History of Computers - 1

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HUMBOLDT-UNIVERSITÄT ZU BERLININSTITUT FÜR INFORMATIK

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Lecture 2

COMPUTER HISTORY

Sommersemester 2002

Leitung: Prof. Dr. Miroslaw Malek

www.informatik.hu-berlin.de/rok/ca

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTINGAND COMPUTER ARCHITECTURES

THE BEGINNINGS

• 4000-1200 BC, inhabitants of Sumer– Clay Tablets for trade records

• Origine unknown (used in Babylon, later in Arab world, Europe, China and Japan)– Abakus

• 1570-80, John Napier (1550-1617, Scotland)– Logarithm Bones

• 1617, Robert Bissaker– Wood Strip Logs

• 1620, Edmund Gunter, (1581-1626, England)– Slide Rule

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MECHANICAL ERA (1623-1945)

• 1623, Wilhelm Schickhard (1592-1633, Germany)– Adder

• 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662, France)– Adder (+,-), main contribution: ratchet drive for carry transfers

• 1671, Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716, Germany)– Calculator (+,-,x,/,), created forerunner of four function machine

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In the 18th century development was concentrated onthe improvement of four function machines.

• 1794, G. F. Prony, undertook a project for the French government tocalculate logs of numbers from 1 to 200,000– Autometer (+,-,x,/)

• 1820, Thomas de Colmar (France), built a practical four function machine– Arithmometer

• 1823, Charles Babbage, (1792-1871), undertook design of the Differential (Difference) Engine

– Differential Engine

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Charles Babbage‘s Differential Engine

The machine was to solve 6th degree polynomials to 20 digit accuracy.

ixn

i iaxf ∑=

=0

)( ji

ji

ji yyy 1

1+

+ ∆+∆=∆

Babbage was given £ 17,000 to construct the machine butthe project was abandoned in 1842 (uncompleted).

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THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE• 1834, Charles Babbage, a contemporary L. G. Menebrea developed the

hypothetical program to solve simultaneous equations

– Analytical Engine

The Mill

OperationCards

The Store

VariableCards

DATA

PROGRAM

INSTRUCTIONS

Printer CardPuncher

Components:

1. The Store is a memory.2. The Mill is the arithmetic unit.3. Program is Jaquard loom punch cards.

a. Operating Cards (program steps)b. Variable Cards (memory selection cards)

The Analytical Engine contained all the essential features of a general purpose automatic computer.

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A PROGRAM TO SOLVE SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

DATA PROGRAM

OP. VARIABLE CARDS COMPUTATION

LOC. CONTENTS CARD SOURCE DEST.

w0 = a11 x w2, w4 w8 w8

�

a22 b1w1 = a12 x w1, w5 w9 w9

�

a12 b2w2 = b1 x w0, w4 w10 w10

�

a11 a22w3 = a21 x w1, w3 w11 w11

�

a12 a21– w8, w9 w12 w12

�

a22 b1 – a12 b2w4 = a22 – w10, w11 w13 w13

�

a11a22 – a12a21w5 = b2 ÷ w12, w13 w14 w14

�

w12 ÷ w13

The data was loaded into the store and computations were performed as indicatedin the table.The significiant contribution was the concept of a programmed calculator.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1

a21 x1 + a22x2 = b2

x1 =

x2 =

a22 b1 – a12 b2

a11 a22 – a12 a21

a11 b2 – a21 b1

a11 a22 – a12 a21

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• 1837-53, George Scheutz (1785-1873), built a working Babbage'sDifferential Engine that solved 3rd degree polynomials to 15 digits– Differential Engine

• 1854, George Boole, (1814-1864, England)– Binary Logic Operators AND, OR, NOR

• 1872, E. D. Borbour, awkward to ink by hand before print– Printing Calculator

• 1874-78, Lord Kelvin (1824-1907, England)– Analog Machine

• 1875, Frank Baldwin (1838-1925, USA)– Printing Calculator

• 1874-77, W. F. Odhner (Sweden)– Desk Calculator

• 1885, D. E. Felt (1862-1930, USA), printing calculator with depressible keys– Comptometer

HISTORY (Cont.)

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International Business Machines Corp. (IBM)• 1890, Herman Hollerith (1860 - 1926, USA), (1890 Census)

– Punching Cards, Tabulating Machine

Electric Tabulating System

Tabulating Machine Co. (1896)

Computation-Tabulating Recording Co. (1911)

International Business Machines Corp. (IBM) (1924)

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• 1892, William S. Burroughs, (Sold 1 million by 1926)– Printing Calculator

• 1904, John A. Fleming, patents the diode vacuum tube setting the stage for better radio communication– Diode Vacuum Tube

• 1930-1945, Vannevar Bush, MIT Professor andscientifical consultant at White House– The Idea of MEMEX

• 1908, Campbell Swinton (British scientist)– Electronic Scanning Method for Cathode-Ray Tube

• 1912-30, Monroe, Baldwin, Frieden, Marchant, etc.– Four Functions Calculators

• 1930-50– Motor Driven Calculators

• 1936, Alan Turing (1912-1954, England)– Paper on Computable Numbers

HISTORY (Cont.)

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1934 Zuse proposes to build a electro-mechanical calculating machine.

1936 Zuse files a patent application for the automatic execution of calculations, including a binary "combination memory"

KONRAD ZUSE (1910-1995)

Zuse's Z-series of computers

1938 Z1 mechanical computer

1940 Z2 uses telephone relays instead of mechanical logical circuits

1941 Z3 first fully functional program-controlled electro-mechanical calculator

1945 Z4 Z4 survives WW II and helps launching post-war development of scientific computers in Germany

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• 1937, Howard Aiken (USA) submitted to IBM a proposal for a digital calculating machine capable of performing the four arithmetic operations and some other functions

• 1943, British built code-breaking Vacuum Tube Computercomputer called Colossus

• WW II, Americans built a general purpose electroniccomputer, prior to that John Atanasoff built anelectromechanical digital computer with some vacuum tubes.Howard Aiken of Harvard University and IBM built anan electromechanical machine called Harvard Mark I

ATLAS was developed at Manchester University

HISTORY (Cont.)

2,4 m

15 m

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• 1943-46, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) by J.Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, first general purpose electronic computer

• A program was created manually by setting switches and plugging &unplugging cables. It used 18,000 tubes, weighted 30 tones and had aperformance of 5,000 ops/sec. More decimal than binary it had a card reader, a printer and a card punch.

• 1945, John von Neumann introduces

the concept of a stored program.

After the WW II a great amount of activity began andthe era of the modern computer resulted.

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• 1947, first transistor designed by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley for Bell Labs (Nobel prize in 1956)

• 1947- 48, magnetic drum memory is introduced

• 1948, Claude Shannon publishes „A Mathematical Theory of Communication“

• 1948, Richard Hamming designs the Hamming code for error correction in data blocks

• 1949, EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) was developed at Cambridge University in England by Maurice Wilkis

HISTORY (Cont.)

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• 1949, Whirlwind computer by Jay Forrester (MIT) with 5000 vacuum tubes

• 1950, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was basedon ideas developed at the Institute for Advanced Studies of Princeton University.

• 1951, UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was built by Eckert andMauchly using vacuum tubes (mainly triodes and pentodes). Memory accesstime 0.5 ms.

HISTORY (Cont.)

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• 1951, Maurice Wilkes introduces microprogramming

• 1951, Jay Forrester's matrix core memory

• 1951-52, Grace Murray Hooper develops A-0 (1st compiler)

• 1952, John Neumann's IAS bit-parallel machine

• 1953, IBM 650 - 1st mass-produced computer• 1953, Kenneth Olsen uses Jay Forrester's

core-memory to build the Memory Test Computer

• 1954, Texas Instruments introduces the silicon transistor

20th CENTURY HISTORY

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• 1956, Fuji Photo Film Co. (Japan) develops a 1700 vacuum-tube computer for lens design calculation

• 1956, Univac with transistors• 1957, John Backus and colleagues at

IBM deliver the 1st FORTRAN compiler

• 1957, NTT (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Co., Japan) develops Musasino-1 (first parametron-computer)

• 1958, Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments) and Robert Noyce (Fairchild) develop first semiconductor ICs separately

• 1959, The Committee on Data Systems Languages is formed to createCOBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)

• 1962, Stanford and Purdue Universities establish first departments of Computer Science

20th CENTURY HISTORY (Cont.)

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• 1964, IBM announces the System/360 "third-generation„ line of computers

• 1964, IBM's seven-year-long Sabre project for worldwide airline reservations is fully implemented

• 1964, Doug Engelbart invents the mouse• 1967, 4 function hand-held calculator (Texas Instruments)

• 1968, Edsger Dijkstra writes about GOTO programming vs. Structured programming

• 1969, ARPANET, Communication between Computers

• 1968, Cray CDC7600 supercomputer achieves 40 MFLOPS• 1970, E. F. Codd describes the relational model• 1971, Intel introduces 4-bit microprocessor (4004)

20th CENTURY HISTORY (Cont.)

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• FTP (File Transfer Protocol), To send data over the nets

• 1973, Alan Kay develops a forerunner of the PC, his „office computer“ employing icons, graphics and a mouse

• 1975, IBM introduces the laser printer• 1975, Intel introduces 8-bit microprocessor (8008,8080)

• 1976, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak build the Apple I• 1977, Bill Gates and Paul Allen found Microsoft

• 1981, IBM introduces its model of PC• 1984, Sony and Phillips introduce the CD-ROM• 1984, NEC manufactures the 256-Kbit RAM and IBM introduces a 1-Mbit RAM

• 1984, IBM uses Intel's 80286 for the new PC ATs• 1985, Cray 2 and Thinking Machines' parallel-processor Connection Machine

reach 1 billion ops/second• 1990, Berners-Lee writes the WWW prototype: URL (Unified Resource Locator),

HTML (Hyper Text Metalanguage), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)• 1993, first graphical web-browser Mosaic is created at University of Illinois• 1995, initial public offering of Netscape

20th CENTURY HISTORY (Cont.)

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THE ROOTS AND THE STORY OF THE MOST SUCCESSFUL MINICOMPUTER PDP-11

D.E.C. WAS FOUNDED BY K. OLSEN1957

MANY MODELS, e.g., PDP-11/40, PDP-11/45, VAX -11

32K300 ns –

980 ns16-BITLSI-111975

$15,000-

$30,000

(Unibus)

128K300 ns –

980 ns16-BITPDP-111969

$18,000

(Software

Packages)

1K-4K3µs12-BITPDP-81965

$30,000

(PC & DMA)1K-4K6µs12-BITPDP-51963

$120,000(Peripherals)

4K-64K5µs18-BITPDP-11959

COSTMEMORY

CAPACITY

MEMORYCYCLETIME

WORDLENGTH

MODELYEAR

(375 IC’s on PCB)

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A BRIEF JOURNEY THROUGHCOMPUTER GENERATIONS

GENERATION PERIOD TECHNOLOGY

FIRST 1945-1954 VACUUM TUBES

SECOND 1955-1964 TRANSISTORS

THIRD 1965-1974 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (SSI, MSI)

FOURTH 1975 - ? INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (LSI, VLSI)

FIFTH ? ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE,NEURAL NETWORKS, DIGITAL/ANALOG HYBRIDS, WEB COMPUTING

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Input/Outputequipment

Mainmemory

FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS (1945-1954)

CHARACTERISTICS

- Random Access Memory AC -Accumulator- 1000 (2 1/2) Word MQ -Multiplexor-Quotient- 40 Bit Word DR -Data (40 Bit)- One Address (OP ADDR) AR -Address (12 Bit)- Parallel Binary Circuits IBR - Instruction Buffer- High-speed Registers (CPU) PC -Instruction Address (Program Counter)

Central Processing Unit

STRUCTURE OFIAS COMPUTER

instructionsand data

Arithmetic-logic unit

Arithmetic-logic circuits

AC MQ

DR

IBR PC

IR AR

Program control unit

ControlSignals

Addresses

Controlcircuits

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REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE

0 1 39

0 8 19 20 28 39

Instruction Comments

AC

�

M(100) Transfer contents of memory location 100 to the accumulator

AC

�

AC + M(101) Add the contents of memory location 101 to the contents of theaccumulator and place the result in the accumulator

M(102)

�

AC Store the contents of the accumulator in memory location 102

NUMBER WORDSign bit

SYMBOLIC

LDA AADD BSTA C

INSTRUCTION WORD

Left instruction Right instruction

AddressOpcodeAddressOpcode

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Central processing unit

Arithmetic-logiccircuits

AC MQ

DR

Operator's console

Index registersXR(1-7)

Indexadders

IBR

IR AR PC

SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS (1955-1964)

Controlcircuits

Controlsignals IBM 7094

Memoryaddress

Corememory

IO processor(channel)

IO processor(channel)

Drum discControl unit

Magnetic tapestorage

Magnetic drumstorage

Magnetic discstorage

Printer

Card reader

Memory control unit(multiplexer)

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0 1 35

0 1 9 35

S

0 21 35

S Fixed-point number

Exponent MantissaFloating-point number

INFORMATION FORMATS OF THE IBM 7094

AddressOpcodeInstruction

Transistor technology Batch processingIndex registers Real timeFloating point MultiprocessingSubroutine linkage Separate I/O200 instructions 32K memoryIndirect addressing Magnetic core memoryInterrupts Memory interleavingHigh level language Magnetic drum

CHARACTERISTICS

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16 32-bitgeneral purposeregisters

4 64-bit floating-point registers

Fixed-pointarithmetic unit

Floating-pointarithmetic unit

internal buses

AR IR PC DR

Memorycontrol unit

Programstatus word

ToMainmemory

THIRD GENERATION (1965 - 1974)CPU STRUCTURE OF IBM S/360-370 SERIES

Decimalarithmetic unit

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Low-order byte

Zone Digit Zone Digit Sign Digit

Digit Digit Sign

0 1

Fixed-point binary number

3115

0 1 7 8

1276331

ExponentS

MantissaFloating-point binary number

1 byte

Character

Alphanumeric data

Low-order byte

Digit Digit Digit

Character Character

S

Zoned decimal number

Packed decimal number

IBM S/360-370 DATA FORMATS

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FOURTH GENERATION (1971-200?)

MICROPROCESSORS

Intel 4004 (1971) 4-BIT WORD 45 INSTRUCTIONS

INTEL 8080 (1973) 8-BIT WORD 16 ADDRESS LINES (216=64 K MEMORY)

MC68000 (1979) 16-BIT WORD

M 68020 (1985) 32-BIT WORD 20 MHz

Intel 80486 (1989) 32-BIT WORD

Pentium (1993) 32-BIT WORD 70 MHz

ALPHA (1993) 64-BIT WORD

Athlon (2000) 32-BIT WORD 1 GHz

PowerPC G4 (2001) 64-BIT WORD 500MHz

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INTEL 8080 MICROPROCESSOR

AC FR Multiplexer

IR

DR

Controlcircuits

FR flag register (5 bits) stores: sign of operation, carry, overflow, interrupt enable, parityIR is an instruction registerDR data register

8-bit internal data bus

Arithmetic-logic circuits

Address register

Registerarray

Internalcontrollines

8 bidirectionaldata lines

16 address lines12 external control lines

4 powerlines

B CD EH LStack pointer

Program counter

e.g. ADD M AC

�

AC + M(H,L)ADC M AC

�

AC + M(H,L) + FR(C) where FR indicates overflow (carry) bitDAA decimal adjust accumulatorthen ADD M for binary

DAA for decimal

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MIPS R4000 MICROPROCESSOR

- General Purpose Registers

64-bit System Bus

Data CacheSystemcache

ControlSystemControl

ProgramcacheControl

InstructionCache

CPU RegistersALULoad Aligner/Store DriverInteger Multiplier/DividerAddress UnitPC Incrementer

Exeption/Control Registers

MemoryManagement Registers

TranslationLookaside buffers

FPU RegistersPipeline BypassFP MultiplierFP DividerFP Add, Convert,Square Root

Pipeline Control

0R0

63 32 31

R31

R1

PC063 32 31

- Program Counter

MultHI063 32 31

- Multiply/Divide Registers

MultLO

CP0 CPU FPU

CPU Registers

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INTEL Pentium 4 Microarchitecture

21

34

1. In-Order Front End; 2. Out-of-Order Execution L ogic; 3. Integer and F loating-Point Execution Units; 4. Memory Subsystem; BTB – Branch Target Register