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Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 2014 Report No. 14-100 Humorous Complaining A. Peter McGraw, Caleb Warren, and Christina Kan
Report Summary
Although nearly all marketing research on humor is related to advertising, the authors’ inquiry highlights the importance of humor in a new contextconsumer complaints. Understanding the effects of complaining is increasingly important as new media empowers consumers with greater reach. Peter McGraw, Caleb Warren, and Christina Kan bring together two previously unconnected topics, humor and complaining, to introduce the previously undocumented, yet not uncommon, phenomenon of humorous complaining. Study 1 shows that humorous online reviews are more likely to express dissatisfaction than praise and that a substantial portion of negative reviews are perceived to be funny. The inquiry also examines people’s differing reactions to humorous complaints and serious complaints. Studies 2 – 5 reveal that humorous complaining is widely advantageous for the complaining consumer by increasing a complaint’s reach while also overcoming negative attributions toward the complainer. Specifically, humor increases: (1) admiration for the complainer, (2) enjoyment of the complaint, (3) memory for the complaint, and (4) likelihood of sharing the complaint. However, because humor is typically associated with playful, non-threatening situations, it can blunt motivation to solve a problem. Studies 4 and 5 reveal that humorous complaining is a less effective way to obtain redress in customer service requests. People in customer service roles typically place lower priority on responding to humorous complains than serious complaints despite their potential to reach a larger audience. Indeed, when Dave Carroll famously took United Airlines to task with his humorous YouTube video, “United Breaks Guitars,” his complaint attracted millions of views, thousands of tweets, and international media coverage. Facing a public relations disaster, United Airlines apologized to Carroll and offered him compensation in excess of his original claim. By understanding the threat of humorous complaints, managers may be able to identify the indirect threat and respond quickly to mitigate some of a humorous complaint’s potential damage.
A. Peter McGraw is Associate Professor of Marketing, University of Colorado Boulder, Leeds School of Business. Caleb Warren is Assistant Professor of Marketing, Texas A&M University, Mays Business School. Christina Kan is a doctoral student at the University of Colorado Boulder, Leeds School of Business. Acknowledgments The authors thank McKenzie Binder for editorial assistance, Jake Westfall for analytical assistance, Christina Anthony for comments, the Marketing Science Institute for financial support, and the Humor Research Lab (HuRL) and Max Justicz for research assistance.
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 1
“I should have flown with someone else or gone by car… ‘cause United breaks guitars.”
When United Airlines refused to compensate Dave Carroll for his damaged Taylor guitar,
the musician did what many people are doing – he turned to the Internet to air his complaint. But
rather than taking a strictly negative tone, his YouTube video, “United Breaks Guitars,”
humorously parodied his negative experience with the company (Carroll 2009). The complaint
attracted millions of views, thousands of tweets, and international media coverage. Facing a
public relations disaster, United Airlines apologized to Carroll and offered him compensation in
excess of his original claim (Ayres 2009; Deighton and Kornfeld 2010).
Although complaints express dissatisfaction, a deeper look reveals that they can also be
humorous. We introduce the concept of humorous complaining and explore how it differs from
its non-humorous (i.e., serious) counterpart. Drawing on interrelated streams of research, we
suggest that humor and complaints are often elicited by the same situations. Further, we examine
the effects of being humorous on the people exposed to the complaint and the implications for
the complainer. When complaints are humorous, our studies show that other consumers are more
likely to: 1) admire the complainer, 2) enjoy the complaint, 3) remember the complaint, and 4)
share the complaint. Thus, humor helps the complaining consumer reach others in a manner
perceived as witty instead of whiney. However, because humor is typically associated with fun
settings and playful interactions, complaining humorously is less beneficial for consumers who
want to motivate a party to right a wrong. Our studies examine how people in a customer service
role place a lower priority on responding to humorous complaints than serious complaints.
However, consistent with Dave Carroll’s story, we discuss when humorous complaining may
indirectly help obtain redress by attracting a large audience.
Theoretical Background
Complaining
Whether due to bad weather, a rude salesperson, or an unmet brand promise, complaining
is a common, important part of consumer experiences and social interactions (Alicke et al. 1992;
Bearden and Teel 1983; Oliver 1980, 1987). Consistent with previous literature, we define a
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complaint as a behavioral expression of dissatisfaction (Fornell and Westbrook 1979; Kowalski
1996; Landon 1980). People often complain to influence the perception and behavior of others.
In consumption domains, people can garner sympathy, warn others, or exact revenge on a
company by complaining to other consumers through word-of-mouth or social media (Day and
Landon 1977; Richins 1983; Singh 1988; Ward and Ostrom 2006). Consumers can also hold
others accountable for their actions or obtain redress by complaining directly to the responsible
party or to a third party, such as the Better Business Bureau (Alberts 1988; Kowalski 1996). The
potential benefits of complaining help explain why people sometimes complain even when they
are satisfied (Kowalski 1996).
Complaining, however, is not always beneficial. People who complain frequently or
about trivial matters are seen as grumpy and argumentative (Kaiser and Miller 2001; Kowalski
1996; Sperduto, Calhoun, and Ciminero 1978). Further, complaining may lead to conflict (when
people disagree with the complainer) and social exclusion (for people who complain frequently
or pointlessly; Forest and Wood 2012; Kowalski 1996). The potential costs of complaining help
explain why people sometimes do not complain even when they are dissatisfied (Bearden and
Oliver 1985; Day 1984; Day and Landon 1977; Richins 1983).
Humor
Humor, like complaining, is a common, important part of consumer experiences and
social interactions (Gulas and Weinberger 2006; Martin 2007; Provine 2001). Consistent with
prior literature, we define humor as a psychological response characterized by the positive
emotion of amusement, the appraisal that something is funny, and the tendency to laugh (Gervais
and Wilson 2005; Martin 2007; McGraw and Warren 2010). In this way, we describe humor
operationally as an outcome rather than as an eliciting stimulus (i.e., a humor attempt; Warren
and McGraw 2013a).
Although humor is a positive experience, the same negative, disappointing situations that
trigger complaints also seem to be ripe sources of humor (McGraw and Warren 2010; Warren
and McGraw 2013b). Mark Twain observed, “The secret source of humor is not joy, it’s
sorrow.” Greek philosophers believed that humor was associated with misfortune and vice
(Morreall 1997; Plato 1975; Provine 2001). Historical causes of laughter include foolish
behavior, mental illness, deformity, torture, and executions (Provine 2001), and insult, sarcasm,
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and pain still elicit humor today (Keltner et al. 1998; Zillman 1983). Similarly, many humor
theories suggest that humor arises, at least in part, from a negative antecedent (Warren and
Mitra, and Webster 1998). We suspect that complaining humorously may be an especially
helpful means to cope by 1) creating positive affect, which helps buffer against pain, stress, and
adversity (Fredrickson 1998; Martin 2002), 2) facilitating reappraisals of the situation into
something less negative (McGraw and Warren 2010; McGraw et al. 2012; Samson and Gross
2012), and 3) increasing social support by entertaining people and not pushing them away
(Cohen and Wilson 1985; see Martin 2002).
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Given the potential benefits of complaining humorously, why don’t people don’t do it
more often? One reason is that being funny is difficult. Comedians take years to hone their craft.
Sitcoms are regularly cancelled. Hit comedy films often bomb outside their narrow demographic.
Indeed, people differ vastly in what they find humorous, which makes it difficult to be a
universally funny person (Ruch 1998). Another reason consumers may fail to be humorous is
they are so highly dissatisfied that they cannot see the problem as okay or they don’t think that
humor is appropriate for the situation. An opportunity for future research would be to identify
ways to help consumers better use humor in their complaints and other social interactions.
Another opportunity for future research would be to explore how humorous complaints
influence consumers’ attitudes towards the brand or firm targeted in the complaint. One
possibility is that because humor makes the complaint seem playful and less serious, humorous
complaints may have a less harmful influence on brand attitude than serious complaints.
However, the influence of humor on attitude and persuasion is complicated; studies in other
domains have reported inconsistent effects and many moderating factors (Gulas and Weinberger
2006; Martin 2007; Sternthal and Craig 1973; Warren and McGraw 2013b). Therefore, it seems
unlikely that humor would consistently benefit or damage consumers’ impression of a brand.
Recent research on the effects of humorous marketing on brand attitude suggests that the effect
of a humorous complaint (relative to a serious complaint) on brand attitude may depend on the
specific way that the complaint evokes humor and on whether the humorous complaint seems
more or less negative that the serious complaint (Warren and McGraw 2013b).
Conclusion
United breaks guitars. Comcast employees sleep on the job. The Double Tree Hotel
won’t hold your reservation. In response, disgruntled consumers are cutting through a cluttered
marketplace by humorously expressing their dissatisfaction in a way that entertains others. Our
inquiry serves as an initial step to viewing humorous complaints as a tool that empowers
consumers to call unresponsive brands to the attention of other consumers and the media.
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Appendix 1:
Empirical analysis of humorous responses to the Telegraph’s top 5 complaint letters
We asked participants whether they found the ‘Top 5 best complaint letters’ letters
published by the Telegraph to be humorous.
Design and Procedure. One-hundred and twenty-one participants from Amazon’s
Mechanical Turk (mTurk) participated. Respondents were randomly assigned to read one of
three letters and judged the degree they found the letter to be humorous (Is this letter: Not funny,
Somewhat funny, Very funny) and the degree it made them laugh (Did this letter make you
laugh? Not at all, A little, A lot).
Materials. The Telegraph’s Top 5 Best Complaint Letters consisted of 1) a consumer
complaint letter directed to Chrysler, 2) a consumer complaint letter directed to Continental
Airlines, 3) a consumer complaint letter directed to NTL Cable, 4) a letter written by an Inland
Revenue customer service agent to a customer and 5) a letter written by a citizen to the
government. Because our inquiry focuses on complaint letters written by consumers, we limited
our test to the first three letters.
Table 1.
Is this letter:
Letter Not funny
Somewhat
funny
Very
funny
Chrysler 7% 68% 24%
Continental Airlines 21% 51% 28%
NTL 22% 43% 35%
Grand Total 17% 55% 29%
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Table 2.
Did this letter make you laugh?
Letter Not at all A little A lot
Chrysler 22% 51% 27%
Continental Airlines 23% 56% 21%
NTL 30% 43% 27%
Grand Total 25% 50% 25%
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Appendix 2:
Stimuli for the Four Conditions Presented in study 3.
Humorous condition – Feminine Product
Dear Mr. Thatcher,
I have been a loyal user of your ‘Always’ maxi pads for over 20 years and I appreciate many of
their features. Why, without the Leak Guard Core or Dri-Weave absorbency, I’d probably never
go horseback riding or salsa dancing, and I’d certainly steer clear of running up and down the
beach in tight, white shorts.
But my favorite feature has to be your revolutionary Flexi-Wings. Kudos on being the only
company smart enough to realize how crucial it is that maxi pads be aerodynamic. I can’t tell you
how safe and secure I feel each month knowing there’s a little F-16 in my pants.
Have you ever had a menstrual period, Mr. Thatcher? Ever suffered from ‘the curse’? I’m
guessing you haven’t. Well, my time of the month is starting right now. As I type, I can already
feel hormonal forces violently surging through my body.
Just a few minutes from now, my body will adjust and I’ll be transformed into what my husband
likes to call ‘an inbred hillbilly with knife skills.’ Isn’t the human body amazing?
As Brand Manager in the Feminine-Hygiene Division, you’ve no doubt seen quite a bit of
research on what exactly happens during your customers monthly visits from ‘Aunt Flo’.
Therefore, you must know about the bloating, puffiness, and cramping we endure, and about our
intense mood swings, crying, jags, and out-of-control behavior. You surely realize it’s a tough
time for most women. In fact, only last week, my friend Jennifer fought the violent urge to shove
her boyfriend’s testicles into a George Foreman Grill just because he told her he thought Grey’s
Anatomy was written by drunken chimps. Crazy!
The point is, sir, you of all people must realize that America is just crawling with homicidal
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 29
maniacs in Capri pants… Which brings me to the reason for my letter.
Last month, while in the throes of cramping so painful I wanted to reach inside my body and
yank out my uterus, I opened an Always maxi-pad, and there, printed on the adhesive backing,
were these words: ‘Have a Happy Period.’
Are you ------ kidding me? What I mean is, does any part of your tiny middle-manager brain
really think happiness - actual smiling, laughing happiness, is possible during a menstrual
period? Did anything mentioned above sound the least bit pleasurable? Well, did it, James?
FYI, unless you’re some kind of sick S&M freak girl, there will never be anything ‘happy’ about
a day in which you have to jack yourself up on Motrin and Kahlua and lock yourself in your
house just so you don’t march down to the local Walgreen’s armed with a hunting rifle and a
sketchy plan to end your life in a blaze of glory.
For the love of God, pull your head out, man! If you just have to slap a moronic message on a
maxi pad, wouldn’t it make more sense to say something that’s actually pertinent, like ‘Put down
the Hammer’ or ‘Vehicular Manslaughter is Wrong’, or are you just picking on us?
Sir, please inform your Accounting Department that, effective immediately, there will be an $8
drop in monthly profits, for I have chosen to take my maxi-pad business elsewhere. And though I
will certainly miss your Flex-Wings, I will not for one minute miss your brand of condescending
bull sh*t.
And that’s a promise I will keep. Always!
Best,
Humorous condition – Bank
To whom it may concern,
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 30
I am writing to thank you for bouncing my check with which I endeavored to pay my plumber
last month. By my calculations, three nanoseconds must have elapsed between his depositing the
check and the arrival in my account of the funds needed to honor it. I refer, of course, to the
automatic monthly transfer of funds from my modest savings account, an arrangement which, I
admit, has been in place for only thirty-one years. You are to be commended for seizing that
brief window of opportunity, and also for debiting my account $30 by way of penalty for the
inconvenience caused to your bank.
My thankfulness springs from the manner in which this incident has caused me to rethink my
errant financial ways. I noticed that whereas I personally attend to your telephone calls and
letters, when I try to contact you, I am confronted by the impersonal, overcharging, pre-recorded,
faceless entity which your bank has recently become. From now on, I, like you, choose only to
deal with a flesh-and-blood person. My mortgage and loan repayments will therefore and
hereafter no longer be automatic, but will arrive at your bank, by check, addressed personally
and confidentially to an employee at your bank whom you must nominate. Be aware that it is an
offense under the Postal Act for any other person to open such an envelope.
Please find attached an Application Contact Status form which I require your chosen employee
to complete. I am sorry it runs to eight pages, but in order that I know as much about him or her
as your bank knows about me, there is no alternative. Please note that all copies of his or her
medical history must be countersigned by a Notary Public, and the mandatory details of his/her
financial situation (income, debts, assets and liabilities) must be accompanied by documented
proof. In due course, I will issue your employee with a PIN number which he/she must quote in
dealings with me. I regret that it cannot be shorter than 28 digits but, again, I have modeled it on
the number of button presses required of me to access my account balance on your phone bank
service. As they say, imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.
Please allow me to level the playing field even further. When you call me, you will now have a
menu of options on my new voice mail system to choose from.
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Please press the buttons as follows:
1. To make an appointment to see me.
2. To query a missing payment.
3. To transfer the call to my living room in case I am there.
4. To transfer the call to my bedroom in case I am sleeping.
5. To transfer the call to my toilet in case I am attending to nature.
6. To transfer the call to my mobile phone if I am not at home.
7. To leave a message on my computer, a password to access my computer is required. Password
will be communicated to you at a later date to the Authorized Contact.
8. To return to the main menu and to listen to options 1 through 7.
9. To make a general complaint or inquiry. The contact will then be put on hold, pending the
attention of my automated answering service. While this may, on occasion, involve a lengthy
wait, uplifting music will play for the duration of the call.
Regrettably, but again following your example, I must also levy an establishment fee of $50 to
cover the setting up of this new arrangement. Please credit my account after each occasion.
May I wish you a happy, if ever so slightly less prosperous, New Year.
Your Humble Client,
Serious condition – Feminine product
Dear Mr. Thatcher,
I have been a loyal user of your ‘Always’ maxi pads for over 20 years and I appreciate many of
their features. Because of the Leak Guard Core and Dri-Weave absorbency, I actually feel
comfortable going dancing and jogging during my period, and when I work out at my
neighborhood recreation center or do yoga, I don’t need to worry about leakage.
Personally, I find the most valuable feature of your maxi pads to be the Flexi-Wings. It is great
that your company realizes just how crucial it is that maxi pads be well-designed. I certainly
appreciate the security of knowing that I have protection against leaks.
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 32
However, recent behavior on the part of your company has indicated a lack of understanding
regarding what it is like to have a period. From first hand experience, I can explain what this is
like. Every time I have my period, my body aches, cramps and is generally in pain. In addition
to these physical discomforts, I experience severe mood swings, and am often bad-tempered and
unhappy.
As Brand Manager in the Feminine-Hygiene Division, you’ve no doubt seen quite a bit of
research on what exactly happens during your customers’ monthly menstrual cycle. I would
expect that the bloating, puffiness, cramping and general discomfort that women experience
during menstruation would be well understood. Menstruation is a challenging time for almost all
women. For example, I have a female friend who, when face with the aching and cramping that
accompanies her monthly cycle, becomes irritable and even angry about concerns that would
otherwise be considered trivial.
The point I am trying to make here is that your company must have the statistics on the women
who purchase your product in this country. I therefore found it frustrating when the following
incident occurred.
Last month, while I was experiencing extremely painful cramping, I opened an Always maxi-
pad, and printed on the adhesive backing were the words: ‘Have a Happy Period.’
I have to sincerely admit that this struck me as condescending. Menstruating is at the very least
uncomfortable and unpleasant, and as the head of your division, due diligence and market
research must have made that apparent. Therefore, I feel that to wish one a ‘happy period’
demonstrates a profound insensitivity for the hassles that women endure and that I have
described above.
There is nothing pleasurable or happy about the pain that women experience during their time of
the month and to suggest otherwise belittles our suffering. When it is that time of the month for
me, the aches and pains I go through are so severe that I am unable to even leave the
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 33
house. Instead, I am bedridden with cramps and must rely on Motrin and other drugs to ease the
pain. On the occasions in which I am forced to leave the house, I am short-tempered, grouchy
and likely a source of irritation for all of those around me.
In short, I feel that your decision to place this message on a maxi pad was poorly made. The
circumstances surrounding a women’s period are never pleasurable and it feels like your
company is mocking both myself and all women who experience this.
I have spoken with all of my female friends about this issue, and we have decided to boycott the
Always brand of maxi pads. I hope others choose to do so as well. And though I will certainly
miss your Flex-Wings, I will not put up with this form of condescension.
Thank you for your time and attention.
Best,
Serious condition - Bank
To whom it may concern,
I am writing to you in regards to your company bouncing my check with which I endeavored to
pay my plumber last month. Only a couple of minutes could have possibly elapsed between his
depositing the check and the arrival in my account of the funds needed to honor it. I’m referring
to the automatic monthly transfer of funds from my savings account, an arrangement which has
been in place for thirty-one years. You should be ashamed for using that brief window of
opportunity, and also for debiting my account $30 by way of penalty for not having the
appropriate funds in place a couple minutes too late.
My dissatisfaction springs from the manner in which this incident has occurred and has caused
me to rethink my financial ways. I noticed that whereas I personally attend to your telephone
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 34
calls and letters, when I try to contact you, I am confronted by the impersonal, overcharging, pre-
recorded, faceless entity which your bank has recently become. I remember when I was able to
interact with a flesh-and-blood person whenever I needed help from your customer service
representatives, tellers, or personal bankers. If I had queries regarding my mortgage and loan
repayments, I was able to call an actual person without having to navigate through endless phone
menus and being put on hold for long amounts of time. Additionally, I dislike the fact that I was
issued a customer PIN number that I have to quote when calling your bank. It is so long that I
cannot remember it and have to keep it written down next to the phone at home. However, if I’m
out and about and don’t have that slip of paper with me, I’m not able to access my own account
if I need to! I feel as though I no longer know my own bank.
Please allow me to give you a summary of what a customer of yours must go through simply to
talk to a customer service employee, to transfer money, or to simply do anything involving their
own bank account. When I call your bank, I have a menu of options on the voice mail system to
choose from. The options are as follows:
1. To make an appointment to see a personal banker.
2 .To query a missing payment.
3. To transfer the call to a teller.
4. To transfer the call to customer service.
5. To transfer the call to a personal banker.
6. To hear a recorded message of the banks location and hours of operation.
7. To leave a message on the branch’s voicemail, in which I have to cite my long costumer PIN
number in order to have my call returned.
8. To return to the main menu and to listen to options 1 through 7.
9. To make a general complaint or inquiry. I have chosen this option many times and find that I
am only put on hold, pending the attention of the automated answering service that finally picks
up after nearly 40 minutes. Furthermore, the music played when being put on hold is extremely
distasteful and should be changed.
The most dissatisfying part of this whole ordeal is that I am also charged an ‘establishment fee’
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 35
to, presumably, cover the costs of this phone service and other expenses. I find this to be unfair
and not good business practice.
I would very much appreciate if you would rectify these problems.
Sincerely,
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 36
Appendix 3
Sixty undergraduate student participants in study 4 wrote status updates complaining
about the two ostensible restaurant experiences described below.
Zoe’s Bistro
You and a friend decide to try out Zoe's Bistro, a new restaurant recommended by a co-worker.
When you arrive at the restaurant, you are seated at a quiet table near the window. The restaurant
is attractive and has a nice décor. You are very excited for your meal.
You and your friend look at the menu for a short while and decide on your meals. After the
waiter takes your order, you and your friend make small talk while you wait for your meal. Your
food arrives and the steak that your friend ordered is completely overcooked. It is dark black and
is so hard that your friend's fork bends when he tries to cut the meat.
When you tell the waiter that the steak has been overcooked, he tells you that the food has been
prepared in an "al dente" style. He takes a quick look at the food and says, "Cooked to
perfection! But if you want to be fussy about it, maybe I can bring you something else instead."
You politely ask for food that hasn't been overcooked. Minutes later, the waiter returns with a
large plate of raw vegetables.
Claire’s Kitchen
You decide to try eating dinner at Claire's Kitchen, a restaurant across town that has recently
been getting very favorable reviews.
You arrive at the restaurant and after a short wait, you and your date are seated at a nice booth in
the corner of the restaurant. The restaurant includes a large window where you can watch the
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 37
cooks in the kitchen preparing the food. Your date orders chicken and you order a dish of pasta
called "Claire's Angel Hair."
Your food arrives in a timely manner and it tastes pretty good. However, as you are eating your
pasta, your date asks, "is that a piece of hair in your food?" You take a closer look and find a
strand of dark curly hair mixed in with the pasta. Your date, who has been looking around the
restaurant to try to identify the source of the hair looks at you and says, "strange, the cooks
appear to have straight hair." You take another look at your plate and wonder how the hair ended
up in your food.
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 38
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Table 1
Study 1 Results
Fixed Effects Coefficient Standard Error Wald Z p-value
Intercept, β 0 0.2582 0.0042 62.09 < .0001
Star Ratingijk, β 1 -.0534 .0010 -51.05 < .0001
Usefulnessijk, β 2 .1199 .0031 38.95 < .0001
Coolnessijk, β 3 .3668 .0062 59.60 < .0001
Random Effects Standard
Deviation
Grouping: User (writer) j
Intercept, μ0j 0.0000
Star Ratingijk, μ1j 0.0000
Usefulnessijk, μ2j 0.2263
Coolnessijk, μ3j 0.4307
Grouping: Business k
Intercept, μ0k 0.0430
Star Ratingijk, μ1k 0.0000
Usefulnessijk, μ2k 0.1582
Coolnessijk, μ3k 0.3873
ijk 0.6366
Estimates of the fixed and random effects for the multilevel model fit to the Yelp reviews data in
study 1.
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 47
Table 2
Study 2 Results
Humorous
Complaint
Serious
Complaint
Correlation with
Perceived Humor
Phase 1
Number of Facebook Likes 9.07 (7.16) 5.59 (4.68) .30
Number of Facebook Comments 5.07 (6.09) 5.50 (4.53) NS -.27NS
Phase 2
Humor rating (1 to 7) 4.47 (.58) 3.39 (.72) --
Negativity rating (1 to 7) 3.04 (.48) 3.47 (.42) -.36
Likelihood of clicking 'like' on Facebook (1 to 7) 3.80 (.62) 3.23 (.71) .63
Likelihood of accepting Friend request (1 to 7) 4.07 (.39) 3.83 (.46) .45
Likelihood of sharing (1 to 7) 2.63 (.31) 2.42 (.33) .58
Recall (square root) 2.00 (.82) 1.54 (.94) .34
Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) for study 2. All mean differences and
correlations are significant at the .05 level, except number of Facebook Comments and the
correlation between the number of comments and perceived humor.
Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series 48