dhar of theSpecial Centre for Molecular Medicine at the JNU

Chemical Sciences

Govindsamy MugeshIndian Institute of Science, Bangalore (IISc)

Gangadhar J SanjayanCSIR National Chemical Laboratory, Pune.

Engineering Sciences

Ravishankar NarayananIISc, Banglore

Y Shanthi PavanIndian Institute of Technology, Madras

Mathematical Sciences

Siva Ramachandran Athreya and Debashish GoswamiIndian Statistical Institute

Medical Science

Sandip BasuRadiation Medicine Centre at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

Physical Sciences

Arindam GhoshIISc, BangaloreKrishnendu SenguptaIndian Association for the Cultivation of Science

Top 10 Most Populated Countries In 201220 September 2012 23:44


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1. China

China has been topping the list of most populated countries since long. A major factor contibtuing to its vastpopulation is its huge area. In 2011, the country boasted to have a population of more than 1,336,718,015.However, powerful economy and continued government support has made it a tough compet itor to some of themost advanced counties of the world and has also kept it away from unemployment, poverty and recession.

2. India

It is interesting to note that both the neighbours (China and India) occupy top two positions in this list. India issaid to surpass China in terms of population by the year 2020. The country has got a mix of various religions,ethnic groups, and cultures. Last year, the population of this country was 1,189,172,906. However unlike China, avast majority of the country’s population lives below the poverty line.

3. United States

Even though U.S. is the third most populated country in the world, the standard of living in this country is quitehigh. Considered as the most powerful country in the world, its population in the year 2011 was 313,232,044. Alarge land area inhabited by lots of corporate ensures that things remain in control in this country.

4. Indonesia

This is not only the fourth most populated country in the world but also the most populated Muslim country. Thetotal population of Indonesia last year stood to around 245,613,043 with majority of them being Muslims. Also,majority of the population living in this country consist of immigrants that have settled from various othercountries.

5. Brazil

Having won the FIFA World Cup several times Brazil is well known in the world of football. Apart from that, youwill find some of the world’s most amazing beaches and valuable gold mines in this country. The population ofthe country in 2011 was counted as 203,429,773.

6. Pakistan

It is a neighbor of two most populated countries, i.e., China and India. In 2011, the population of this country was187,342,721 and is increasing at a higher than average rate. Even though it is often marred by poverty andterrorism, the country boasts of having some valuable natural resources along the Baluchistan region.

7. Bangladesh

Once part of Pakistan, it is now an independent country. It is a developing nation with a vast section of its peoplelive below the poverty line. The nation which is struggling with its economy is home to more than 158,570,535people as counted last year.

8. Nigeria

It is amongst the most populated country in Africa and until recently was marred by r iots and civil wars. However,things improved in last few years. Majority of the population in this country consist of Black Muslims. As counted


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in 2011, the population of Nigeria was 155,215,573.

9. Russia

Russia is the largest country in the world and there is absolutely no reason why it should not feature in this list.Its territory includes more than 40% of the European region. This is also amongst the few countries whosepopulation declined over the last decade. In 2011, the population of Russia stood at 138,739,89

10. Japan

Even though Japan is a small country in terms of size, yet its name features in this list. The country’s populationrose to 126,475,664 in 2011. However, a major tsunami hit it last year wiping off a large part of its population.

Indian Defence Awards20 September 2012 14:45

For the purpose of classification, Indian honours and awards can be divided into two categories:(a) Gallantry awards.(b) Non-gallantry awards.

The gallantry awards are again divisible into two categories:(a) Those for gallantry in the face of the enemy.(b) Those for gallantry other than in the face of the enemy.

The first category of the gallantry awards comprises :1. Param Vir Chakra2. Maha Vir Chakra3. Vir Chakra4. Sena, Nao Sena and Vayu Sena Medal5. Mention in Dispatches6. Chiefs of Staff Commendation Card

The second category of the gallantry awards comprise the following :1. Ashoka Chakra *2. Kirti Chakra *3. Shaurya Chakra *

* These were originally named Ashoka Chakra Class I, Class II, Class III

Among non-gallantry awards, the following can be mentioned :

1. Bharat Ratna2. Padma Vibhushan3. Padma Bhushan4. Param Vishisht Seva Medal5. Padma Shri6. Sarvottam Yudh Seva Medal7. Uttam Yudh Seva Medal8. Ati Vishisht Seva Medal9. Yudh Seva Medal10. Vishisht Seva Medal11. 30 Years Long Seva Medal


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12. 20 Years Long Service Medal13. 9 Years Long Service Medal14. Meritorious Service Medal15. Long Service and Good Conduct Medal16. General Service Medal – 194717. Samar Seva Medal18. Sainya Seva Medal19. Videsh Seva Medal20. Commendation Card21. Raksha Medal22. Poorvi Star23. Paschimi Star24. Sangram Medal25. Wound Medal26. 25th Independence Anniversary Medal

Total Awards won:-

Param Vir Chakra – 21Maha Vir Chakra – 220Vir Chakra – 1342

Important Places In India10 September 2012 10:54

Abu, Mount (Rajasthan): Hill station in Rajasthan; contains famous Dilwara Jain Temple and Training College forthe Central Reserve Police.Adam’s Bridge: Very nearly joined to India between two point’s viz. Mannar Peninsula and Dhanushkodi by aline of sand banks and rocks called Adam’s Bridge.Adyar (Tamil Nadu): A Suburb of Chennai, headquarters of the Theosophical Society.Afghan Church (Mumbai): It is built in 1847 known as St. John’s Church. It is dedicated to the British soldierswho died in the Sind and Afghan campaign of 1838 and 1843.Aga Khan Palace: In Pune where Mahatma Gandhi was kept interned with his wife Kasturba Gandhi. Kasturbhadied in this palace.Agra (Uttar Pradesh): Famous for Taj Mahal, Fort and Pearl mosque. Sikandra, the tomb of Akbar, is situatedhere. It is also a centre of leather industry.Ahmednagar (Maharashtra): It was founded by Ahmed Nizam Shahi. It is the district headquarters ofAhmednagar district. It is an industrial town well known for its handloom and small scale industries.Ahmadabad (Gujarat): Once capital of Gujarat. A great cotton textile centre of India. Anti-reservation r iotsrocked the city in April 1985.Ajmer (Rajasthan): It has Mayo College and the tomb of Khwaja Moinud-din Chishti, which is a pilgrim centre forMuslims; Pushkar Lake, a place of Hindu pilgrimage, is about two miles from here.Aliabet: Is the site of India’s first off-shore oil well-nearly 45 km from Bhavnagar in Gujarat State. On March 19,1970, the Prime Minister of India set a 500-tonne rig in motion to inaugurate “Operation Leap Frog” at Aliabet.Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh): Seat of Muslim University, manufacture locks, scissors, knives and dairy products.Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh): A famous and important place of pilgrimage for Hindus, confluence of three revers-Ganges, Yamuna and the invisible Saraswati. It is the seat of a University and trading centre.Alandi (Maharashtra): Popularly called ‘Devachi Alandi’ is hallowed by the association of saint Dhyaneshwar theauthor of ‘Dhyaneshwari’ who lived and attained Samadhi here at the age of twntyone. Two fairs are heldannually one on Ashadha Ekadasi and the other Karthikai Ekadasi.Amber Palace: Deserted capital near Jaipur (Rajasthan) containing the finest specimens of Rajput architecture.Almora (Uttaranchal): This city is one the Kashaya hill. The clean and majestic view of the Himalayan Peak isbreath catching. The woolen shawl of Almora is very famous in the region. It is a good hill resort.Amarnath (Kashmir): 28 miles from Pahalgam, and is a famous pilgrim centre of Hindus.


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Amboli (Maharashtra): Nestling in the ranges of Sahyadri, Amboli is a beautiful mountain resort in Ratnagiridistrict. The climate is cool and refreshing; and ideal place for holiday.Amritsar (Punjab): A border town in the Punjab, sacred place for Sikhs (Golden Temple), scene of JallianwalaBagh tragedy in April 1919. The 400th anniversary of Amritsar was celebrated with great gusto in October 1977.The city was founded by Guru Ram Dass.Arikkamedu (Puducherry): It is one of the archaeological places. It describes the relationship between Tamilsand Romes (Yavanas) for trade purpose.Arvi (Maharashtra): Near Pune, India’s first satellite communication centre has been located here.Ashoka Pillar (Madhya Pradesh): It was erected by Emperor Ashoka. It is now the official symbol of ModernIndia and the symbol is four back-to-back lions. In the lower portion of the column are representation of a lion,elephant, horse and bull. The pillar stands about 20 m high.Aurangabad (Maharashtra): It is one of the important towns in Maharashtra. Tomb of Emperor Aurangzeb andhis attract many tourists. Ellora and Ajanta caves are reached from here.Auroville (Punducherry): It is an international township constructed near Pondicherry with the help of UNESCO.Avadi: Situated at Chennai in Tamil Nadu, it is known for the government-owned Heavy Vehicles Factory.Vijayanta and Ajit tanks are manufactured here.Ayodhya (Uttar Pradesh): Birth place of Rama is situated on the banks of the river Gogwa. The famous ‘BabriMasjid’ built on the birth place of Rama by the Mughal rulers in 15th century has been taken over by the Hindusafter 400 years.Badrinath (Uttarakhand): It is a place of pilgrimage noted for the temple of Lord Vishnu for the Hindus, nearGangotri Glacier in Himalayas.Bahubali (Maharashtra): A pilgrim center for jains, of both Svetambar and Digambar Jains; there is a giant idolof Shree Bahubali the son of Bhagwan Adinath, the first Tirthankar.Bangalore (Karnataka): It is the capital city of Karnataka State and an important industrial centre. The placesworth-seeing are Vidhan Saudha, Lal Bagh gardens, etc. The BHEL, HAL, IIM are situated here.Barauni (North Bihar): Famous for a big oil refinery.Bardoli (Gujarat): Bardoli in Gujarat State has occupied a permanent place in Indian History for no-tax paymentcampaign launched by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel against the British rule.Baroda (Gujarat): Baroda, (Vadodara) the capital of former Baroda State is one of the main towns in GujaratState. Laxmi Vilas Palace is a tourist attraction.Belur (West Bengal): Near Calcutta, famous for a monastery founded by Swami Vivekananda; a beautiful templededicated to Shri Ramakrishna Paramhansa. It is also known for paper industry. There is another place of thesame name in Karnataka, it is a famous pilgrim centre known for Channa Keshava Temple.Belgaum (Karnataka): It is a border town in Karnataka State. It has remained a place of dispute betweenMaharashtra and Karnataka States.Bhakhra (Punjab): It is a village in Punjab State where the Bhakra Dam has been constructed across the riverSutlej in a natural gorge just before the river enters the plains 80 km upstream Ropar.Bhilai (Chhattisgarh): It is known for the gigantic steel plants set up with the help of Russian Engineers.Bhimashankar (Maharashtra): One of the five Jyothirlingas in Maharashtra is at Bhimashankar. The beautifulShiva temple here was constructed by Nana Parnavis the ancient statesman of the Peshwas.Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh): Capital of Madhya Pradesh. MIC gas leaked out from the Union Carbide factory inDecember 1984, and more than 3000 persons died. It was the worst industrial disaster in the world.Bhubaneswar (Orissa): It is the capital city of Orissa. Lingaraja Temple is worth-seeing.Bijapur (Karnataka): It was the capital of old Adil Shahi Sultan of Bijapur. Gol Gumbaz, the biggest tomb in Indiaconstructed here, is called the whispering gallery. The town is rich with the remains of palaces, mosques andtombs.Bodh Gaya (Bihar): It is situated six miles south of Gaya in Bihar State. Gautama Budha attained enlightenmentin a full moon light in the month of Baisakha under the peepal tree.Bokaro (Jharkhand): The fourth and the biggest steel plant are here.Buland Darwaza (Uttar Pradesh): It is the Gateway of Fatehpur-Sikri built by Akbar. This is the highest and thegreatest gateway in India. It was erected to commemorate the victorious campaign of Akbar in the Deccan in1602 A.D.Bull Temple (Karnataka): It is situated near Bugle Hill, with a height of 6.2 m (20ft) high stone monolith NandiBull. The Bull is carved out of a single stone.Chandernagore (West Bengal): Situated on the river Hooghly. It was previously a French settlement. Now it hasbeen merged with the Indian Union.Chennai (capital of Tamilnadu): It is the third largest city in India. Known for Fort St. George, Light-house, StThomas Mount, and Integral Coach Factory.Chandigarh (Punjab & Haryana): Chadigarh the joint capital of the States of Punjab and Haryana is a plannedand beautiful city. It is situated at the foot of the Himalayas. It was designed by Mont Corbusier.Cherrapunji (Meghalaya): It is the place of heaviest rainfall. It receives 426” of rain yearly.Chidambaram (Meghalaya): It is a town in South Arcot district of Tamil Nadu. It is famous for its great HinduSiva Temple dedicated to Lord ‘Nataraja’, the cosmic dancer. It is the seat of ‘Annamalai University’ founded in1929. The name of the town comes from Tamil ‘Chit’ plus ‘Ambalam’- the atmosphere of wisdom.Chilka Lake (Orissa): It is the Queen of Natural Scenery in Orissa, though separated from the Bay of Bangal by along strip of sandy ridge, exchanges water with the sea. It is an excellent place for fishing and duck shooting.


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Chittaranjan (West Bengal): It is famous for locomotive works. Railway engines are manufactured here.Chittorgarh (Rajasthan): It was once the capital of Udaipur. It is known for the Tower of Victory built by RanaKumbha and Mira Bai Temple.Chowpathy Beach (Mumbai): A popular beach with Lokmanya Tilak and Vallabhbhai Patel statues where thepolitical meetings for freedom struggle took place, now the coconut day celebration and Ganesh immersion takeplace.Chusul (Ladakh): It is situated in Ladakh at a height of about 14,000 feet. Chusul is perhaps the highestaerodrome in India.Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu): It is famous for Textile Industry. Government of India Forest College is situated here.Courtallam (Tamil Nadu): Adjoining Tenkasi and 3 miles south is a common man’s health resort. Famous for itswaterfall and a good summer resort.Cuttack (Orissa): It is the oldest town and once upon a time the capital of Orissa during the medieva l period tothe end of the British rules. The city is noted for fine ornamental work of gold & silver.Dakshineswar (Kolkata): It is at a distance of about five miles from Calcutta where Swami Vivekananda wasinitiated into religious life by Swami Ramakrishna Paramhansa.Dalal Street: Stock exchange Market in Mumbai.Dalmianagar (Jharkhand): Cement manufacturing.Dandi (Gujarat): It is famous for Salt Satyagraha (Dandi March) staged by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930.Darjeeling (West Bengal): Famous for tea, orange and cinchona, fine hill station, famous for its scenic beauty.Daulatabad (Maharashtra): The fort previously called Devagiri is believed to have constructed by the YadavaKings in 1338. The fort is very impregnable.Dayalbagh (Uttar Pradesh): Near Agra; known for Dayalbagh Industrial Institute, shoe manufacture. Religiousand cultural seat of a section of the Hindus.Dehu (Maharashtra): Dehu, a town on the banks of the river Indrayani is the birth place of the famous saint-poetTukaram whose ‘Abhangas’ have a pride of place in Marathi literature.Dehradun (Uttarakhand): It is the gateway to the Garhwal Himachal such as Badrinath and Joshimath. TheForest Research Institute is situated here.Delhi: India’s capital. The Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, The Qutub Minar, the Rajghat (Mahatma Gandhi’s Samadhi),the Humayun’s tomb, Shanti Van (where Prime Minister Nehru was cremated), are located here. It established byTomaras in 736 A.D.Dhanbad (Jharkhand): Famous for coal mines and the Indian School of Mines, National Fuel Research Institute.Dhariwal (Punjab): It is famous for woolen goods.Dibrugarh (Assam): It is a town in Assam and the Terminus of rail and river communications along theBrahmaputra from Calcutta.Digboi (Assam): It is known for its oil-fields and oil refinery. It is one of the oldest oil refineries which is stilloperative in the world.Dilwara Temples (Rajasthan): It is near Mt. Abu. There are five Hindu Temples constructed here between 11th

and 13 Century A.D.Dindigul (Tamli Nadu): It is famous for cigar, tobacco and locks.Dum Dum (Kolkata): It is a famous Air Port and Government Arsenal.Durgapur: In West Bengal in known for a gigantic steel plant set up here with the help of British Engineers.Dwaraka (Gujarat): It is one of the seven most important places of Hindu pilgrimage. Krishna the eighthincarnation of Lord Vishnu made Dwaraka as his centre to recapture Mathura.Eagle’s Nest: It is the name given to the historic fort at Rajgarh in the Kolaba district of Maharashtra where, 3000years ago, Chhatarpati Shivaji, the great warrior-statesman, was crowned.Elephanta Caves (Maharashtra): Situated in an island 15 miles from Mumbai famous for the statues of Shiva andParvati. The most striking statue of Trimurti, Shiva in three moods as the Creator, the Destroyer and thePreserver.Ellora and Ajanta (Maharashtra): It is in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra State. The Buddhist cave templesrichly ornamented with sculpture and carved with paintings of exceptional skill attract many tourists.Ernakulam (Kerala): The back-waters in Ernakulam are a tourist attraction. The Central Institute of FisheriesTechnology is situated here.Faridabad (Haryana): It is an industrial township situated at about 18 miles from Delhi.Fatehpur Sikri (Uttar Pradesh): It was once the capital of the Mughal Empire. This city was built by EmperorAkbar in 1569. It is now in a deserted condition.Ferozabad (Uttar Pradesh): Noted for glass bangle industry.Gateway of India (Mumbai): It is in Mumbai harbor erected in 1911 on King George V’s visit to India.Gangotri (Uttarakhand): This is the source of the holy Ganges. The tiny village has the temple of the GoddessGanga on the banks of the Bhagirathi River, which eventually becomes the holy Ganges.Gaumuka (Uttarakhand): Guamukh the actual source of the river is at the base of the Bhagirathi peaks. Theglaciers of Gangotri which is 24 km long, ends at Gaumukh where the Bhagirathi river finally appers.Gazipur (U.P.): Known for the government opium factory.Gaya (Bihar): It is the place where Lord Buddha got enlightenment. It is a pilgrimage centre not only for theBuddhists but also for the Hindus. Hindus from all over the country come here to make offerings and pray for thesalvation of their ancestors.Gilgit (Kashmir): It is now under the illegal occupation of Pakistan. Ii is of great strategic importance.


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Golconda (Hyderabad): It is an ancient city of India situated about 7 miles west of Hyderabad. Formerly therewas a diamond mine.Golconda Fort (Andhra Pradesh): The historical fort is well praised in the literature, prose and poetry. Golcondawas the capital of Qutub Shahi Sultans who ruled Deccan from 1518 to 1687 A.D.Golden Temple (Punjab): It is a sacred place of the Sikhs in Amritsar.Gol Gumbaz (Karnataka): It is the biggest dome in India.Gomateswara (Karnataka): This is a 2,000 year old and very high statue of a Jain sage, carved out of a singlestone.Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh): The famous temple of Gorakhpur is here which specializes in publishing Hindureligious literature.Guntur (Andhra Pradesh): It is a centre of cotton and tobacco production in Andhra Pradesh.Gulbarga (Karnataka): It was the capital of Bahmani Kingdom. Its fort is a remarkable building with 15 towers,within the fort is a large mosque built on the model of the famous mosques of Cordoba in Spain.Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh): Situated in M.P. is famous for Rani Lakshmi Bai’s Chaatri and Tansen’s tomb.Haldighat (Uttar Pradesh): A famous mountain passes where rana Pratap fought Mughal forces led by ManSingh and Asaf Khan.Hampi (Karnataka): In Karnataka State is the location of ruins of Vijaynagar. The capital of famous VijaynagarEmpire.Hardwar (UttaraKhand): It is at the base of the Siwalik Hills, where the Ganges River coming down from theHimalayas passes and enters the plains. The Daksha Mahadev Temple, 4 km downstreams in Hardwar is the mostimportant temple.Hirakud (Orissa): Twenty six kilometers from one end to the other on the river Mahanadi is Hirakud the longestmainstream dam in the world.Howrah Bridge (Kolkata): A cantilever spans bridge over river Hoogly connecting Howrah and Kolkata.Hyderabad-Secunderabad: Twin city capital of Andhra Pradesh. It is on the banks of the river ‘Musi’ and famousfor Salarjung museum- one of the best in Asia. It is also a famous communication centre in India as it is centrallysituated. Charminar built in 1591 is located here.Imphal (Manipur): Situated in the north-east frontier, is the capital of Manipur state on the border of India ansMyanmar (Burmah). Famous for handloom industry and the Manipuri dance.Ita Nagar (Arunachal Pradesh): The capital of Arunachal Pradesh is a tropical forest region in the foothillssurrounded with wild mountain stream and placid lakes with abundant opportunities for river rafting, boatingand trekking.India Gate (New Delhi): A memorial in New Delhi facing the Rashtrapathi Bhavan.Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh): Standing on the river Narmada, Jabalpur is a city in Madhya Pradesh famous forMarble Rocks and Dhunva Dhar waterfalls.Jadugoda: In Bihar is famous for Uranium Ore Mill.Jagdish Temple: It is a fine Indo-Aryan temple built by Maharana Jagat Singh in 1651. A blackstone image ofLord Vishnu as Lord Jagdish is found here.Jaipur (Rajasthan): A historically important place and is famous for its handicrafts. Maharaja Jai SinghObservatory and Hawa Mahal are situated here. It is the capital of Rajasthan or called rose-pink city, a hugehistoric fort (Amber) is situated here. The city was founded by astrologer Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II.Jaisalmer (Rajasthan): The remote fortress city on the edge of Rajasthan’s Thar Desert. It is 287 km fromJodhpur.Jakrem (Tripura): It is 64 km from shilling and is known for its hot spring which is said to possess curativequalities.Jalandhar (Punjab): Situated in Punjab is the centre for surgical and sports goods industry.Jallianwala Bagh (Amritsar, Punjab): It was the scene of Indiscriminal shooting by General Dyer on 13th April1919, when a meeting was being held. A Martyr’s memorial has been erected to commemorate those killed in thefiring.Jama Masjid (Hyderabad, AP): The Masjid lies near the North-east point of the building of Charminar, built bySultan Mohammed Qutub Shah the fifth King of the Qutub Shahi dynasty in 1594.Jamshedpur (Jharkhand): Centre of iron and steel industry. Tata Iron and Steel Factory is located here.Jantar Mantar (Delhi): Site of the famous observatory of Maharaja Jaswant Singh built in 1899 is found inRajasthan.Jealgora: In Bihar is known for Central Fuel Research Institute.Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh): A key railway junction in Uttar Pradesh. It is noted for the played by Queen Rani LakshmiBai of Jhansi in the War of Independence in 1857.Jharia: In Bihar is famous for coal-mining.Jog Falls (or) Gersoppa Falls (Karnataka): Formed by river Sharavati, falls through a height of 830 ft.Juma Masjid, Mandu: Is in Madhya Pradesh. It depicts a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles in architecture.Junagadh (Gujarat): Located below Girnar Hill in Gujarat State is an ancient city in India. Gir Forest, a wildlifesanctuary famous for its lions is located here.Kailasha Temple (Maharashtra): A rock-cut temple in Ellora caves.Kalpakkam: Near Chennai in Tamil Nadu is known for Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS).Kanchi or Conjeevaram (Tamil Nadu): This was the famous capital of Pallavas and is situated near Channai.Famous ancient temples here are well-known for its architecture.


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Kandala (Maharashtra): It is a popular mountain resort in Maharashtra. Nestling in the Western Ghats it is anideal resort for a peaceful holiday.Kandla (Guajarat): The Kandla port is the main gateway for the trade of north-west India.Kanheri (Mumbai): Situated near Mumbai, the famous spot of the ancient Buddhist caves of 1st Century A.D.Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh): An industrial city of U.P. famous for its sugar, cotton, woolen, soap, iron, leather, tentand hosiery industries situated on the banks of the Ganga.Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu): The southernmost tip of India where the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and theIndian Ocean meet. The sun-rising and sun-setting are picturesque scenes. Vevekananda rock memorial has alsobeen constructed now. On the rock called Sripadaparai, a mammoth 133 ft. statue of the unmatched Poet-Saintthiruvalluvar was unveiled on 1 January 2000.Kapilavastu (Bihar): Ancient kingdom in north India connected with Lord Buddha.Kasauli (Himachal Pradesh): A hill station in Himachal Pradesh where the famous Pasteur Institute is located.Kaveripumpattinam (Tamil Nadu): The place where the river Cauvery mingles with the ocean. Two great epicsof Tamil literature Manimegalai and Silappadhikaram vividly portray life scenes of this place during Chola andPandya period.Kaziranga (Assam): In Assam is the sanctuary of the Indian one-horned rhinos.Kedarnath (Uttarakhand): The temple of Lord Kedar (Shiva), surrounded by snow-capped peaks in one of theHindu pilgrimage centres.Khadakvasla (Pune): Near Pune. National Defence Academy is situated here.Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh): Famous for its temples and erotic sculpture.Khindsey Talao (Mumbai): This beautiful lake is set like a gem in the green expanse at the foot of the Ramtekhill.Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu): A hill station in Tamil Nadu situated near Madurai.Koderma (Bihar): In Bihar famous for mica mines.Kolar (Karnataka): It is known for its gold fields.Kolhapur (Maharashtra): Kolhapur posses’ historical as well as mythological importance. It is known as DakshinKashi on account of its deity Mahalakshmi or Ambabai built by Chalukya King Karnadev in 634 AD. Kolhapur wasthe capital of Chatrapati Shivaji in 1708.Kolkata (West Bengal): It is known as the commercial capital of India. It has a port of heavy traffic. Dum Dumairport, National Library,Diamond harbor, Victoria Memorial are well-known.Konark (Orissa): Town, north of Puri is famous for black pagodas and Sun Temple.Koyna (Maharashtra): Hydroelectri project in Maharashtra, supplies power to Mumbai and Pune. The place washit by earthquake in December 1967.Kundanpur (Bihar): The birth place of the 24th Jain Tirthankar Mahaveer is well-known as a pilgrim centre.Kurukshetra (Haryana): The town near Ambala. Here the great battle Mahabharatha took place betweenKauravas and Pandavas.Leh (Ladakh): Capital of Ladakh; once a caravan centre of central Asia.Lothal (Gujrat): Oil wells in Cambay Basin.Madurai (Tamil Nadu): Famous Meenakshi Temple dedicated to Lord Siva is located here.Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra): Hill station in Maharashtra is situated at a height of 4500 ft. in the WesternGhats.Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nahu): Famous for the monumental architecture of Pallavas. An atomic power station islocated near at Kalpakkam.Mahabodhi Temple (Bihar): It is a Buddha temple with the Jataka stories engraved on the walls. The famousMagadha University exists beside the temple.Mahrangarh Fort (Rajasthan): Five km away from the centre town of Jodhpur. Commissioned by Roa Jodh in1959, this fortran eyrie is a master piece of medieval defence.Mandore (Rajasthan): The ancient capital of the Rathore Marwars, the Rajputs of Rajasthan.Meerut (Uttar Pradesh): This was the first place where the 1857 Mutiny first broke out. The Suraj Khund is themost interesting temple and there is a Moghul Mausoleum, near the old Shapir Gate.Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh): Place of Ram Ganga, famous for cutlery, brassware and mangoes.Mukteshwar (Uttar Pradesh): Veterinary Research Institute is located here.Murad (Maharashtra): Seaside holiday resort of Maharashtra.Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): It is a holy city and birth place of Lord Krishna.Meenakshi temple (Tamil Nadu): Famous Hindu temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. It is remarkable for its mostpicturesque 850 ft. high temple with its magnificent Gopurams. One of its principal structures is the hall ofthousand pillars in which a group of figures are cerved out of a single stone.Mussoorie (Uttarakhand): A hilly resort has good rock climbing and mountaineering assets and has good fishingspots.Mumbai (Maharashtra): Called the gateway of India is the second biggest city and port in India. It is the capitalof Maharashtra state. The Prince of Wales Museum, Aarey Milk Colony, film capital of the country, Centre of oilindustry and Petrochemicals, etc. are noteworthy.Nagpur (Maharashtra): Former capital of Madhya Pradesh now in Maharashtra. Famous for textiles and oranges.Nagercoil (Tamil Nadu): There is a temple of snakes or Nagaraja-snake god. The temple is filled with images ofsnakes and the Dvarapalakas are the snakes guarding the temple.Nagarjuna Konda-Sagar (Andhra Pradesh): The reservoir is named after Buddhist Phillosopher Acharya


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Nagarjuna who propounded the Madhyamik school of Mahayana Buddhism.Naharkhatia (Assam): Place near Digboi in Assam where oil has been struck.Nainital (Uttarakhand): This lake dotted area of the Kumaon Hills, was the summer capital of Uttar Pradesh. Thelegend believed is that Goddess Shakti lost her eyes when Lord Shiva was curling her and the spot, where theeyes fell became a lake called ‘naina’ (eyes) Tal (lake) was thus given its name.Nalanda (Bihar): Here was the famous University and Educational centre of ancient’s times. The Chinese travelerHieun Tsang visited India in 7th century had mentioned about this University.Narsobachiwadi (Maharashtra): It is a prominent pilgrimage of Lord Shree Dattatreya, situated near theconfluence Krishna and the Panchaganga Rivers.Nasik (Maharashtra): Site of Security Printing Press in Maharashtra.Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu): The Blue Mountains of Tamil Nadu. Famous for tea plantation.Nilokheri (Haryana): Place in Haryana, famous community development project of Dr. S. K. Dey.Pataliputra (Bihar): Ancient name or Patna, capital of Bihar State. Famous for Ashoka edicts inscribed on rocksand pillars.Palitana (Gujarat): Famous for its holy hills.Pali (Sudhagad, Maharashtra): One of the most sacred places known for the temple of Vithoba, an incarnationof Lord Vishnu, it is also called Dhakshina Kashi, a pilgrim centre.Panipati (Haryana): Historical place in Haryana, famous for the three battles in 1526, 1556 and 1761.Pawapur (Bihar): It is one of the holiest of Jain Pilgrim places. The Jal Mandir (water temple) in Kamal Sarover(Lotus pool) is most sacred. The big lake filled with lotus is a charming place and the white marble temple standsin the middle.Planetarium, Birla (Kolkata): It is a dome-shaped building where the exact panorama of the sky is depicted, andthe position of various constellations is clearly shown. The second planetarium in India has been set up inMumbai. The third planetarium was opened in New Delhi in 1984.Plassey (West Bengal): A village in West Bengal, famous for the Battle of Plassey where Clive beat Siraj-ud-Daulah.Puducherry : A Union Territory – formerly under French possession. Famous for Aurobindo Ashram and‘Auroville’ International Township, built in the name of Aurobindo.Ponpadirkootam (Tamil Nadu): A village in Chingleput where a unique four hand Rama in gold is a feast for oureyes.Port Blair (Andaman): Capital of Andaman & Nicobar islands.Porbandar (Gujarat): The Birth Place of Mahatma Gandhi. It is identified with Sudamapur of the epic times andwe can still see the old temple of Sudama, a friend of Lord Krishna.Pune (Maharashtra): Pune, capital of Maratha Empire during Shivaji’s rule, had turned to be an educational andcultural centre.Puri (Orissa): Summer capital of Orissa famous for Jagannath Temple.Pusa (West Bengal): Famous for agricultural station.Qutub Minar (New Delhi): The tallest minaret in the world (990 ft. high) completed by Sultan Iltutmish in 1232A. D.Rajghat (New Delhi): famous for the Samadhi of Mahtama Gandhi on the banks of the river Yamuna.Rajgir (Bihar): Rajgir was called Rajgriha or King’s home in olden days. Ajatashatru named it Giribraja. It wasJarasandha’s capital. Vardhaman Mahavir, who preached the Jain Religion and spent 14 years of his active lifehere, Mahaveer called his first Dharma Sabha or religious assembly on Bipul Parbat here.Rashtrapati Bhavan (New Delhi): The official residence of the President of India in Delhi, built by the Britisharchitect Edwin Lutyens.Ratnagiri (Maharashtra): British place of Lokmanya Tilak. It has a minor port Bhagvati and a fort belonging tothe 15th century.Rameshwaram (Tamil Nadu): A pilgirimage spot in South India as equal to that of Benaras. There is the templeof Lord shiva.Red Fort (Delhi): It is a fort built of red stone by Shah Jahan in Delhi on the Banks of the river Yamuna. Itconsists of Diwan-i-Am, diwan-i-Khas and other wonderful crations. In 2007, UNESCO announced the Red Fort asone of the Heritage site in India.Rishikesh (Uttarakhand): It is a Hindu pilgrim centre. Rishikhesh is the starting point for treks to Himalayanpilgirimage centre like Badrinath, Kedarnath and Gangotri.Rourkela (Orissa): Rourkela is the first steel plant of India envisaged in the public sector and has been inoperation since February 1959 which has set in a new era in the Steel Industry of India.Salar Jung Museum (Andhra Pradesh): It is the personnel collection of Mir Yusuf Ali Khan, better known as SalarJung who had devoted his wealth and leisure to gather out treasures from every walk of life.Sambhar (Rajasthan): It is a salt lake in Rajasthan. Only lake of its kind in India.Sanganer (Rajasthan): It is the centre of hand block printing and handmade paper industry.Sabarmati (Guajarat): It is a place in Gujarat where Gandhiji established a Harijan Ashram. It is also the name ofa river in Gujarat.Sathanur Dam (Tamil Nadu): 22 miles from Tiruvannamalai a vast forest has been turned into a huge reservoirand a dam is a tourist spot.Satara (Maharashtra): It is a glorious historical city, was capital of Shivaji’s empire in 1699.Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh): Famous Buddhist stupa;, the diameter of which is 108 ft. was built in ancient times. It


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is the largest stupa in India.Sarnath (Madhya Pradesh): It is a Buddhist pilgrim centre. In the Deer Park, Buddha-delivered his first sermon.Famous Ashoka Pillar is located here.Srirangapattanam (Karnataka): It was the capital of Tipu Sultan during his time. The third mysore war wasfought here and Tipu died in the battle in 1799 A.D.Sevagram (Maharashtra): It is near Wardha in Maharashtra State. It is well-known for Gandhiji’s Ashram whereGandhi lived and worked for many years.Shantiniketan (West Bengal): About 90 miles from Calcutta, seat of the famous Viswa Bharati Universityfounded by poet Rabindernath Tagore. It is now a Central University.Shanti Van or Shanti Ghat (Delhi): The place where Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru was crematd on 28th May, 1964 on thebanks of Yamuna about 300 hards from Rajghat, Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri has been cremated by the side ofShanti Van. Mrs. Indira Gandhi was cremated close to Shanti Van on November 3, 1984. This site is called ‘ShaktiSthal’.Shivneri (Maharashtra): It is the birth place of Chatrapati Shivaji. The hill has about 50 Buddhist caves bearinginscription of various donors.Sholapur (Maharashtra): ‘Sholapur Chaddan’s are the very famous bed-sheets. Handloom and power loomindustry is flourishing in this town. Near the city a fort built by Hasan Gangu who was the founder of theBahaman dynasty stands erect.Shree Kshetra Audumbar (Maharashtra): An important pilgrim place in Sangli district, Audumbar is famous forthe temple of Shree Dattatreya. There is well-known “Brahmanand Swami Math”.Sasaram (Bihar): It is known for Shere Shah’s Tomb. Sher Shah was the famous Afghan king who drove awayHumayun.Shivapur (Madhya Pradesh): It is well-known for its national park in Madhya Pradesh.Sibsagar (Assam): 56 km from Jorhat is most interesting historical city. It was the capital of Ahom Kings whoruled Assam for 600 years. The Shiva temple called the “Shivadol” is said to be the tallest Shiva Temple in India.Sikandra (Uttar Pradesh): Situated near Agra, Akbar’s tomb stands here. It was commenced by Akbar andcompleted by his son Jahangir, after 14 year at a cost of Rs. 15 Lakhs.Singareni (Andhra Pradesh): It is well-known for coal mines in Andhra Pradesh.Sindri (JharKhand): The largest fertilizer factory in India and the whole of Asia is in Sindri, 77 km from Maithan.It is built on Ultra-modern lines and manufacturing ammonium sulphate fertilizer since 1956. The factory can bevisited with prior permission.Somnath (Gujarat): It is historically famous for the temple which was destroyed by Mohammed of Ghazni in1025 A. D.Somnath Patan (Gujarat): Wedged in between the two hills of Chadragiri and Indragiri, which rise abruptly fromflat plains, Sravanabelagola 100 kms from Mysore is famous for Jain colossus (17 m height) Gomateswara which issaid to be the tallest and most graceful monolithic statues in the world, erected in 10th century A.D.Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh): India’s Satellite launching station is located here. It is on the Andhra coast, inNellore District.Sriperumbudur (Tamil Nadu): Birth Place of Sri Ramanuja, the propounder of Vishistadvaita. It was here RajivGandhi; former Prime Minister of India was assassinated.Srirangam (near Trichy, Tamil Nadu): The largest temple in South India dedicated to Lord Ranganath (Vishnu).Sundarbans (West Bangal): It is the largest delta in India, housing rich forests.Surat (Guajarat): It is popularly known as “Gate of Mecca”. The English got trading rights from the Mughal in1612. Most of the population is engaged in diamond cutting and polishing gold and silver. Surat is equally knownfor its distinctive cuisine.Taj Mahal (Agra, Uttar Pradesh): Erected by Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz. It has been estimatedthat the cost of it was about Rs. 3 crores at that time. It is tear drop on the cheek of eternity. It was designed byShiraz (Iranian Architect). Over 20,000 men were employed for its construction for over twenty years. Theenvironmentalists fear that the beauty of the Taj would be marred, with the Mathura Oil Refinery going into fulloperation.Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh): It has a monastery of the Mahayana sect of Buddhists built in 17th century. Still itis the centre of religious life and rituals in the region. It is a treasure home of old scriptures, priceless images andpainted tapestries.Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu): Popularly known as granary of South India. It was once the capital of the Cholas.Famous for Brihadeeswara temple, a Hindu temple. It was built by Rajaraja, the great.Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala): The Capital City of Kerala State. Padmanabha Temple is here.Thumba (Kerala): India’s first rocket launching station.Thiru Alangadu (Tamil Nadu): Thirty seven miles from Chennai to the west and very near to Arakonam is theholy place of Thiru Alangadu connected with Karaikkal Ammayar and the cosmic dancer Lord Nataraja.Thiruvalam (Tamil Nadu): Capital of ‘Banars’ during the early Pallava period is famous for Saivite temple with theNandi not facing the deity but in the opposite direction.Thekkady (Tamil Nadu): The central spot of the Periar wildlife sanctuary is in between Kerala and Tamil Nadu.The Mysore Palace (Karnataka): Built in 1897, it was the residence of the Ex-ruler of Mysore state is an imposingstructure. It is a good example for the Hoysala art and architectures.Tiruchi (Tamil Nadu): It is an Educational Centre in Tamil Nadu. Bharat Heavy Electricals limited is establishedhere.


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Tiruparankundram (Tamil Nadu): A cave temple near Madurai is one of the famous shrines of Lord Muruga.Tirunelveli (Tamil Nadu): A famous early Chola Vaishnavaite shrine housing a huge stucco image of Varahaholding Bhudevi near Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu.Tipu’s Fort (Karnataka): The fort is built of mud by kempegowda in 1537; it was rebuilt in stone in 1761 by HyderAli. Inside the fort walls is Tipu Sultan’s wooden palace with enough elaborate paint work surviving on the walls,niches, and railing columns to give an idea of its former glory.Triveni (Uttar Pradesh): Here meet the rivers Ganges, the Yamuna and the mythical Saraswathi. Kumba Mela iscelebrated here once in 12 years when the Sun is in Aquarius facing Jupiter in the zodiac sign Leo.Trithamukh (Tripura): It is a popular pilgrim centre for the Tribal people of Tripura. Thousands of peopleassemble here in January-February during the festival called Uttarayana Sankranti and have a holy bath in theriver Gomati.Tripolia Gate (Rajasthan): A gate with eight carved marble crunches under which the ruler was weighed on hisbirth day against money of equal weight distributed to the poor. The city was found in 1567 by Maharana, UdaiSingh.Udaipur (Rajasthan): Popularly known as city of lakes. Pichola lake is a famous one.Udipi (Karnataka): This is the seat of Dvaita system of Hindu Philosophy propounded by Sri Madhva Changa.The beautiful Sri Krishna temple is very famous Hindu pilgrimage centre.Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves (Orissa): These two hills are little far away from Bhubaneswar. This was a seat of aJain saint who lived 2000 years ago. ‘Rani Gumpha’ and ‘Hathi Gumpha’ are the most famous; consist of the rockcut inscription in India which records chronologically the deeds of king Kharavela.Uttiramerur (Tamil Nadu): A city near Chingleput boasts of Sundara-varadaperumal temple of the period ofDandivarma Pallava is of complex design.Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh): Mahakaleeswar Temple is sacred for the Hindus.Vaishali (Bihar): Vaishali has withnessed the major parts of Gautama Buddha’s life. He gave his last message tohis disciples at Kolhua village in the suburbs of Vaishali. On the eve of Buddha’s death centenary, the 2nd

Buddhist council was held here. The 24th Jain Tirthankar Vardhaman Mahavir was born at Kundagram in thesuburbs of Vaishali in 599 BC.Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh): ‘The Eternal City’ is an important pilgrimage of the Hindus. Lord Viswanatha’s templeis here. It was a learning place for over 2000 years. Kashi and Benaras are the other two names of Varanasi whichmeans the city between two rivers – Varanama and Asi. It is the seat of Banaras Hindu University. Aurangzeb’sMosque is here.Vedanthangal (Tamil Nadu): A bird sanctuary in the swamps of Madurantakam lake.Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh): It is a natural and protected harbor on the eastern coast in Andhra Pradesh.A shipbuilding yard in located here.Vivekananda Rock (Tamil Nadu): Mandapam of Vivekananda is in Cape Comerin.Victoria Memorial (Kolkata): Magnificent building having an art gallery depicting the history of the British rulein India. It was erected by voluntary collections in the memory of Queen Victoria. A well laid out garden adds tothe beauty.Wardha (Maharashtra): It is a cotton producing centre in Maharashtra. It is on Chennai-Delhi rail route.Mahatma Gandhi was imprisoned here.Warrangal (Andhra Pradesh): It has historical evidence about on the seat of the Kakatiya rulers. Its chief touristattraction is the thousand pillared temple at Hanam-Konda built by King Rudra Deva in 12th century.Yamunotri (Uttarakhand): It is the source of the Yamuna River. It emerges from the frozen lake of ice andglaciers on the Kalinga Parvat. There is a temple of the goddess Yamunotri on the left banks of the river. Belowthe temple there are many hot springs where the water emerges at boiling point.Yarcaud (Tamil Nadu): It is a hill station 8 km away from Salem at an altitude of 5000 ft. It is a part of Servarayanhills.Zojila (Jammu & Kashmir): It is a pass on the way from Srinagar to Leh.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad: The First President of India19 August 2012 09:15

Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India; was born on 3rd Dec, 1884. He lived 79 successful years withgreat zeal, strengthening the foundation of our country, in a nice way. He served the nation for a long time with


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his extremely strong leadership. The great leader contributed a lot to motivate the Indian citizens to attainfreedom and live the life with full liberty. That’s why; he was admired by the people as the first president of Indiaafter freedom. He was proved as an intelligent motivator for young people and proved as a role model for them,even after being belonged to a small village Ziradei in Siwan, Bihar.

Lifetime achievements-

Dr. Rajendra Prasad contributed for the progress of India up to the great extent. He served hismotherland so dearly that he dedicated all his life for the holy service of the country. Being a goodleader, he was selected for various posts in the Indian cabinet. His main achievements in the series are asfollows:-He was chosen as the first president of India; at the age of 63 years.Being the president of the constituent assembly, he employed his intelligent views and ideas full offarsightedness in order to build a strong constitution for the country.Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the president of congress, the most popular national party during theyear of 1939 and 1943.One of the interesting facts about the political carrier of Dr. Prasad that he served as the cabinet ministerin the first Indian government, after freedom.

Family and earlier life-

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was a very simple, honest and intelligent leader. Being the disciple of Gandhiji, he followedhis rules such as non violence, honesty, truthfulness and became one of the crucial members of the freedomstruggle. His father, Mahadev Sahay and mother, Kamleshwari Devi brought him up with great love and care ashe was the youngest child among his siblings. He was a scholar of Persian and Sanskrit language. His elderbrother, Mahendra Prasad was admired by him a lot.He was committed for the customs and riots of his community crucially, from his childhood only. He was taughtPersian by a private maulavi, at the age of five years. His great intelligence and analyzing power made him theexpert of Hindi and arithmetic. He was married to Rajvanshi Devi, at the age of 12 years.

Graduation and young life-

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was an extremely brilliant student. He was the topper student in the entrance examination ofCalcutta University and achieved the scholarship of Rs. 30 per month, in the year of 1902. He went to presidencycollege of Calcutta where he got the chance of learning science under the great Indian scientist Jagdish ChandraBose. Later, he selected arts as his subject instead of science and completed the study of MA. He became masterof Law and initiated swadeshi movement by the inspiration of his brother mahendra Prasad. He became themember of the dawn society which was being run by satish Chandra mukherji and sister nivedita at the time.

Political career

Dr. Prasad came into contact with gandhiji during his arrival on the Indian national scene. He was highlyinfluenced with the great personality and became dedicated for the freedom struggle after meeting ‘father of thenation ’. His disciplined life and dedication for the motherland inspired Prasad in a great way that he took part insalt satyagrah and got arrested by police in 1930. When the earthquake struck Bihar in 1934, he was in jail only.As he was released from jail after 2 days of the event, he started collecting fund and economic relief for thepeople who were suffering from destruction by the natural calamity. He became successful in collecting about 3.8million Rs. in which the one third parts was contributed by the viceroy.Just after this event, he was selected as the president of Indian national congress and leaded the Bombaysession. From this point his political carrier caught speed and he became the president of the country. Afterserving the country for 12 years in this highly admirable stage, he was awarded Bharat Ratna, the highest civilianaward of India. He died on 28th February, 1963, after retirement.

Literary contributions

Satyagraha at Champaran (1922)India Divided (1946)Atmakatha (1946), his autobiography written during his 3-year prison term in Bankipur JailMahatma Gandhi and Bihar, Some Reminisences” (1949)Bapu ke Kadmon Mein (1954)Since Independence (published in 1960)


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AGRO-FORESTRY18 August 2012 18:30

Tress and forest were always considered as an integral part of the Indian culture not only this but trees alsoplay an important role in all terrestrials and provide a range of products and services to rural and urbanpeople. As natural vegetation is cut for agriculture and other types of development, the benefits that treesprovide are best sustained by integrating trees into agricultural system — a practice known as agro-forestry. Agro-forestry is an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining trees and shrubs withcrops and/or livestock. it combines agriculture and forest technologies to create more diverse, productive,profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use system.Agro-forestry is basically a land management system but in recent years its importance has been strongly felt fortwo reasons. Firstly, there is heavy pressure on agricultural land due to urbanization and secondly due toresource crunch agriculture is becoming un-profitable. Normally agro-forestry is a domain of agriculture where incrops the area is 80% or more and in trees it is 20% or less. Though trees occupy very less area in it but plays thedominant role. In our country, greater emphasis is being given to agro-forestry but still it has not reached to thefarmer as it should be, whereas in China it has developed like an industry.

Scope Of Agro-forestry

Agro-forestry applies to private agricultural and forest lands and communities. These are highly disturbed,human-dominated land-use systems. Targets include highly-erodible, flood-prone, economically marginal andenvironmentally sensitive lands. The typical situation is agricultural, where trees are added to create desiredbenefits. Our goal is to restore essential processes needed for ecosystem health and sustainability, rather than torestore natural ecosystems. Agro-forestry provides strong incentives for adoption of conservation practices andalternative land uses, and supports a collaborative watershed analysis approach to management of landscapescontaining mixed ownerships, vegetation types and land uses.

Possible Impacts

• Controlling poverty through increased income by higher production of agro-forestry products for homeconsumption and market.

• Food security by restoring farm soil fertility for food crops and production of fru its, vegetables, nuts and edibleoils.• Empowerment to women farmers and other less-advantaged rural residents whose rights to land are insecurethrough better negotiations.• Reducing deforestation and pressure on forest by providing fuelwood grown on farms.• Increasing buffering capacity of farmers against the effects of global climate change on-farm tree crops andtree cover.• Improving soil health of the farm through ameliorated micro-climate and nutrition level.• Augmenting accessibility to medicinal trees for cure of common and complex diseases.

Significance of Agro-forestry

Agroforestry provides a different land use option, compared with traditional arable and forestry systems. It makesuse of the complimentarily relationship between trees and crops, so that the available resources can beeffectively utilized. It is a practice that supports the environment and has an obvious landscape benefit. Efficient,modern versions of agroforestry have been developed, that are adapted to the constraints imposed bymechanization. The agroforestry plot remains productive for the farmer and generates continuous revenue,


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which is not feasible in arable land. Agroforestry allows for the diversification of farm activities and makes betteruse of environmental resources. Owing to increase in population of human and cattle, there is increasingdemand of food as well as fodder, particularly in developing countries like India. Each year farmers of the worldmust now attempt to feed 81 million more people irrespective of weather. It is important to note that there willbe 19% decline in cropland per head by the end of this century due to population explosion. Therefore, there isslight scope to increase food production by increasing the area under cultivation. A management systemtherefore, needs to be devised that is capable of producing food from marginal agricultural land and is alsocapable of maintaining and improving quality of producing environment.

Agro-forestry has interesting advantages from three different perspectives.

From the agriculture perspective:

1. Diversification of the activities of arable farmers, with the building-up of an inheritance of multi-purpose trees,with continuous revenue from farm.

2. Protection of intercrops and animals by the trees, which have a windbreak effect, providing shelter from thesun, rain, wind, soil erosion and stimulating soil microfauna and microflora.

3. Recycling of some of the leached or drained nutrients by the deep roots of the trees; enrichment of the soilorganic matter by tree litter and by the residue of the trees.

4. Possibility of combining the interest of the farmer (for an inheritance of wood) and the farm (for access tocultivated land). Possible increased remuneration for the arable farmer for the trees.

5. An alternative to full reforestation of arable land, permitting the continuation of arable activity on land whosearable potential otherwise is conserved. The tree component can be reversed, the plot stays "clean" (free fromscrub) and is easy to destump when the trees are clear felled (the stumps are in lines and few in number).

6. In silvipastoral plots, fodder units can be available at different periods compared to full cropped plots,extending the grazing calender.

From the forestry perspective:

1. Enhancement in the biomass growth of the trees by wide spacing (+80% over 6 years in the majority of theexperimental plantations). A large reduction in the maintenance costs of the plantation, due to the presence ofthe intercrops.

2. Improvement in the quality of wood produced (wide regular rings, suited to the needs of industry), becausethe trees are not subjected to cycles of competition and thinning.

3. Guaranteed follow-up and tree care due to the arable intercropping activity. In particular, protection againstthe risk of fire in susceptible areas, with pasture or with intercrops like vine or winter cereals (clear bare ground insummer after stubble ploughing).

4. Agroforestry plantations on arable land allow the development of a quality wood resource that complements,rather then competes with, the products from traditionally exploited forests. It is especially important to producewood that can substitute for tropical saw logs, which will soon decline in availability and quality. The areasconcerned will remain small in terms of their absolute value, but the production of wood from them couldbecome a critical input to the European wood supply network. Tree species that are little used in forestry, but areof high value, could be grown in agroforestry systems: service trees, pear trees, common sorbs, walnut trees, wildcherry trees, maple trees, tulip trees, paulownias, etc…

From the environmental perspective:

1. Improvement to the development of natural resources: the total wood and arable production from anagro-forestry plot is greater than the separate production obtained by an arable-forest separate croppingpattern on the same area of land. This effect results from the stimulation of complementarity between trees andcrops on agroforestry plots. Thus, weeds, which are spontaneously present in young forestry plantations, arereplaced by harvested crops or pasture; maintenance is less costly and environmental resources are better used.

2. Better control of cultivated areas of land: by substituting for arable plots, the agroforestry plots contribute to


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diminishing the cultivated area of land. The intensification of environmental resource use by agroforestry systemsis not resulting in more crop products.

3. Creation of original landscapes that are attractive, open and favor recreational activities. Agroforestry plotshave a truly innovative landscaping potential, and would improve the public image of farmers to society. This willbe particularly the case in very sparsely wooded areas, where plots are developed by planting arable land, and invery heavily wooded areas, where plots are developed by thinning the existing forest.

4. Counteract the greenhouse effect: constitution of an effective system for carbon sequestration, by combiningthe maintenance of the stock of organic material in the soil (the case especially with meadows), and thesuperimposition of a net fixing wooded layer.

5. Protection of soil and water, in particular in sensitive areas.

6. Improvement of biodiversity, especially by the abundance of "edge effects". This in particular, permits asynergistic improvement by favoring the habitat of game. The integrated protection of crops by their associationwith trees, chosen to stimulate the hyper-parasite (parasites of parasites) population of crops, is a promising wayforwards.

7. These favorable characteristics are as coherent with the many objectives of the laws guiding agriculture andforestry, as they are with the directing principles of the Common Agricultural Policy.

Benefits from Agro-forestry

Environment Benefits: Combining trees with food crops on cropland farms yield certain important environmentbenefits, both general ecological benefits and specific on-site benefits. The general ecological benefits include:1. Reduction of pressure on forests.2. More efficient recycling of the nutrients by deep-rooted trees on the site.3. Better protection of ecological systems.4. Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion through impending effect of treeroots and stems of these processes.5. Improvement of micro-climate, such as lowering of soil surface temperature and reduction of evaporation ofsoil moisture through a combination of mulching and shading.6. Increment in soil nutrients through addition and decomposition of litter-fall.7. Improvement of soil structure through the constant addition of organic matter from decomposed litter.

Economic Benefits: Agro-forestry systems on croplands/farmlands bring significant economic benefits to thefarmer, the community, the region or the nation. Such benefits may include:1. Increment in an maintenance of outputs of food, fuelwood, fodder, fertilizer and timber;2. Reduction in incidence of total crop failure, common to single cropping or mono-culture system; and3. Increase in level of farms incomes due to improved and sustained productivity.

Social Benefits: Besides the economics benefits, social benefits occur from increase in crop and tree productyields and in the sustainability of these products. These benefits include:1. Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher incomes;2. Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food outputs; and3. Stabilization and improvement of upland communities through elimination of the need to shift sites of farm activities.

Limitations of Agro-forestryAn integrated food-tree farming system, while advantageous, does have certain negative aspects.

Environment Aspects:(i) possible competition of trees with food crops for space, sunlight, moisture and nutrients which may reducefood crop yield;(ii) damage to food crop during tree harvest operation;(iii) potential of trees to serve as hosts to insect pests that are harmful to food crops; and(iv) rapid regeneration by prolific trees, which may displace food crops and take over entire fields.

Socioeconomic Aspects:(i) Requirement for more labour inputs, which may causes scarcity at times in other farm activities;(ii) Competition between food and tree crops, which could cause aggregate yields to be lower than those of asingle crop;(iii) Longer period required for trees to grow to maturity and acquire an economic va lue;


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(iv) Resistance by farmers to displace food crops with trees, especially where land is scarce; and(v) The fact that agroforestry is more complex, less well understood and more difficult to apply, compared tosingle-crop farm.

Through skillful management practices, any or all of these aspects can be controlled. For example, once it is easyto adopt some or all of the following strategies:(i) Select legume trees that have small or light crowns so that sufficient sunlight will reach the food crop forphotosynthesis;(ii) Select tree species that are deep-rooted so that they will absorb moisture and nutrias from the surface layer ofthe soil; and(iii) Space the trees farther apart to reduce their competitive effects on the food crops.

WORLD FAIR TRADE ORGANISATION (WFTO)18 August 2012 00:07

The World Fair Trade Organisation (WFTO) formerly the International Fair Trade Organisation was created in1989 and is a global association of 324 organisations in over 70 countries. Members are fair trade producercooperatives association, export marketing companies, importers , retailers, national and regional fair tradenetworks and Fair Trade Support Organisations.WFTO's mission is to improve the livelihoods and well being of the disadvantaged producers by linking andpromoting Fair Trade Organisation and speaking out for great justice i the world.In 2004 WFTO launched a fair trade certification. The FTO mark identifies registered fair trade organisations worldwide and guarantees that standards are being implemented regarding working conditions, wages, childlabor, and the environment. The FTO mark is available to all WFTO members who meet the requirements of theWFTO Standards and Monitoring System.

"Fair trade is about giving marginalized producers a chance to succeed at the market place that generallyexcludes them and using the purchasing power of the consumer as a tool for real social and economic change."

Fair Trade is market led solution to poverty which aims to use trade, not aid.

In India Fair Trade Forum India ( FTF-I) is the representative body of WFTO. Established in 2000, it has beenworking to sensitize the people or the consumer as a tool to strengthen the producer. A national network of 80Fair Trade Organisations, the forum organizes workshops, lectures, talks in schools, colleges, shopping complexesusing producer group case studies and documentaries to provide the soul stirring insights. Presently these 80small and medium organizations work with more than 3500 producer groups all over India with an outreachto almost 1 lakh farmers and artisans. FTF-I members registered a combined turnover of approximately 250crores in the year 2010-2011. 80% of this comes from the exports to various countries.

Awareness Among Indian Consumers

Indian consumers are unaware that by choosing fair trade products they can support development of


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socially and environmentally sustainable supply chains and thus improve the livelihoods of the producers andpreserve environment. As a result, despite the market potential there is currently low market demand for fairtrade products. To counter this Pro-Sustain campaign aimed at promoting sustainable consumption has beenlaunched. Pro-Sustain activities are covered out across schools, universities, companies, corporate houses,exhibitions along with Fair Trade retail shops.Despite ample production of Indian fair trade products for export they are not readily available on domestic retailshelves. There is neither a single dedicated shop brand for fair trade products nor a way for consumers to identifythe fair trade products in the mainstream outlets. As a result, fair trade products are not widely available topotential fair trade consumers. An "I Support Fair Trade" campaign has been launched in Mumbai, Delhi,Calcutta, Agra and is being spread across the country with the aim to increase consumption of fairly tradedproducts.

Government's Stand

The government has not adopted a policy of promoting a fair trade as an effective means to catalyze socially andenvironmentally sustainable production. Various govt. agencies are involved in the promotion of the agriculturalproduce, textiles and handicrafts. Yet, because of lack of knowledge of fair trade, using it as a tool to promotesustainable supply chains has not featured in promotional activities of the agencies like the Ministry of Textiles,Commerce, Agriculture and MSME's.Policy workshops and consensus building to lobby with various govt. agencies is one of the core focus areas.

Pollution15 August 2012 18:13

The addition of constituents to water, air or land, which adversely alter the natural quality of our environment isknown as Pollution.Pollution may also be defined as an undesirable variation in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics ofour water, air and land that may or will harmfully affect human life or that of desirable species, our industrialprocesses, living conditions and cultural assets, or that may or will waste or deteriorate our raw materialresources.

Global Aspect of Pollution

Entire world can be considered as a single vast ecosystem of the universe consisting of two parts:

(I) Biotic Community (or Living Part)That is, the Biosphere in which life exists. The lack of living creatures and dis-balance in their life balance, givesrise to the crises in biological community.

(II) Abiotic Community (or Non-Living Part of Physical Environment)The abiotic or physical environment of all organism existing on the earth exists in three zones: Atmosphere,Lithosphere, and Hydrosphere.

Causes of Environmental Pollution

The root cause of environmental pollution has been men's behave with the nature. Albeit, there are severalreasons for environmental pollution, for example:

A. Harmful Gases in the Atmosphere

The concentration of harmful gases is increasing day by day in the atmosphere. Increasing Carbon dioxidecontent will warm up the earth atmosphere to such an extent that it will melt the polar ice and will cause asubsequent rise in sea level. Thus low line areas will be submerged, carbon dioxide is harmful to our health.Carbon mono-oxide, Sulpur dioxide, Hydrogen sulphide, Nitrogen oxide, Ozone etc also constitute the otherharmful pollutant.

B. Industrial Waste (Effluents)

Discharge of untreated industrial effluents (for example Breweries, Tanneries, Dying, Textile and Paper can cause


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very serious pollution indeed.

C. Swage and Domestic Wastes

Dumping of tonnes of sewage, dead humans and animals and domestic wastes from cities into the waterreservoirs are one of the major causer of water pollution. Discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage maycause: (a) depletion of oxygen content caused by biological oxidation of organic matter; and (b) stimulation ofalgae growth.The above effects affects the diverse uses of water.

D. Insecticides and Pesticides

Insecticides used to kill insects which destroys (damages) our corps, spread several diseases in man, after sprayingare washed off to the rivers and lakes and become a part fish body and other animal there. In the same waypollution of food grains by insecticides and pesticides and the various diseases caused by such food grains arealso well known.

E. Automobile/Factory Exhausts

The air becomes foul by the exhaust from the internal combustion engines of automobiles used for personalconveyance, transport of goods and passenger traffic in the modern world. This polluted air is unhealthy forhuman and animal. Carbon monoxide is a deadly poisonous gas discharged from the automiles and factories is aserious problem in big cities of the world. It causes headaches, loss of vision, nausea, pain, convulsions, asthmaticspasm etc.

F. Fertilizers and Detergents

Fertilizers applied in the fields are also washed off into streams, rivers and the seas. Here they increase the growthof algae (algae is a microscopic green plan). This algae consumes the oxygen of water much more then theyreturned to water in dissolved state (during photosynthesis). In short supply of oxygen the animal living in waterbecome suffocated.Detergents also causes a serious problem to the fresh water resources. Major ingredients of most detergents arephosphates. When discharged into water they support luxuriant growth of algae.Different types of pollution

Pollution can be classified mainly on the basis of (i) Environmental (water, soil and air etc.); and (ii) Pollutants(lead, carbon-dioxide, solid waste etc.). On the basis of these two ways pollution may be classified as:

Air Pollution1.Mercury Pollution2.Noise Pollution3.Pesticide and Herbicide Pollution4.Radioactive Pollution5.Soil Pollution6.Thermal Pollution7.Water Pollution8.

Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen14 August 2012 18:13

Originally, the Fundamental Duties were not provided in the Constitution. On the basis of the recommendationsof Swarn Singh Committee, these duties were included in the Constitution under Article 51A of part IV by the42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976. Under these provisions, a citizen of India is expected to faithfullyobserve the following fundamental Duties.It shall be the duty of every citizen of India:

To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideas and institutions, the National Flag and the NationalAnthem;

1.

To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;2.To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;3.


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To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;4.To promote harmony and spirit of common brotherhood among all the people of India, transcendingreligious, linguistic, regional or sectional diversities, to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity ofwomen;

5.

To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;6.To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, river, and wildlife and to havecompassion for living creatures;

7.

To develop the scientific temper, humanism and spirit of inquiry and reform;8.To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;9.To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activities so that the nationconstantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement;

10.

To provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between age of 6 and 14years;

11.

The 11th point was adopted by 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002.

The fundamental duties are inspired by the constitution of former former Soviet Union. Since, the fundamentalduties are included in part IV of the constitution, these can not come into force automatically, neither can theseduties be enforced by judicial process. The constitution, like directive principles of state policies, leaves to thegoodwill of citizen to abide these provisions. According to the famous constitutional expert D D Basu, theconstitution does not make any provision to enforce these duties automatically or any sanction to preventthe violation of these duties by the citizen. However, it is expected that if a law is enacted by the legislature toenforce these provisions, its shall not be declared unconstitutional on the ground of its inconsistency with theprovisions of Article 14 and that of 19. According to him, these provisions would act as a warning to all those whodoes indulge in not paying due regard to the constitution and destroying public property. The supreme courtmay issue such warning to citizen to take these provisions seriously. The legislature may also enact laws toenforce these duties. In fact, there are already many laws which directly or indirect ly enforce these duties. Forexample, there is law for the protection of public property as well as environment and animal species.However, the Supreme Court, in Surya Vs Union of India (1992) case, ruled that fundamental duties are notenforceable through judicial remedies by court. In Vijoy Immanuel Vs State of Kerala (1987), the Supreme Courtoverruled the decision of Kerala High Court and decided that though to Constitution provides it to be the duty ofcitizen to respect the National Anthem, it does not provide that singing of the National Anthem is part of suchrespect. Even a person, while standing during the singing of National Anthem (without himself singing it) canshow respect to the National Anthem.

Fundamental Rights to Indian Citizens13 August 2012 10:36

The Constitution guarantees elaborate Fundamental Rights to Indian citizens, These are contained in Part III ofthe Constitution. The Fundamental Rights embodied in the Indian constitution acts as a guarante that all Indiancitizens can and will lead their lifes in peace as long as they live in Indian democracy. These civil liberties takeprecedence over any other law of the land. They include individual rights common to most liberal democracies,such as equality before the law, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of association and peacefulassembly, freedom of religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights such ashabeas corpus.

In addition, the Fundamental Rights for Indians are aimed at overturning the inequities of past social practices.They have also been used to in sucessfully abolishing the "untouchability"; prohibit discrimination on thegrounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth; and forbid trafficking in human beings and also the forcedlabor. They go beyond conventional civil liberties in protecting cultural and educational rights of minorities byensuring that minorities may preserve their distinctive languages and establish and administer their owneducation institutions.

Originally, the right to property was also included in the Fundamental Rights; however, the Forty-fourthAmendment, passed in 1978, revised the status of property rights by stating that "No person shall be deprived ofhis property save by authority of law." Freedom of speech and expression, generally interpreted to includefreedom of the press, can be limited "in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the


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State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court,defamation or incitement to an offence"

Right to Equality

Article 14: Equality before law and equal protection of lawArticle 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employmentArticle 17: End of untouchabilityArticle 18: Abolition of titles, Military and academic distinctions are, however, exempted

Right to Freedom

Article 19: It guarantees the citizens of India the following six fundamentals freedoms:-

Freedom of Speech and ExpressionFreedom of AssemblyFreedom of form AssociationsFreedom of MovementFreedom of Residence and SettlementFreedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade and Bussiness

Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offencesArticle 21: Protection of life and personal libertyArticle 22: Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases

Right Against Exploitation

Article 23: Traffic in human beings prohibitedArticle 24: No child below the age of 14 can be employed

Right to freedom of Religion

Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religionArticle 26: Freedom to manage religious affairsArticle 27: Prohibits taxes on religious groundsArticle 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious ceremonies in certain educational institutions

Cultural and Educational Rights

Article 29: Protection of interests of minoritiesArticle 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutionsArticle 31: Omitted by the 44th Amendment Act

Right to Constitutional Remedies

Article 32: The right to move the Supreme Court in case of their violation (called Soul and heart of theConstitution by BR Ambedkar)

Forms of Writ checkHabeas Corpus: Equality before law and equal protection of law

Countries of the World12 August 2012 11:39


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A country is a region legally identified as a distinct entity in political geography. A country may be anindependent sovereign state or one that is occupied by another state, as a non-sovereign or formerly sovereignpolitical division, or a geographic region associated with sets of previously independent or differently associatedpeoples with distinct political characteristics. Regardless of the physical geography, in the modern internationallyaccepted legal definition as defined by the League of Nations in 1937 and reaffirmed by the United Nations in1945, a resident of a country is subject to the independent exercise of legal jurisdiction.Sometimes the word country is used to refer both to sovereign states and to other political entities, while othertimes it refers only to states. For example, the CIA World Fact book uses the word in its "Country name" field torefer to "a wide variety of dependencies, areas of special sovereignty, uninhabited islands, and other entities inaddition to the traditional countries or independent states".

Nations of the worldInformation about some countries:

COUNTRY CAPITAL CURRENCY LANGUAGE RELIGION TIMEZONE

Afghanistan Kabul afghani Pushto, Dari Muslim +4Albania Tirana lek Albanian Orthodox Christian +1Algeria Algiers dinar Arabic, French, Berber Muslim +1Andorra Andorra La Vella franc/peseta Catalan, Spanish RC +1Angola Luanda kwanza Portuguese RC, Animist +1Antigua &Barbuda

St Johns (OnAntigua)

E.Caribbeandollar English Anglican +4

Argentina Buenos Aires austral Spanish RC +3Armenia Yerevan dran Armenian Orthodox +4

Australia Canberra Australian dollar English Anglican, RC +8 to+10

Austria Vienna Euro German RC +1Azerbaijan Baku manat Azeri Muslim +1Bahamas Nassau Bahamian dollar English, Creole Baptist, RC +5Bahrain Manama dinar Arabic Muslim +3Bangladesh Dhaka taka Bangala (Bengali) Muslim +6Barbados Bridgetown Barbados dollar English Anglican +4Belarus Minsk rouble Russian Russian Orthodox +2Belgium Brussels Euro Flemish, French RC +1

Belize Belmopan Belize dollar English, Creole,Spanish RC +6

Benin Porto Novo franc French, Fon Animist, Islam +1

Bhutan Thimphu ngultrum Dzongkha (Tibetan),Nepali Buddhist, Hindu +6

Bolivia La Paz boliviano Spanish, Aymara,Quechua RC +4

Bosnia-Herzegovina Sarajevo dinar Serbo-croat Islam,

Serbian Orthodox +1

Botswana Gaborone pula English, Setswana Christian, Animist +2


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Brazil Brasilia cruzeiro Portuguese RC +3 to+4

Brunei Bandar SeriBegawan Brunei dollar Malay, Chinese Muslim, Buddhist +8

Bulgaria Sofia lev Bulgarian, Turkish Orthodox +2Burkina Faso Ouagadougou franc French Animist, Muslim +0Burundi Bujumbura franc Kirundi, French RC, Animist +2Cambodia Phnom Penh new riel Khmer, French Buddhist +7Cameroon Yaounde franc French, English RC, Animist, Muslim +1

Canada Ottawa Canadian dollar French, English RC, Protestant +5 to+8

Cape VerdeIslands Praia Verdean escudo Portuguese, Creole RC +1

Central AfricanRepublic Bangui franc French, Sangho Protestant, RC +1

Chad N'djamena franc French, Arabic Muslim, Animist +1Chile Santiago peso Spanish RC +4

China (Inc.tibet) Peking yuan Mandarin (Chinese) Taoism, Buddhism andConfucianism +8

Colombia Bogota peso Spanish, IndigenousLanguages RC +?

Comoros Moroni franc French, Arabic Muslim 3

Congo Brazzaville franc French, Lingala,Monokutuba,, Kongo Animist, Christian +1

Costa Rica San Jose Spanish RC +6Cote d'Ivoire Yamoussoukro franc French Animist, RC 0Croatia Zagreb kuna Croat, Serbian RC +1Cuba Havana peso Spanish RC +5Cyprus Nicosia pound Greek/Turkish Greek Orthodox, Muslim +2Czech Republic Prague koruna Czech RC +1Democratic Repof Congo Kinshasa zaire French, Local Dialects RC, Protestant +1

Denmark Copenhagen kroner Danish Lutheran +1Djibouti Djibouti franc French, Arabic Muslim +3

Dominica Roseau E.Caribbeandollar English RC +4

DominicanRepublic Santo Domingo peso Spanish RC +4

Ecuador Quito sucre Spanish, Quechua RC +5Egypt Cairo pound Arabic Muslim +2El Salvador San Salvador colon Spanish, Nahuatl RC +6EquatorialGuinea Malabo franc Spanish RC +1

Eritrea Asmara birr Tigrinya, TigreArabic Muslim,, Christian +3Estonia Tallinn kroone Estonian, Russian Lutheran +2

Ethiopia Addis Ababa birr Amharic, Arabic Oromo, Muslim, OrthodoxChristian +3

Fiji Suva Fijian dollar English, Fijian, Hindi Methodist, Hindu +12

Finland Helsinki Euro Finnish, Swedish Lutheran, OrthodoxChristian +2

France Paris Euro French RC +1Gabon Libreville franc French, Fang RC +1Gambia Banjul dalasi English Muslim, Protestant 0Georgia Tbilisi rouble Georgian Orthodox +4Germany Berlin Euro German Lutheran, RC +1


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Ghana Accra new cedi English Animist, Christian, Muslim 0Greece Athens Euro Greek Greek Orthodox +2

Grenada St Georges E.Caribbeandollar English RC, Anglican +4

Guatemala Guatemala City quetzal Spanish, MayanDialects RC, Protestant +6

Guinea-Bissau Bissau peso Portuguese, Creole Animist, Muslim 0Guinea Conakry franc French, Fulami Muslim 0Guyana Georgetown dollar English, Hindi, Urdu Hindu, Christian +3Haiti Port-au-Prince gourde French, Creole RC, Voodoo +5Honduras Tegucigalpa lempira Spanish RC +6Hungary Budapest forint Magyar RC +1Iceland Reykjavik krona Icelandic Evangelical Lutheran 0

India New Delhi rupee Hindi, English & 1600Languages Hindu, Isalm +5

Indonesia Jakarta rupiah Bahasa, Indonesian,Javanese Muslim +7 to

+8Iran Tehran rial Farsi, Azeri Muslim +3Iraq Baghdad dinar Arabic, Kurdish Muslim +3Ireland Dublin Euro Gaelic, English RC 0Israel Jerusalem shekel Hebrew, Arabic Judaism +2Italy Rome Euro Italian RC +1Jamaica Kingston Jamaican dollar English, Creole Protestant, Rastafarian +5Japan Tokyo yen Japanese Shinto, Buddhism +9Jordan Amman dinar Arabic Muslim +2

Kazakhstan Alma-ata tenge, rouble Russian, Kazakh Muslim, RC +5 to6

Kenya Nairobi shilling Swahili, English Protestant, RC +3

Kiribati Bairiki (OnTarawa) Australian dollar I-kiribati, English RC, Protestant +12

Korea DPR Pyongyang won Korean Daoist, Confusianism +9Korea, Republicof Seoul won Korean Buddhist, Protestant,

Taoism +9

Kuwait Kuwait City dinar Arabic Muslim +3Kyrgyzstan Frunze som, rouble Kighiz Muslim +5Laos Vientiane kip Lao Buddhist +7Latvia Riga lats Lettish, Russian Lutheran +2Lebanon Beirut pound Arabic Muslim, Christian +2Lesotho Maseru loti Sesotho, English RC, Protestant +2Liberia Monrovia dollar English Animist, Muslim, Christian 0Libya Tripoli dinar Arabic Muslim +1Liechtenstein Vaduz franc German RC +1Lithuania Vilnius litas Lithuanan RC +2

Luxembourg Luxembourg Euro Letzeburgesch,French, German RC +1

Macedonia Bitolj denar Macedonia, Albanian Orthodox +1Madagascar Antananarivo franc Malagasy, French Animist, RC +3Malawi Lilongwe kwacha English, Chichewa Christian +2

Malaysia Kuala Kumpar ringgit Malay, English,Chinese Muslim +8

The Maldives Male rufiyaa Dhivehi Muslim +5Mali Bamako franc French, Bambara Muslim 0Malta Valletta franc Maltese, English RC +1

Marshall Islands Dalap-Uliga-Darrit US dollar Marshallese, English Protestant +12


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Mauritania Nouakchott ouguiya Arabic, French Muslim 0Mauritius Port Louis rupee English, Creole Hindu, Christian, Islam +4Mexico Mexico City peso Spanish RC +6

Micronesia Palikir (OnPohnpei) US dollar English, Trukese,

Ponapean Protestant +11

Moldova Kishinev leu Moldovan, Ukranian,Russian Russian Orthodox +2

Monaco Monaco-ville franc French RC +1Mongolia Ulan-Baatar tugrit Kalkh, Mongolese Buddhism +8Morocco Rabat dirham Arabic, Berber Muslim 0Mozambique Maputo metical Portuguese Animist, RC, Islam +2Myanmar Yangon kyat Burmese Buddhist +6

Namibia Windhoek rand Afrikaans, English Lutheran, VariousChristian +2

Nauru Yaren District Australian dollar Nauruan RC, Nauran ProtestantChurch +12

Nepal Kathmandu rupee Nepali, Bilhari Hindu +5

Netherlands Amsterdam Euro Dutch RC, Netherlands ReformChurch +1

New Zealand Wellington New Zealanddollar English, Maori Anglican, RC +12

Nicaragua Managua cordoba Spanish, Miskito RC +6Niger Niamey franc French, Hausa Muslim +1Nigeria Lagos naira English, Local Dialects Muslim, Christian +1Norway Oslo krone Norwegian Evangelical, Lutheran +1Oman Muscat rial Arabic Muslim +4

Pakistan Islamabad rupee Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi,English Muslim +5

Panama Panama City balboa Spanish RC 5Papua NewGuinea Port Moresby kina English Protestant, RC +10

Paraguay Ascuncion guarani Spanish, Guran RC +4Peru Lima inti Spanish, Quechua RC 5

The Philippines Manila OnLuzon) peso Tagalog (Filipino) RC 8

Poland Warsaw zloty Polish RC +1Portugal Lisbon Euro Portuguese RC +1Qatar Doha riyal Arabic Muslim +3Romania Bucharest leu Romanian Romanian Orthodox, RC +2

Russia Moscow rouble Great Russian Russian Orthodox +2 to12

Rwanda Kigali franc French, Kinyarwanda RC, Animist +2St Christopher &Nevis Basseterre E.Caribbean

dollar English Anglican, Methodist 4

St Lucia Castries E.Caribbeandollar English, French Patois RC 4

St Vincent &Grenedines Kingstown E.Caribbean

dollar English Anglican, Methodist 4

San Marino San Marino lira Italian RC +1Sao Tome &Principe Sao Tome dobra Portuguese RC 0

Saudi Arabia Riyadh riyal Arabic Muslim +3Senegal Dakar franc French, Wolof Muslim 0Seychelles Victoria rupee Creole, English, French RC +4

Sierra Leone Freetown leone English, KrioMende,,Temne Animist, Muslim 0


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Singapore Singapore City dollar Chinese, Malay,English Buddhism, Daoism +8

Slovakia Bratislava koruna Slovak, Hungarian RC +1Slovenia Ljubljana tolar Slovene RC +1

Solomon Islands Honiara Soloman Islandsdollar English, Pidgin English Anglican, RC +11

Somalia Mogadishu shilling Somali, Arabic Muslim +3

South Africa Pretoria/CapeTown rand Xhosa, Zulu, English,

AfrikaansBlack African Churchs,Africaans Reform Church +2

Spain Madrid Euro Spanish, Castilian RC +1Sri Lanka Colombo rupee Sinhala, Tamil English Buddhist, Hindu +5Sudan Khartoum pound Arabic Muslim +2

Surinam Paramaribo guilder Dutch, Sranang, Togo,Hindi Hindu, RC, Muslim +3

Swaziland Mbabane lilangeni Siswati, English Various Christian & Indian +2Sweden Stockholm krona Swedish Lutheran +1Switzerland Berne franc German RC, Protestant +1Syria Damascus pound Arabic Muslim +2

Tajikistan Dushanbe rouble Tadzhik, Uzbek,Russian RC, Islam +3

Tanzania Dodoma shilling English, Swahili Animist, Muslim, Christian +3Thailand Bangkok baht Thai, Chinese Buddhist +7Togo Lome franc French, Ewe, Kabiye Animist, RC 0Tonga Nuku'alofa pa'anga Tongan, English Methodist +13Trinidad &Tobago Port of Spain Trinidad &

Tobago dollar English, Hindi RC, Protestant, Hindu 4

Tunisia Tunis dinar Arabic Muslim +1Turkey Ankara lira Turkish, Kurdish Muslim +2Turkmenistan Ashkhabad manat, rouble Turkmen Muslim +5

Tuvalu Funafuti Tuvalu dollar Tuvaluan, English Protestant Church ofTuvalu +12

Uganda Kampala shilling English, Swahili RC, Animist, Protestant +3Ukraine Kiev karbvanets Ukranian, Russian Ukranian Orthodox +2United ArabEmirates Abu Dhabi dirham Arabic Muslim +4

United Kingdom London pound English Anglican, RC 0United States ofAmerica Washington DC US dollar English RC, Baptist +5 to

+8Uruguay Montevideo nuevo peso Spanish RC +3

Uzbekistan Tashkent som, rouble Uzbek Muslim +5 to6

Vanuatu Vila (On Efate) vatu Bislamay, English,French Protestant, RC +11

Vatican City State Euro Italian, Latin RC HQ +1Venezuela Caracas bolivar Spanish RC 4Vietnam Hanoi dong Vietnamese Buddhist +7

Western Samoa Apia (On Upolu) tala English, Samoan Protestant,Congregational, RC 11

Yemen Sana'a rial Arabic Muslim +3Yugoslavia Belgrade dinar Serb Orthodox, Islam +1Zambia Lusaka kwacha English, Tonga, Bemba Animist +2Zimbabwe Harare dollar English Animist, Anglican, RC +2

Clouds12 August 2012 09:58


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'Clouds' are a sufficiently distinctive result of condensation to be discussed in some detail. They consist of tinyparticle, either of water or of ice, which floats in masses at various heights above sea-level, ranging from groundlevel (where they occur in the form of) to the highest wisps at 40,000 feet.

"Cloud is the mass a mass of tiny visible particles, usually of water (0.0008 to 0.0024 inches in diameter), sometimesof ice, which form by condensation on nuclei such as dust and smoke particles, salt, pollen and negative ions. The floatin masses at various height above sea level, ranging from near the ground (fog or mist) to over 40,000 feets."

Clouds are classified:(I) By Height

Low clouds upto 8,000 feetMedium clouds at 8,000-20,000 feetHigh clouds at 20,000-40,000 feet

(II) By Form

Feathery or fibrous (Cirrus)Globular or heaped (Cumulus)Sheet of layer (Stratus)

Other types (see individual names) are distinguished by combination of the three form names, by adding thesuffix 'Alto' to indicate height, and 'Nimbus' to signify falling rain, thus forming ten main generally. Othervariation are:

Lens shaped LenticularisTurret shaped CastellatusBreast shaped MammatusTattered ragged clouds (Fracto-) and many more

NAME HEIGHT DESCRIPTION REMARKS

stratus 0-1500ft Whitish, grey layer, often covering hills. May give drizzle.

cumulonimbus 1500-6500ft Huge towers of heavy dense clouds. Thetops are flat, usually spreading. Often bring showers and thunder.

cumulus 1500-6500ftDetached dense clouds with sharpoutlines and rising domes, mounds ortowers.

Associated with sunny weather andscattered showers.

stratocumulus 1500-6500ft Grey or white rolling patches or sheets. Bring dull weather, sometimes withdrizzle.

nimbostratus 3000-10000ft Dark grey cloud layer, usually diffused byrain or snow.

Ragged patches of stratus may occurbelow the layer.

altostratus 3000-10000ft Flat, thick blue-grey sheet. Indicates rain or snow if associatedwith cirrostratus.

altocumulus 6500-23000ft White or grey rounded clouds, Usually break up leaving goodweather.

cirrostratus 16500-45000ft A transparent milky veil which can befibrous or smooth. Indicates rain later.

cirrocumulus 16500-45000ft Thin rippled sheets of rounded clouds. Form on the edge of unsettledweather.

cirrus 16500-45000ft Fibrous or hairlike clouds with a silkysheen.

An indication of bad weather tofollow with strong winds at the cloudlevel.


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nacreous Mother of pearl clouds found very highover mountains, usually lit by sunlight.

noctilucentVery high bluish clouds, probably cosmicdust. Normally only seen in highlatitudes.

Appointments and Nominations in 2011-1212 August 2012 13:08

Parvin Kiran SinclairParvin Kiran Sinclair will be the new head of the National Council of Educational Research & Training (NCERT),The NCERT has been functioning without a fulltime director for nearly two years. Sinclair was also Chief Advisor,Mathematics Syllabus Design Committee, NCERT, in 2005 and 2006.

Vinod RaiComptroller & Auditor General of India (CAG), Vinod Rai has been elected as the Chairman of the Panel ofExternal Auditors of the United Nations, the Specialized Agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency.He succeeds Mr.Norbert Hauser, Vice-President, Federal Court of Auditors, Germany.

Kamal al-GanzuriEgypt s interim leaders had appointed former premier Kamal al Ganzuri as the country s new prime minister,amid continuing political uncertainty. The national salvation government, headed by 79-year-old Kamal alGanzuri was sworn in, with Supreme Council of Armed Forces granting the new Prime Minister greater powersexcept over the military and judiciary.

E. SreedharanE. Sreedharan, Managing Director of the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) and the man behind the changingface of the Indian public transport , handed over the reins of the DMRC to Mangu Singh, after successful 16-yeartenure as its chief. Sreedharan (79), fondly known across the country as the Metroman , had joined the DelhiMetro Rail Corporation in 1995 spending 16 years in the DMRC.

N SrinivasanN. Srinivasan would take over the reins of BCCI from incumbent President Shashank Manohar at the CricketBoard s 82nd Annual General Meeting.

Helle Thoning-SchmidtHelle Thoming-Schmidt was elected as the first female Prime Mminister of Denmark ending the far-right s10-year grip on the Scandinavian country. She defeated Lars Loke Rasmussen of Danish People s Party (DPP) byvery thin margin.

Kamalesh SharmaIndian diplomat Kamalesh Sharma was reappointed as Secretary General of the 54-nation Common-wealthgrouping for a four-year term beginning April 2012. India proposed 70-year-old Sharma s name for a secondterm to the coveted post at the concluding session of the 21st Commonwealth heads of government meeting inPerth. Pakistan seconded it. The proposal was accepted unanimously by everybody.

Ashok ChawlaMr Ashok Chawla took charge as the Chairman of Competition Commission of India. Before being ap-pointed asthe Chairman of CCI he has held key positions in several Ministries including the top administrative post in theMinistry of Finance.

Mangu SinghAs E Sreedharan prepares to call it a day after 16 years of heading the Delhi Metro, his right-hand man -Director(Works) Mangu Singh - is selected to take over as the Managing Director of the corporation from January 1,when Sreedharan s tenure comes to an end.

K.V. KamathThe Board of Directors of Infosys Ltd., which met in Bangaluru on May 1,2011, decided to appoint K.V. Kamath asChairman of Infosys after its founder, N.R. Narayana Murthy, steps down from his position as Chairman on


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August 20 when he turns 65.

Leeta SamsonThe CBFC, which is responsible for censoring and rating all films shown in India, recently got a new Chief whenthe govemmeni appointed Bharatanatyam dancer, choreographer and teacher Leela Samson as its Chairperson.Ms. Samson s ap-pointment drew attention as she is the first non-film personality in many years to hold the post.

Ajit Kumar SethSenior Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer Ajit Kumar Seth has been appointed the next Indian CabinetSecretary succeeding K M Chandrashekhar. Seth, a 1974 batch IAS officer from Uttar Pradesh, is serving asSecretary, Public Grievances and Co-ordination in the Cabinet Secretariat. Seth will have fixed two year tenure.He has been on central deputation since January 1, 2009. Bom on November 24, 1951, Seth has Masters Degreein Chemistry.

Goodluclf JonathanNigerian President Goodluck Jonathan was sworn in on May 29 following an election seen as the fairest in twodecades, but he faces a divided nation after deadly post-poll riots. Jonathan was inducted amid tight security at acolourful ceremony with full military honours, including a fly past in the capital of Abuja.

Yinglucl- ShinawatraThe woman, who is poised to become Thailand s first female prime minister after her landslide victory inparliamentary elections, has announced she will form a five- party coalition government. Yingluck Shinawatra 'sPuea Thai Party took a majority of 265 seats in the 500-seat lower house of parliament making it only the secondtime in Thai political history that a single party won a parliamentary majority. By announcing a broad 299- seatcoalition, Ms Yingluck (44) will give her government stability and head >ff fears of factional violence linked to herexiled brother, former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. Mr Abhisit, a British-born, Oxford-trained economist,stepped down as leader of the Democrat Party yesterday because of the poor electoral showing.

Maria Gomes ValentimA Brazilian woman Maria Gomes Valentim, ranked by Guinness World Records as the world s oldest person diedat the age of 114,

Pradeep KumarDefence Secretary Pradeep Kumar was unanimously chosen Central Vigilance Commissioner (CVC). The selectionwas made by a high-power committee headed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and including Leader of theOpposition in the Lok Sabha Sushma Swaraj and Union Home Minister P. Chidambaram.

The top slot in the Central government s anti-corruption watchdog body fell vacant after the Supreme Court, onMarch 3, quashed the ap-pointment of P.J. Thomas as CVC.

Christine LagardeFrance s Christine Lagarde has been named the first-ever female chief of the IMF, faced with an immediate crisisas violent Greek protests rocked the stability of the eurozone. The French finance minister, respected for herleadership during the financial crises that have shaken Europe over the past three years, was selected by theInternational Monetary Fund s executive board to take up the five-year job from July 5.

Ban Ki-moonThe U.N. General Assembly voted unanimously to give Ban Ki-moon a second term as Secretary-General, praisinghim for strengthening the world body s role and visibility in difficult circumstances.

Yoshihiko NodaFinance Minister Yoshihiko Noda was chosen to become Japan s sixth prime minister in five years. Noda wasdeclared the winner after defeating his nearest rival, the trade minister, Banri Kaieda.

Tony TanFormer Deputy Prime Minister Tony Tan Keng Yam has been declared elected Singapore 's seventh President bydefeating his nearest rival by a thin margin of 7,269 votes in the first ever four-comer presidential electioncampaign.

Baburam BhattaraiNepal s legislature-parliament elected Baburam Bhattarai, Vice-Chairman of the Unified Communist Party ofNepal (Maoist), and new Prime Minister. Bhattarai was the deputy prime Minister and finance minister in thegovernment led by Maoist Chairman Prachanda in 2008. Bhattarai succeeded Jhalanath Khanal, who resigned inAugust. Dr. Bhattarai has been in the Left movement for three decades.

Veerendra Kumar


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M.P Veerendrakumar, Chairman and Managing Director of the Mathrubhoomi group of newspapers, was electedchairman of the Board of Directors of Press Trust of India (PTI) after the annual general meeting of the agency sshareholders. Veerendrakumar, who has served as PTI chairman twice earlier, succeeds Vineet Jain, ManagingDirector of the Times of India Group.

R. LakshmipathyR Lakshmipathy, Publisher of the Tamil daily Dinamalar, was elected vice-chairman. Lakshmipathy Is a leadingfigure in the media industry. He has been president of the INS, chairman of the Audit Bureau of Circulation and amember of the Press Council of India. He runs several educational institutions.

Rohit NandanRohit Nandan, Joint Secretary in the Civil Aviation Ministry, has been appointed as Chairman and ManagingDirector (CMD) of Air India for a three-year period. Nandan was earlier Joint Secretary, Ministry of Civil Aviation,Govt of India.

Mamta SharmaMamta Sharma has taken charge as chairperson of the National Commission for Women (NCW). She took overfrom Yasmeen Abrar, who was the acting chairperson after Girija Vyas demitted office. The NCW has beenwithout a full time chief since April. Ms. Sharma, a Congress leader from Rajasthan, was a member of theLegislative Assembly and also the president of the Rajasthan State Women Congress Committee.

Ecology and Environment04 August 2012 13:06

Ecology is the study of environmental systems, or as it is sometimes called, the economy of nature."Environmental" usually means relating to the natural, versus human-made world; the "systems" means thatecology is, by its very nature, not interested in just the components of nature individually but especially in howthe parts interact.

The subject matter of ecology is normally divided into following broad categories:

Physiological ecology- It deals with the response of single species to environmental conditions such astemperature or light;

1.

Population ecology- It usually focuses on the abundance and distribution of individual species and thefactors that cause such distribution;

2.

Community ecology- It deals with the number of species found at a given location and theirinteractions; and

3.

Ecosystems ecology- deals with the structure and function of the entire suite of microbes, plants, andanimals, and their abiotic environment, and how the parts interact to generate the whole. This branch ofecology often focuses on the energy and nutrient flows of ecosystems, and when this approach iscombined with computer analysis and simulation we often call it systems ecology.

4.

Evolutionary ecology- It operate at the physiological or population level, is a rich and dynamic area ofecology focusing on attempting to understand how natural selection developed the structure andfunction of the organisms and ecosystems at any of these levels.

5.

Ecology is usually considered from the perspective of the specific geographic environment that is being studied amoment: tropical rain forest, temperate grassland, arctic tundra, benthic marine, the entire biosphere, and so on.The subject matter of ecology is the entire natural world, including both the living and the non-living parts.

Biogeographyfocuses on the observed distribution of plants and animals and the reasons behind it. Morerecently ecology has included increasingly the human-dominated world of agriculture, grazing lands for domesticanimals, cities, and even industrial parks.

Industrial ecology is a discipline that has recently been developed, especially in Europe, where the objective is tofollow the energy and material use throughout the process of, e.g., making an automobile with the objective ofattempting to improve the material and energy efficiency of manufacturing. For any of these levels or approachesthere are some scientists that focus on theoretical ecology, which attempts to derive or apply theoretical orsometimes mathematical reasons and generalities for what is observed in nature, and empirical ecology, which isconcerned principally with measurement. Applied ecology takes what is found from one or both of theseapproaches and uses it to protect or manage nature in some way. Related to this discipline is conservationbiology. Plant ecology, animal ecology, and microbial ecology have obvious foci.

Reasons to study ecologyThere are usually four basic reasons given to study and as to why we might want to understand ecology:


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1. first, since all of us live to some degree in a natural or at least partly natural ecosystem, then considerablepleasure can be derived by studying the environment around us. Just as one might learn to appreciate art betterthrough an art history course so too might one appreciate more the nature around us with a betterunderstanding of ecology.

Second, human economies are in large part based on the exploitation and management of nature.Applied ecology is used every day in forestry, fisheries, range management, agriculture, and so on toprovide us with the food and fiber we need.

2.

Third, human societies can often be understood very clearly from ecological perspectives as we study, forexample, the population dynamics (demography) of our own species, the food and fossil energy flowingthrough our society.

3.

Fourth, humans appear to be changing aspects of the global environment in many ways.4.

Ecology can be very useful to help us understand what these changes are, what the implications might be forvarious ecosystems, and how we might intervene in either human economies or in nature to try to mitigate orotherwise alter these changes. There are many professional ecologists, who believe that these apparent changesfrom human activities have the potential to generate enormous harm to both natural ecosystems and humaneconomies. Understanding, predicting and adapting to these issues could be the most important of all possibleissue for humans to deal with. In this case ecology and environmentalism can be the same.

EcosystemAn ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical and chemicalfactors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, aforest, an estuary, a grassland. The boundaries are not fixed in any objective way, although sometimes they seemobvious, as with the shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practicalreasons having to do with the goals of the particular study.

Components of an Ecosystem

The parts of an ecosystem can be listed under the headings "abiotic" and "biotic".

Abiotic components:Sunlight, Temperature, Precipitation, Water or moisture, Soil or water chemistry (e.g., P, NH4+)

Biotic ComponentsPrimary producers, Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores, Detritivores

All of these vary over space/time

By and large, this set of environmental factors is important almost everywhere, in all ecosystems. Usually,biological communities include the "functional groupings". A functional group is a biological category composedof organisms that perform mostly the same kind of function in the system; for example, all the photosyntheticplants or primary producers form a functional group. Membership in the functional group does not depend verymuch on who the actual players (species) happen to be; only on what function they perform in the ecosystem.

Processes of EcosystemsThis figure with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth illustrates the two main ideas about how ecosystemsfunction: ecosystems have energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials. These two processes are linked, but theyare not quite the same (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Energy flows and material cycles.


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Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical energy in organicmolecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration, and ultimately is converted to heatenergy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled.Without the continued input of solar energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth isan open system with respect to energy.

Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of ways. Plants obtainelements from the surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils. Animals may also obtain elements directly from thephysical environment, but usually they obtain these mainly as a consequence of consuming other organisms.These materials are transformed biochemically within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due toexcretion or decomposition, they are returned to an inorganic state. Often bacteria complete this process,through the process called decomposition or mineralization

During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the earth is a closed system with respect toelements (with the exception of a meteorite entering the system now and then). The elements are cycledendlessly between their biotic and abiotic states within ecosystems. Those elements whose supply tends to limitbiological activity are called nutrients.

The Transformation of Energy

The transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of energy from the sun. The process ofphotosynthesis captures energy from the sun. Carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen to producecarbohydrates (CHO). Energy is stored in the high-energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.

The prophet Isaah said "all flesh is grass", earning him the title of first ecologist, because virtually all energyavailable to organisms originates in plants. Because it is the first step in the production of energy for living things,it is called primary production. Herbivores obtain their energy by consuming plants or plant products,carnivores eat herbivores, and detritivores consume the droppings and carcasses of us all.

Figure portrays a simple food chain, in which energy from the sun, captured by plant photosynthesis, flows fromtrophic level to trophic level via the food chain. A trophic level is composed of organisms that make a living inthe same way, that is they are all primary producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores) or secondaryconsumers (carnivores).

Dead tissue and waste products are produced at all levels. Scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers collectivelyaccount for the use of all such "waste" -- consumers of carcasses and fallen leaves may be other animals, such ascrows and beetles, but ultimately it is the microbes that finish the job of decomposition. Not surprisingly, theamount of primary production varies a great deal from place to place, due to differences in the amount of solarradiation and the availability of nutrients and water.

Energy transfer through the food chain is inefficient. This means that less energy is available at the herbivorelevel than at the primary producer level, less yet at the carnivore level, and so on. The result is a pyramid ofenergy, with important implications for understanding the quantity of life that can be supported.

Food chains with green plants, herbivores, and so on are referred to as grazer food chains, because living plants


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are directly consumed. In many circumstances the principal energy input is not green plants but dead organicmatter. These are called detritus food chains. Examples include the forest floor or a woodland stream in aforested area, a salt marsh, and most obviously, the ocean floor in very deep areas where all sunlight isextinguished 1000's of meters above. In subsequent lectures we shall return to these important issues concerningenergy flow.

There are many food links and chains in an ecosystem, and all of these linkages can be referred as a food web.Food webs can be very complicated, where it appears that "everything is connected to everything else", and it isimportant to understand what are the most important linkages in any particular food web.

BiogeochemistryThe term Biogeochemistry is defined as the study of how living systems influence, and are controlled by, thegeology and chemistry of the earth. Thus biogeochemistry encompasses many aspects of the abiotic and bioticworld that we live in.

There are several main principles and tools that are used to study earth systems. Most of the majorenvironmental problems can be analyzed using biogeochemical principles and tools. These problems includeglobal warming, acid rain, we environmental pollution, and increasing greenhouse gases. The principles and toolscan be broken down into 3 major components: element ratios, mass balance, and element cycling.

1. Element ratiosIn biological systems, important elements are referred as "conservative". These elements are often nutrients. By"conservative" it means that an organism can change only slightly the amount of these elements in their tissuesif they are to remain in good health. For example, in healthy algae the elements C, N, P, and Fe have thefollowing ratio, called the Redfield ratio after the oceanographer that discovered it :

C : N : P : Fe = 106 : 16 : 1 : 0.01Once these ratios are known, one can compare them to the ratios that one measure in a sample of algae todetermine if the algae are lacking in one of these limiting nutrients.

2. Mass BalanceAnother important tool that is used is a simple mass balance equation to describe the state of a system. Thesystem could be a snake, a tree, a lake, or the entire globe. Using a mass balance approach whether the system ischanging and how fast it is changing can be determined. The equation is:

NET CHANGE = INPUT + OUTPUT + INTERNAL CHANGE

In this equation the net change in the system from one time period to another is determined by what the inputsare, what the outputs are, and what the internal change in the system was. The example given in class is of theacidification of a lake, considering the inputs and outputs and internal change of acid in the lake.

3. Element CyclingElement cycling describes where and how fast elements move in a system. There are two general classes ofsystems that we can analyze, as mentioned above: closed and open systems.

A closed system refers to a system where the inputs and outputs are negligible compared to the internalchanges. Examples of such systems would include a bottle, or our entire globe. There are two ways the cycling ofmaterials within this closed system can be described, either by looking at the rate of movement or at thepathways of movement.

Rate = number of cycles / time, as rate increases, productivity increasesPathways-important because of different reactions that may occur

In an open system there are inputs and outputs as well as the internal cycling. Thus the rates of movement andthe pathways can be described, just as the closed system, but a new concept called the residence time can alsobe defined. The residence time indicates how long on average an element remains within the system beforeleaving the system.

1. Rate2. Pathways3. Residence time, Rt

Rt = total amount of matter / output rate of matter

Controls on Ecosystem FunctionThere are two dominant theories of the control of ecosystems.


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The first, called bottom-up control, states that it is the nutrient supply to the primary producers that ultimatelycontrols how ecosystems function. If the nutrient supply is increased, the resulting increase in production ofautotrophs is propagated through the food web and all of the other trophic levels will respond to the increasedavailability of food (energy and materials will cycle faster).

The second theory, called top-down control, states that predation and grazing by higher trophic levels on lowertrophic levels ultimately controls ecosystem function. For example, if there is an increase in predators, thatincrease will result in fewer grazers, and that decrease in grazers will result in turn in more primary producersbecause fewer of them are being eaten by the grazers. Thus the control of population numbers and overallproductivity "cascades" from the top levels of the food chain down to the bottom trophic levels.

There is evidence from many ecosystem studies that both controls are operating to some degree, but thatneither control is complete. For example, the "top-down" effect is often very strong at trophic levels near to thetop predators, but the control weakens as one move further down the food chain. Similarly, the "bottom-up"effect of adding nutrients usually stimulates primary production, but the stimulation of secondary productionfurther up the food chain is less strong or is absent.

The Geography of EcosystemsThere are many different ecosystems: rain forests and tundra, coral reefs and ponds, grasslands and deserts.Climate differences from place to place largely determine the types of ecosystems we see. Mainly the dominantvegetation influences how terrestrial ecosystems appear to us.

The word "biome" is used to describe a major vegetation type such as tropical rain forest, grassland, tundra, etc.,extending over a large geographic area (Figure 3). It is never used for aquatic systems, such as ponds or coralreefs. It always refers to a vegetation category that is dominant over a very large geographic scale, and so issomewhat broader than an ecosystem.

Figure 3: The distribution of biomes.

Temperature and rainfall patterns for a region are distinctive. Every place on earth gets the same total number ofhours of sunlight each year, but not the same amount of heat. The sun's rays strike low latitudes directly but highlatitudes obliquely. This uneven distribution of heat sets up not just temperature differences, but global wind andocean currents that in turn have a great deal to do with where rainfall occurs.

A schematic view of the earth shows that, complicated though climate may be; many aspects are predictable(Figure 4). High solar energy striking near the equator ensures nearly constant high temperatures and high ratesof evaporation and plant transpiration. Warm air rises, cools, and sheds its moisture, creating just the conditionsfor a tropical rain forest. Every location has a rainfall- temperature graph that is typical of a broader region.


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Figure 4. Climate patterns affect biome distributions.

Certain plants are distinctive of certain climates, creating the vegetation appearance that is called biomes. Highprecipitation is not possible at low temperatures -- there is not enough solar energy to power the water cycle,and most water is frozen and thus biologically unavailable throughout the year. The h igh tundra is as much adesert as is the Sahara.

Figure 5. The distribution of biomass related to temperature and precipitation.

DELHI SULTANATE12 August 2012 13:24

The Delhi Sultanate is a term used to cover five short-lived dynasties and one sultan, Delhibased kingdoms or sultanates, mostly of Turkic origin in medieval India. The sultanates ruled from Delhi between


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1206 and 1526, when the last was replaced by the Mughal dynasty. The five dynasties were the Mamluk dynasty(1206–90); the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320); the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414); the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51); and theAfghan Lodi dynasty (1451–1526).

The Slave DynastySlave Dynasty

Time period

1. Qutub-ud-din Aibak 1206-1210 AD2. Iltutmish 1210-1236 AD3. Raziya Sultan 1236-1239 AD4. Bahram Shah 1240-1242 AD5. Ala-ud-din Masud 1242-1246 AD6. Nasiruddin Mahmud 1246-1266 AD7. Balban 1266-1285 AD8. Kaikubad 1286-1290 AD

Qutub-ud-din Aibek

Qutub-ud-din Aibek laid the foundation of a new dynasty called the slave dynasty in 1206 AD. He establishedhimself as he sultan of Delhi at Lahore. He strengthened his position through matrimonial alliances with his rivals.He gave his daughter to Iltutmish the foremost of his slaves.

Iltutmish

After Qutub-ud-din Aibek his son Aram Shah succeeded the throne. He was not able to display the skill ofconquests and administration shone by his forerunners. Iltutmish over threw his rule with the support of thenobles. A battle followed in which Aram Shah was defeated and killed. In 1211 AD Iltutmish came to the throne.He was also known as Shamsuddin. He spent his days in retrieving the lost territories of Qutub-ud-din Aibek andalso added Malwa and Sind. During the reign of Iltutmish he fought against the rival slave chiefs Yildiz andQabacha.At the battlefield of Tarain Yildiz was defeated. Iltutmish also faced danger from the Mongols led by ChingizKhan. In his diplomatic decision he avoided the conflict with the mighty Mongol by preventing Jalal-ud-din theruler of Khawarism from coming to India. Another major threat to the power of Iltutmish was the independentRajput rulers who in spite of their rivalry could pose a serious danger to the Sultanat. In 1226 AD he attackedRanthambor and Mansor. He also occupied Ajmer, Jalor, Nagor.In 1229 Gwalior was occupied and the fort of Kalinjar was plundered. Kannauj, Benaras and Badaun were underhis dominion. In the year 1229AD the Caliph of Baghdad recognized him as Sultan. He brought order inRohilkhand. He suppressed the revolt of Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal. Iltutmish was the greatest ruler of13th century India and a wise statesman. He was generous to talented people who willingly became the pillars ofthe central administration.

Raziya

Raziya came to throne by overthrowing her brother Rukn-ud-din. After elevating many Tajiks to high positionsRaziya appointed Jamal-ud-din Yaqut an Ethiopian slave as superintendent of the royal horses which arousedresentment in a majority of the already disgruntled Turkish nobles. Moreover sultana began to appear unveiled inpublic. Though the people of Delhi supported her, hostility mounted among the iqtadars. In 1239-40 she crushedsome of the rebellious iqtadars but one of them Altunia killed Yakut and took Raziya prisoner. In the meanwhilethe powerful Turkish nobles put Iltutmish’s third son Bahram on the throne. Raziya married Altunia and theircombined efforts to capture Delhi failed. They were killed during an attack on their convoy.The fall of Raziya made the clique of Turkish nobles dominant in the court and they started a scramble forsupremacy. Raziya's successor Bahram Shah was weak and incompetent ruler and was over thrown by the noblesafter a brief reign of two years. He was succeeded by Alauddin Masud Shah who also met the same fate ofBahram Shah. In 1246 Nasir-ud-din Mahmud the grandson of Iltutmish ascended the throne. He owed his throneto the Turkish aristocracy and the latter was bound to have tremendous influence in the administration. Heplaces all his powers in the hands of his prime minister Balban. Balban married off his daughter to Sultan and wasmade Naiib-i-Mamlakat with the title of Ulugh Khan. Balban became the defacto ruler of the Sultanate. In 1266Nasiruddin Mahmud died.

Balban

Balban had full control over sovereignty sat on the throne of Delhi in 1266 and he adopted the name ofGhiyasuddin Balban. With his accession the line of rulers of the family of Iltutmish ended. The most seriousproblem, which he faced soon after his succession, was the restoration of law and order in Delhi and other partsof his kingdom. Balban in his attempt to curtail the power of the nobility increased the power and prestige of theSultan. For this purpose he introduced Persian ceremonies and etiquettes in his court and allowed no manner of


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levity there. He was a thorough aristocrat and he never gave office to any one except to well born men. Heimpressed upon the people that kingship was the vice regency of God on earth and in its dignity it was next onlyto prophethood. The king was the shadow of God and was the repository of divine guidance and radiance.Having consolidated his authority Balban addressed himself to the task of maintaining peace and order with hischaracteristic vigour. He realized that a strong army was essentially necessary to cope with the internal troublesand external dangers. Hence he reorganized his army and increased his effiency. Addit ional officers wereappointed with higher emoluments.Balban did not try to extend his empire although he had a powerful army. He instead concentrated onconsolidating the territory already in possession. He suppressed the revolts in the Doab and Oudh and trackeddown recalcitrant elements in the region of Rohilkhand. Mughals invaded again in 1279 and 1285 but wasdefeated and driven away. In 1286 the Mongols reappeared and this time Prince Muhammad was killed. Balbancould never recover from the tragedy and died in 1286.

Khalji Dynasty

Rulers of the Khalji Dynasty Time period

1. Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji 1290-1296 AD2. Alauddin Khalji 1296-1316 AD3. Qutubuddin Mubarak 1316-1320 AD

Jalaluddin Firoz KhiljiJalaluddin Firoz Khilji was the founder of the Khilji dynasty. He came to power after the overthrow of slavedynasty. Their ascendancy is known as Khilji imperialism because with the accession of Jalaluddin on the throneof Delhi, the supremacy of the Turks ended in India. He expanded the boundaries of his empire besides hisachievements include suppression of the revolt of Malik Chhaju with the governor of Oudh. He suppressed thethuggees a band of robbers and send them off peacefully to Bengal. He adopted conciliatory policy towards theMongols. He allowed some of the Mongols to settle in India.It was during the conquest of Bhilsa that Alauddin the nephew of Jalaluddin started realising the dream of beingsultan. In 1292 AD Alauddin led an expedition to Devagiri hearing of its wealth. Devagiri was forced to pay ahuge war indemnity. This helped Alauddin in buying the nobles and pleasing the soldiers who were dissatisfied bythe rule of Jalaluddin. Alauddin than hatched a conspiracy and got Sultan Jalaludin killed and proclaimed himselfas the sultan.

Alauddin Khilji

In 1296 Alauddin became the sultan after Malika Jan the widow of Jalaluddin and her younger son Qadir Khanleft Delhi. He also exterminated the old Balbani and Jalali nobles. The reign of Alauddin Khilji marks the zenith ofthe power of the Delhi Sultanate. In 1297 he set off for conquering Gujarat. He sent an expedition under UlughKhan and Nusrat Khan to Gujarat. On the way Ulugh Khan conquered Jaisalmer. During the plunder of the richport of Cambay Alauddin's commander Nusrat Khan acquired a Hindu turned Muslim slave Kafur who later onrose to become a great military general and the Malik Naib of Alauddin.After the conquest of Gujarat Alauddin sent an expedition under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan toRanthambhore. However the Rajputs defeated them and Nusrat Khan died. Alauddin went to Ranthambhor andannexed it in 1301. The next expedition was sent to Mewar and after the siege of 8 months he captured Chittorin 1303. The administration of Chittor was put in the hands of Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Alauddin. Chittor wasrenamed as Khizrabad after the name of Khizr Khan. In 1305 Alauddin sent Ain-ul-Mulk Multani for the conquestof Malwa which was placed under the governorship of the latter. By the end of 1305 the whole of Northern Indiafell into the hands of Alauddin and he directed his attention to the conquest of Deccan.Between 1307 and 1312 he began the southward expansion of his empire. He invaded Devagiri in 1306-07 AD.The immediate cause for this was unduly long delay in sending the annual tribute. In 1309 the Kakatiya kingdomwas attacked and its ruler Pratap Rudra Deva accepted the suzerainty of Delhi and surrendered vast treasures.The next expedition was against Vir Ballala III the Hoysala ruler in 1311. His capital Dwarsamudra was captured.The whole of Deccan was forced to acknowledge the supremacy of Alauddin. His motives were to secure theimmense wealth and to force the southern states to accept the suzerainty of the Sultanate. He had to face morethan dozen invasions. These invasions started from the end of 1296 and continued upto 1308.The Mongolsthreatened not only Punjab,Multan and Sindh but even Delhi and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This grave crisiscompelled him to take strong measures for the protection of the northwest frontier. The 20 years of his rule cameto an end with his death on 2nd January 1316 AD.

Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji

A young son of the Sultan was placed on the throne and Malik Kafur acted as the regent. Malik Kafur killed othermembers of the Allauddin's family but he was murdered and Mubarak Khan the third son became the regent. Heimprisoned Sahibuddin and ascended the throne as Qutub uddin Mubarak in the year 1316. He tried to win thegood will of the people. He liberalized Alauddin's rigorous administrative policies and repealed economicregulations. All prisoners were released and harsh regulations were cancelled. The lands which were confiscated


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were given back to their legitimate owners. Taxes were lowered. He was under the influence of youth calledHassan who later was called Khusru Khan who conspired to kill him. Thus Khalji dynasty came to an end. Khusrotried to strike a reign of terror to control the nobles. This was resented by the nobles particularly Ghazi Malik whocaptured and beheaded the sultan. He ascended the throne under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah.

Tughlaq Dynasty

Rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty Time period

1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah 1320-1325 AD2. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq 1325-1351 AD3. Firuz Tughlaq 1351-1388 AD4. Later Tughlaq 1388-1414 AD

Ghiyasuddin TughlaqGhiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation of the Tughlaq Dynasty. The word Tughlaq was not the name of anytribe or clan but was the personal name of Ghiyasuddin. He had to face enormous problems as a Sultan. Therewere riots in various parts of the empire and the royal treasury was empty. He pursued a policy of reconciliationwith the nobles and the people who were severely restricted under Alauddin. He liberalized administration incertain respects. He gave up the practice of physical torture in case of economic offences and recovery of debts.He also discarded Alauddin's system of measurement of land for the assessment of land revenue. He attemptedto improve the finances of the state and perused a policy to encourage agriculture. His twin object was toincrease land under cultivation and improve economic condition of the cultivators. He took keen interest in theconstruction of canal for irrigation and formulated famine policy to provide relief to peasants in time of drought.The state demand of revenue was fixed between 1/5th and 1/3rd of the produce. He further instructed that theland revenue should not be enhanced more than 1/11th of the estimated produce.He continued the system of Dagh and Chehra instituted by Alauddin. He built the fortified city of Tughlaqabadand gave a new touch to the architecture of the Sultanate period. In 1321 he dispatched the crown prince JaunaKhan to re-establish Sultan's authority in the south. He annexed Warangal. Madurai and Bengal.Mohammad Bin TughlaqJauna Khan ascended the throne in 1325 AD with the title of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq. He ruled up to 1351. Hewas a profound scholar of Persian, a penetrating critic, a litterateur of repute. He was a great scholar of Persianand Arabic. He faced many revolts and rebellions. The first of these revolts included his attempt to consolidate hisempire by curbing the rebellions of 1327 by his cousin Bahauddin Garsharp in the Deccan and other of KishuluKhan the governor of Multan and Sind in 1328.One of the much-condemned experiments of the Sultan was the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (1327).The transfer was attempted primarily due to two reasons -for its central location and secondly its close proximityto the south which was a newly conquered region. The transfer of capital involved the shifting of the army,officials, servants, tradesmen, court and shift of population. There was a widespread resentment against theSultan who decided to retransfer the capital to Delhi. The order of going back to the old capital caused muchdistress to the people. Another of his novel and daring experiments was the introduction of the token currency ofbronze coins in place of silver tanka in 1329-30.The value of the token coins was deemed to be equal to a silver coin. The main reason for this measure was thescarcity of silver. This measure proved useful in the beginning but later on it caused serious problems. Peoplesoon began to manufacture counterfeits of bronze in large numbers. There was a surfeit of coins in circulation.This naturally led to its depreciation and most people began to prefer copper tankas for payments and silver orgold issues for receipts. The Sultan was compelled to withdraw the token currency. He offered to exchange all thetoken coins for the silver coins resulting in huge losses to the treasury. He planned an expedition for theconquest of Khurasan and Iraq.He raised an army of 3,70,000 soldiers and gave it a whole year's salary in advance. But the army did not leave forthe expedition and was disbanded. The scheme was abandoned when the Sultan learnt that the conditions inIraq had improved and was not conducive to an expedition. Towards the end of his reign the sultan increasedthe land revenue in the doab. He decided to enhance the land tax in the doab because of richness of its soil.Doab was facing total famine which was followed by plague. The Sultan raised the tax from 5 to 10%. Thereforethe peasants instead of paying the taxes abandoned their lands and adopted highway robbery. The tax collectorscontinued to collect taxes by oppression. It resulted in extensive revolts. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq died in 1351.The whole of south India became independent during his lifetime and three major independent states- theempire of Vijaynagar, the Brahmani kingdom and the Sultanate of Madura were founded in the territories of thesultanate of the south.

Quantitative Aptitude Tips & Tricks27 July 2012 11:33

Finding number of FactorsTo find the number of factors of a given number, express the number as a product of powers of prime numbers.

In this case, 48 can be written as 16 * 3 = (24 * 3)


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Now, increment the power of each of the prime numbers by 1 and multiply the result.In this case it will be (4 + 1)*(1 + 1) = 5 * 2 = 10 (the power of 2 is 4 and the power of 3 is 1)Therefore, there will 10 factors including 1 and 48. Excluding, these two numbers, you will have 10 – 2 = 8 factors.

Sum of n natural numbers

-> The sum of first n natural numbers = n (n+1)/2

-> The sum of squares of first n natural numbers is n (n+1)(2n+1)/6

-> The sum of first n even numbers= n (n+1)

-> The sum of first n odd numbers= n^2Finding Squares of numbersTo find the squares of numbers near numbers of which squares are knownTo find 41^2 , Add 40+41 to 1600 =1681To find 59^2 , Subtract 60^2-(60+59) =3481Finding number of Positive RootsIf an equation (i:e f(x)=0 ) contains all positive co-efficient of any powers of x , it has no positive roots then.Eg: x^4+3x^2+2x+6=0 has no positive roots .Finding number of Imaginary RootsFor an equation f(x)=0 , the maximum number of positive roots it can have is the number of sign changes in f(x) ;and the maximum number of negative roots it can have is the number of sign changes in f(-x) .Hence the remaining are the minimum number of imaginary roots of the equation(Since we also know that theindex of the maximum power of x is the number of roots of an equation.)Reciprocal RootsThe equation whose roots are the reciprocal of the roots of the equation ax^2+bx+c is cx^2+bx+aRootsRoots of x^2+x+1=0 are 1,w,w^2 where 1+w+w^2=0 and w^3=1Finding Sum of the rootsFor a cubic equation ax^3+bx^2+cx+d=o sum of the roots = - b/a sum of theproduct of the roots taken two at a time = c/a product of the roots = -d/aFor a biquadratic equation ax^4+bx^3+cx^2+dx+e = 0 sum of the roots = - b/a sum of the product of the rootstaken three at a time = c/a sum of the product of the roots taken two at a time = -d/a product of the roots =e/aMaximum/Minimum-> If for two numbers x+y=k(=constant), then their PRODUCT is MAXIMUM if x=y(=k/2). The maximum productis then (k^2)/4-> If for two numbers x*y=k(=constant), then their SUM is MINIMUM if x=y(=root(k)). The minimum sum is then2*root(k) .

Inequalties

-> x + y >= x+y ( stands for absolute value or modulus ) (Useful in solving some inequations)-> a+b=a+b if a*b>=0 else a+b >= a+b-> 2<= (1+1/n)^n <=3 -> (1+x)^n ~ (1+nx) if x<<<1> When you multiply each side of the inequality by -1, youhave to reverse the direction of the inequality.

Product Vs HCF-LCM

Product of any two numbers = Product of their HCF and LCM . Hence product of two numbers = LCM of thenumbers if they are prime to each other

AM GM HM

For any 2 numbers a>b a>AM>GM>HM>b (where AM, GM ,HM stand for arithmetic, geometric , harmonic


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menasa respectively) (GM)^2 = AM * HM

Sum of Exterior AnglesFor any regular polygon , the sum of the exterior angles is equal to 360 degrees hence measure of any externalangle is equal to 360/n. ( where n is the number of sides)For any regular polygon , the sum of interior angles =(n-2)180 degreesSo measure of one angle inSquare-----=90Pentagon--=108Hexagon---=120Heptagon--=128.5Octagon---=135Nonagon--=140Decagon--=144Problems on clocksProblems on clocks can be tackled as assuming two runners going round a circle , one 12 times as fast as theother . That is , the minute hand describes 6 degrees /minute the hour hand describes 1/2 degrees /minute .Thus the minute hand describes 5(1/2) degrees more than the hour hand per minute .The hour and the minute hand meet each other after every 65(5/11) minutes after being together at midnight.(This can be derived from the above) .Co-ordinatesGiven the coordinates (a,b) (c,d) (e,f) (g,h) of a parallelogram , the coordinates of the meeting point of thediagonals can be found out by solving for [(a+e)/2,(b+f)/2] =[ (c+g)/2 , (d+h)/2]RatioIf a1/b1 = a2/b2 = a3/b3 = .............. , then each ratio is equal to (k1*a1+ k2*a2+k3*a3+..............) / (k1*b1+k2*b2+k3*b3+..............) , which is also equal to (a1+a2+a3+............./b1+b2+b3+..........)Finding multiplesx^n -a^n = (x-a)(x^(n-1) + x^(n-2) + .......+ a^(n-1) ) ......Very useful for finding multiples .For example (17-14=3will be a multiple of 17^3 - 14^3)Exponentse^x = 1 + (x)/1! + (x^2)/2! + (x^3)/3! + ........to infinity 2 <>GP-> In a GP the product of any two terms equidistant from a term is always constant .-> The sum of an infinite GP = a/(1-r) , where a and r are resp. the first term and common ratio of the GP .MixturesIf Q be the volume of a vessel q qty of a mixture of water and wine be removed each t ime from a mixture n bethe number of times this operation be done and A be the final qty of wine in the mixture then ,A/Q = (1-q/Q)^n

Some Pythagorean triplets:

3,4,5----------(3^2=4+5)5,12,13--------(5^2=12+13)7,24,25--------(7^2=24+25)8,15,17--------(8^2 / 2 = 15+17 )9,40,41--------(9^2=40+41)11,60,61-------(11^2=60+61)12,35,37-------(12^2 / 2 = 35+37)16,63,65-------(16^2 /2 = 63+65)20,21,29-------(EXCEPTION)

Appolonius theorem

Appolonius theorem could be applied to the 4 triangles formed in a parallelogram.

Function

Any function of the type y=f(x)=(ax-b)/(bx-a) is always of the form x=f(y) .Finding SquaresTo find the squares of numbers from 50 to 59For 5X^2 , use the formulae(5X)^2 = 5^2 +X / X^2Eg ; (55^2) = 25+5 /25 =3025(56)^2 = 25+6/36 =3136(59)^2 = 25+9/81 =3481


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Successive DiscountsFormula for successive discountsa+b+(ab/100)This is used for succesive discounts types of sums.like 1999 population increses by 10% and then in 2000 by 5% sothe population in 2000 now is 10+5+(50/100)=+15.5% more that was in 1999 and if there is a decrease then itwill be preceeded by a -ve sign and likewise.Rules of Logarithms:-> loga(M)=y if and only if M=ay-> loga(MN)=loga(M)+loga(N)-> loga(M/N)=loga(M)-loga(N)-> loga(Mp)=p*loga(M)-> loga(1)=0-> loga(ap)=p-> log(1+x) = x - (x^2)/2 + (x^3)/3 - (x^4)/4 .........to infinity [ Note the alternating sign . .Also note that theogarithm is with respect to base e ]

DNA and RNA21 July 2012 19:45

DNA stands for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid while RNA stands for Ribose Nucleic Acid. Compounds of Carbon,Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Made up of Nucleotide Monomers (Polynucleotides). A nucleotideconsists of a Nitrogenous base, a Pentose Sugar & Phosphate Group.

Nucleoside: Nitrogeous Base + Sugar.

5 Nitrogenous Bases are there :

Cytosine1.Uracil2.Thymine3.Adenine4.Guanine5.

Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine are the Pyrimidine Derivatives with a single ring structure.Adenine and Guanine are the Purine Derivatives with a double ring structure.The pentose sugars are of 2 types:

DeoxyriboseRibose

Thus, the Nitrogenous bases, combining with Pentose Sugars and a Phosphate Group, form 8 type of NucleotideMolecules :

Cytosine + Ribose Sugar + PhosphateCytosine + Deoxyribose Sugar + PhosphateUracil + Ribose Sugar + PhosphateThymine + Deoxyribose Sugar + PhosphateAdenine + Ribose Sugar + PhosphateAdenine + Deoxyribose Sugar + PhosphateGuanine + Ribose Sugar + PhosphateGuanine + Deoxyribose Sugar + Phosphate

DNA MoleculeLong and highly complex, spirally twisted, right-handed double helix, Ladder like structure formed by 2polynucleotides strands. Base thymine is present, but never uracil. Wilkins, Watson and Crick (1953) received


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Noble Prize for DNA Structure. Adenine links with Thymine by two hydrogen bonds. Guanine with cytosine bythree hydrogen bonds. A single DNA molecule has millions of pairs of nucleotide monomers. DNA contains “BluePrint” of life. With RNA’s help, it directs the synthesis of all structural and functional proteins of Protoplasm.

Difference Table of DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

It usually occurs inside nucleus and some cell organelles. Very little RNA occurs inside nucleus. Most of it isfound in the cytoplasm.

DNA is the genetic material. RNA is not the genetic material except in certainviruses. e.g., TNIV, Reovirus.

It is double stranded with the exception of some viruses. RNA is single stranded with the exception of someviruses (e.g., double stranded in Reovirus).

DNA shows regular helical coiling. There is no regular coiling except in parts of RNA.

DNA forms chromosomes of similar structures. rRNA forms ribosomes.

DNA contains several million nucleotides. Depending upon the type, RNA contains 10-12000nucleotides.

DNA is of only two types, nuclear and extra nuclear. There are at least three types of RNA-rRNA, mRNAand tRNA

It contains deoxyribose sugar. It contains ribose sugar.

Nitrogen base thymine occurs in DNA along with threeother-adenine, cytosine and guanine.

Thymine is replaced by uracil in RNA. The otherthree are adenine, cytosine and guanine.

Renaturation after melting is slow. It is quite fast.

Hydrogen bonds tire formed between complementarynitrogen bases of the opposite strands of DNA (A : T, C : G)

Base pairing through hydrogen bonds occurs onlyin the coiled parts.

DNA RNA

It replicates to form new DNA molecules. It cannot replicate itself except in RNA-RNAviruses.

DNA transcribes genetic information to RNA. RNA translates the transcribed message forforming polypeptides.

DNA controls heredity, evolution, metabolism, structureand differentiation. RNA controls only protein synthesis.

Its quantity is fixed for cell. The quantity of RNA of a cell is variable.

DNA controls metabolism and genetics including variations. It only controls metabolism under instructionsfrom DNA.

Purine and pyrimidine bases are in equal number. There is no proportionality between number ofpurine and pyrimidine bases.

It can be hydrolyzed by enzyme DNA-ase. RNA is hydrolyzed by RNA-ase.

50 Interesting Science Facts20 July 2012 02:34

The speed of light is generally rounded down to 186,000 miles per second. In exact terms it is 299,792,458m/s (equal to 186,287.49 miles per second).

1.

It takes 8 minutes 17 seconds for light to travel from the Sun’s surface to the Earth .2.10 percent of all human beings ever born are alive at this very moment.3.The Earth spins at 1,000 mph but it travels through space at an incredible 67,000 mph.4.Every year, over one million earthquakes shake the Earth.5.When Krakatoa erupted in 1883, its force was so great it could be heard 4,800 kilometers away inAustralia.

6.

Every second around 100 lightning bolts strike the Earth.7.Every year lightning kills 1000 people.8.In October 1999 an Iceberg the size of London broke free from the Antarctic ice shelf .9.If you could drive your car straight up you would arrive in space in just over an hour.10.Human tapeworms can grow up to 22.9m.11.The Earth is 4.56 billion years old…the same age as the Moon and the Sun.12.The dinosaurs became extinct before the Rockies or the Alps were formed.13.Female black widow spiders eat their males after mating.14.When a flea jumps, the rate of acceleration is 20 times that of the space shuttle during launch.15.


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If our Sun were just inch in diameter, the nearest star would be 445 miles away.16.Astronauts cannot belch – there is no gravity to separate liquid from gas in their stomachs.17.The air at the summit of Mount Everest, 29,029 feet is only a third as thick as the air at sea level.18.One million, million, million, million, millionth of a second after the Big Bang the Universe was the size ofpea.

19.

DNA was first discovered in 1869 by Swiss Friedrich Mieschler.20.The molecular structure of DNA was first determined by Watson and Crick in 1953.21.The first synthetic human chromosome was constructed by US scientists in 1997.22.The thermometer was invented in 1607 by Galileo.23.Alfred Nobel invented dynamite in 1866.24.Wilhelm Rontgen won the first Nobel Prize for physics for discovering X-rays in 1895.25.The tallest tree ever was an Australian eucalyptus – In 1872 it was measured at 435 feet tall.26.Christian Barnard performed the first heart transplant in 1967 – the patient lived for 18 days.27.An electric eel can produce a shock of up to 650 volts.28.‘Wireless’ communications took a giant leap forward in 1962 with the launch of Telstar, the first satellitecapable of relaying telephone and satellite TV signals.

29.

The Ebola virus kills 4 out of every 5 humans it infects.30.In 5 billion years the Sun will run out of fuel and turn into a Red Giant.31.Giraffes often sleep for only 20 minutes in any 24 hours. They may sleep up to 2 hours (in spurts – not allat once), but this is rare. They never lie down.

32.

There are 60,000 miles of blood vessels in the human body.33.An individual blood cell takes about 60 seconds to make a complete circuit of the body.34.On the day that Alexander Graham Bell was buried the entire US telephone system was shut down for 1minute in tribute.

35.

The low frequency call of the humpback whale is the loudest noise made by a living creature.36.A quarter of the world’s plants are threatened with extinction by the year 2010.37.Each person sheds 40lbs of skin in his or her lifetime.38.At 15 inches the eyes of giant squids are the largest on the planet.39.The Universe contains over 100 billion galaxies.40.Wounds infested with maggots heal quickly and without spread of gangrene or other infection.41.More germs are transferred shaking hands than kissing.42.The fastest speed a falling raindrop can hit you is 18mph.43.It would take over an hour for a heavy object to sink 6.7 miles down to the deepest part of the ocean.44.Around a million, billion neutrinos from the Sun will pass through your body while you read thissentence.

45.

The deepest part of any ocean in the world is the Mariana trench in the Pacific with a depth of 35,797feet.

46.

Every hour the Universe expands by a billion miles in all directions.47.Somewhere in the flicker of a badly tuned TV set is the background radiation from the Big Bang.48.Even traveling at the speed of light it would take 2 million years to reach the nearest large galaxy,Andromeda.

49.

A thimbleful of a neutron star would weigh over 100 million tons.50.

Boson, Higgs Boson and LHC09 July 2012 14:47

What is Boson?The universe is made up of two classes of particles: bosons and fermions. Bosons obey Bose-Einstein statistics – acollection of them can condense together into a state where the particles are indistinguishable. This theory wasdeveloped by SN Bose and expanded by Einstein. The special state of matter, called Bose-Einstein condensate,was created in 1995. All bosons can condense into the state at very low temperatures.

What is Higgs Boson?There are several kinds of bosons, some elementary and other composite. A special kind of boson – called thegauge bosons – mediates or carries the forces of nature. The photons (particles of light) mediate theelectromagnetic force, the W and Z bosons mediate the weak nuclear force, and the gluons carry the strongnuclear force. The hypothetical gravitation might mediate the gravitational forces but we know nothing about it.


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W and Z bosons, of which are all made of, are thought to get their masses through another mediator, the HiggsBoson. To find it, physicists need to observe it at its creation as it immediately decays into other particles.

How does LHC find it?The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) whirls around protons through a hollow tube and then meets them head on.The debris that flies from these collisions would include the Higgs Boson for a fraction of seconds. Two particledetectors look for attributes of these flying particles.The data that come out of these detectors - 40 m pictures a second - are beyond what any network ofcomputers can process.A processor farm of 50,000 computing cores selects 300 pictures a second, enough data every second to fill threemillion DVDs. 10,000 computers in 34 countries analyse these data, and 10,000 physicists look at the results.

What did CERN announce?

That they have found a particle with a mass of 125 billion electron volts that exhibits the characteristics of theHiggs Boson. Which means that it is the kind of particle that, according to the Standard Model of physics, wouldgive masses to other particles.They do not yet know, or are not absolutely sure, that it is the Higgs Boson, officially. Unofficially, all physicistsknow that they have found the Higgs Boson.

What Work is Still Left to be Done?Physicists would study this particle intensely for several years. The LHC will shut down next year for one year.When it comes back, it will crank up its energies to twice the present levels. Protons will collide more intensely,computers will crunch more data, and physicists might observe more particles.

Credit: ET


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