FRESHWATER MUSSEL SHELLS FROM THREE LATE …

FRESHWATER MUSSEL SHELLS FROM THREE LATE PREHISTORIC GLENWOOD

LOCALITY EARTHLODGE SITES IN WESTERN IOWA: ANALYSIS OF SPECIES

COMPOSITION AND AN ASSESSMENT OF SHELL MODIFICATION

by

Elizabeth Lamb

Submitted to the faculty of

The Archaeological Studies Program

Departments of Sociology and Archaeology

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science

University of Wisconsin-La Crosse

2011

ii

Copyright © 2011 by Elizabeth Lamb

All rights reserved

iii

FRESHWATER MUSSEL SHELLS FROM THREE LATE PREHISTORIC GLENWOOD

LOCALITY EARTHLODGE SITES IN WESTERN IOWA: ANALYSIS OF SPECIES

COMPOSITION AND AN ASSESSMENT OF SHELL MODIFICATION

Elizabeth Lamb

University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, 2010

Freshwater mussel shells were analyzed from three Late Prehistoric Glenwood culture sites

(A.D. 1250 – 1400) in western Iowa. Shells were identified to the species level and all modified

shells were segregated for additional analysis and description. Shells of specific shape and

texture were selected for some tool types. A newly described tool, referred to as pigment

applicators, are described and were successfully replicated through experimental application. The

current analysis of shell assemblages are compared to the nearby Wall Ridge site.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to give a special thanks to my readers, Drs. Joseph A. Tiffany, James L.

Theler, and Constance Arzigian for their critiques, this thesis would not have been possible

without them. I would like to thank the staff at MVAC (Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center)

for providing me with access to all the materials and equipment needed to complete this paper. I

would also like to acknowledge the UW-La Crosse undergraduate research program for funding

my research.

I would also like to thank Dr. David Anderson for his guidance in this paper, both of my

peer readers, Lisa Jennings and Lindsey Schweitzer, who helped with formatting and grammar

revisions in this thesis while diligently working on their own. And finally, I would like to thank

John Cordell at the Office of the State Archaeologist in Iowa for letting me search through and

document many of the shell artifacts located there.

1

INTRODUCTION

Native Americans have a long history of utilizing freshwater mussels, including those peoples

who lived on the Great Plains. Freshwater mussels were first gathered from aquatic habitats on

the Great Plain more than 10,000 years ago (Warren 2000:79). Mussels have been an important

riverine resource and their shells are found archaeologically throughout the Midwest and Great

Plains regions. They have commonly been used as a food source, their shells shaped into tools,

ornaments, and crushed for use as temper in pottery. Mussel shell utilization and unique

modifications can sometimes be attributed to certain cultures and can provide information

regarding the daily life of ancient native peoples. Though the shells can provide important facets

of information, their study is often overlooked and little is known about how exactly they were

used as tools and what functions they performed.

Following the species identification, this study focuses on shell artifacts from the

Glenwood culture sites located in southwestern Iowa. Freshwater mussels were harvested by

Glenwood people in modest numbers for dietary purposes, and shells were sometimes kept as

―tool stock‖ to be modified into tools or ornaments. The Glenwood culture in Iowa is one of the

nine localities occupied by Nebraska phase people, and is the only one east of the Missouri River

(Alex 2000:171).

Some shells have been recently recognized to have been utilized as tools but without

intentional modification. Many shells from one Glenwood site, Wall Ridge (13ML176), exhibit a

wear pattern on the back of shells combined with traces of what appears to be black charcoal

paste, red pigments, or both. These shells seem to be ―pigment applicators‖, a tool never before

2

recognized in the archaeological record of the Great Plains and Midwest. James L. Theler, who

analyzed the shells from the Wall Ridge site in 2010, believes these may have been used to apply

color (black or red) to hides or skin clothing (Theler and Tiffany 2011:9). The application of

pigment to clothing was a common practice historically among Native American peoples;

however, shells as applicators have not been identified before (James Theler, personal

communication 2010).

As a result of the work done at the Glenwood locality in the 1960s, more than 60,000

archaeological artifacts are curated at The Office of the State Archaeologist at The University of

Iowa in Iowa City (Hotopp 1978:22). This collection is an essential component of the data base

for the study of Central Plains archaeology, but has never been fully analyzed. The present

investigation seeks to continue previous studies of freshwater mussel shells and to expand these

studies to new sites with more in-depth research. This includes identifying the species of mussels

from Glenwood sites to find what habitats were being exploited (Hirst 2000; Theler 1990), as

well as observing the modification/wear patterns on the shells to determine for what purpose the

Native peoples of the Glenwood locality were using the mussel shells; as tools, a food resource,

or both. More specifically, this study focuses on the categorization of tools and an attempt to

learn more about the new applicator type tool. These applicator tools have specific wear patterns

which were recreated through experimental application along with the chemical analysis of the

black and red substance on the backs of the shells.

3

BACKGROUND

Glenwood Locality

The archeological remains of late prehistoric populations living along the Missouri River in

eastern Nebraska and southwestern Iowa represent localities of the Nebraska phase of the Central

Plains tradition (Figure 1). The Nebraska phase represents one of the most intensively studied

prehistoric cultures among the Central Plains manifestations. This distinctive pattern of culture is

recognized in the archaeological record as early as A.D. 900; although recent evaluation of

radiocarbon dates suggests the Nebraska phase formed after A.D. 1200 (Alex 1980:140; Perry

2004; Tiffany and Lensink 2010).

The Glenwood culture has a complex of traits which include a variety of pottery types

and bone and stone tools shared with other Nebraska phase sites. They built square houses with

rounded corners of varying size but that average about 30 feet on the side. They were constructed

with four main roof supports near the middle of the house around a central fire pit. The walls

were made of closely set vertical poles and a narrow covered entrance that usually extended from

the south wall of the lodge. These structures most likely had sod-covered roofs. Storage pits

were dug into the floor of the house that range in shape from shallow depressions to deep,

straight walled or bell-shaped pits. These pits were used to store food as well as valuables (Alex

1980:140, Anderson 1975:43). These houses were generally isolated along valleys or bluffs

overlooking rivers and streams in the Glenwood locality. Other sites contained small clusters of

lodges, suggesting a community of perhaps 40 to 60 people. The members of a number of

households in a particular valley or cluster may have linked together in larger kin groups

(Anderson 1975:44).

4

Glenwood locality economy was based on ubiquitous crops such as corn and squash.

Several artifacts were found that were used in farming, such as bison and elk scapula hoes and

shell hoes made from freshwater mussels. The scapula hoes were often notched which made

them easier to haft to a wooden shaft. Archaeologists believe that deer and elk were available

locally while bison was only a minor part of their diet, the bison scapula hoes being the result of

trade (Alex 1980:141, 2005; Pope and Whittaker 2010:11-25).

The most common hunting weapon was the bow and arrow, which used small multiple

notched points or larger unnotched triangular points. Several different tools were used to process

meat and hides. These included stone knives that were oval or triangular in shape as well as

scrapers, bone awls, and bone needles. Hide end scrapers were also found and were generally

long and oval shaped. Some were handheld while others were tied to handles made from large

ribs or antler tips. Glenwood people also used antler knapping tools, hammerstones, anvils,

whetstones for sharpening blades, and shaft straighteners (Alex 1980:140-142; Anderson

1975:45).

The Glenwood people conducted very little trade though they did ―borrow‖ some

generally shared pottery decoration and vessel forms such as loop handles from Mississippian

groups. They produced several kinds of pots comprising several different ceramic types that have

been distinguished based on rim formation and decoration. These include McVey, Beckman,

Swoboda, and Debilka wares. In general, vessels were globular shaped with a constricted neck,

varied rim form, rounded shoulder, and round bottom. Vessel walls were formed by modeling

the clay into the desired shape and thinning it by beating with a cord-wrapped paddle. Cord

marks were often smoothed over before the pot was fired. Clay pipes, often zoomorphic forms,

and clay figurines are also distinctive of the Glenwood peoples and are not seen in other western

5

Iowa cultures. It is likely that the pipes were used for ritualistic purposes (Alex 1980:140, 2005;

Anderson 1975:46).

Along with limited evidence for trade there is no evidence for warfare. The lodge site

clusters are not fortified and so it is assumed that the Glenwood people coexisted peacefully with

their neighbors. Resources, including nearby cropland, may have been sufficiently distributed to

prevent intergroup hostilities. The wide spacing of lodges across the landscape probably helped

reduce competition for land and wild food resources. The rugged topography of the Loess Hills

with narrow valley drainages also limited house clustering. Virtually nothing is known about the

Glenwood peoples burial patterns. Mounds have been recorded in the vicinity of Nebraska phase

sites, although, those whose affiliation is known are Woodland (Alex 2000:173-174).

Glenwood Nebraska phase sites have shell tempered pottery associated with the Steed-

Kisker complex near Kansas City. Through time Glenwood peoples experienced increasing

contact with the Oneota tradition which can be seen with the appearance of locally-made shell

tempered and grit tempered pottery in the Oneota style. The Glenwood peoples and the Nebraska

phase disappear from the archaeological record around A.D. 1400. This could be due to changing

climatic, environmental, and cultural factors as well as crop failure that may have put new

pressures on the Glenwood people that forced them to move away or regroup in later Plains

Village culture manifestations (Alex 1980:141; Ritterbush 2007:183-189).

History of Excavations

The first excavations of sites assigned to the Nebraska phase were done in the late nineteenth

century (Alex 2000:171). Since that time many Glenwood house sites have been excavated by

professional archaeologists.

6

Figure 1. The Central Plains Tradition.

Source: Ritterbush (2007:figure 14.1)

7

Avocational archaeologist Paul Rowe searched for Glenwood earthlodge sites from the

early 1920s through the early 1960s. His work and that of Ellison Orr, who led Works Progress

Administration (WPA) sponsored research through the Iowa Archaeology Survey in the 1930’s,

identified over 200 earthlodge sites (Perry 2004). Their efforts as well as the Smithsonian

Institution River Basin Surveys led to the accumulation of a major collection of Nebraska phase

materials and several published excavation reports. The Rowe Collection is now housed in the

Mills County Historical Museum and in Iowa City at the Office of the State Archaeologist of The

University of Iowa (OSA). Work sponsored by the WPA and primarily the Iowa DOT are also

housed at OSA.

The Wall Ridge site (13ML176) was the first Glenwood earthlodge carefully excavated

with stratigraphic control, fine screening, and soil sampling from the present ground surface to

the floor and sub-floor pits, providing the data base needed for an integrated paleoecological

study (Schermer 2010). The site was found in 1984 on a reconnaissance survey for prospective

borrow pits for a local roads project in Mills County, Iowa. It was excavated by the Iowa

Archeological Society field school under the direction of Shirley Schermer. This excavation was

sponsored by the Office of the State Archaeologist and the Mills County Engineer’s Office. The

project was under the general supervision of the Principal Investigator, Joseph A. Tiffany.

The Wall Ridge excavation gives a comprehensive look at the household economy of a

homestead of the Nebraska phase. When completely excavated, a typical Central Plains

earthlodge with a 9 meter square floor area was exposed as well as a central hearth and nine

subsurface storage pits, four of which were bell-shaped. Only the entryway was not found. From

1984 to the present, work on Wall Ridge has focused on processing, inventorying, cataloging,

identifying, and describing the material culture and floral and faunal remains from the site

8

(Schermer 2010). Analysis of Wall Ridge Glenwood culture fauna has been completed by James

L. Theler (Theler 2010:11-2—11-27). And the analysis of bone tools has been completed by

Joseph A. Tiffany and James L. Theler (Tiffany and Theler 2011:1-8).

Glenwood Archaeological Sites

The shell artifacts in this study are from three Glenwood sites; 13ML133, 13ML136, and

13ML139 (Figure 2). These are three of the 18 earthlodges excavated as part of the U.S. 34

highway project undertaken by the OSA for the Iowa Department of Transportation (DOT) in the

late 1960s and early 1970s.

Site 13ML133 is located on the western side of a ridgetop overlooking Horse Creek. No

plan view is available for this site. After this area was disturbed by construction, only a trace of

the lodge floor and part of a cache pit were observed. The artifact catalog lists two proveniences,

a lodge wall and a refuse pit. The artifact collection is small, there were no historic artifacts

found which indicates that there was no recent disturbance, and ten ceramic rims and 141

bodysherds were found. There was one shell hoe found and several bone tools, such as a scapula

hoe, awl, and needle (Billeck 1993:108-109).

Site 13ML136 is located on a west-facing footslope at the entrance of Pony Creek into

the Missouri Valley. This lodge was found during construction and part of the north wall was

removed (Figure 3); prior erosion had destroyed the west wall. Excavations in 1972 detected

seven refuse pits, four central posts, and 35 wall and interior posts.

9

Figure 2. Site Locations.

Source: redrawn from Billeck (1993:figure 1.2)

10

The lodge is 7.3m by 7.7m and the entrance extended downslope to the south or west, where it

was destroyed by road construction or erosion. Several burned wood beams indicate that the

lodge was burned. The shell artifacts found at this site include one triangular pendant and seven

shells that showed a modified edge (Billeck 1993:120).

Figure 3. Plan view of site 13ML136.

Source: Billeck (1993:figure 4.20).

Site 13ML139 is also located on the west-facing footslope of a hill at the entrance of

Pony Creek. The lodge was found during construction and during excavations in 1971-1972. Six

internal refuse pits, one external refuse pit, a central hearth, four central support posts, and 40

wall and interior posts were found (Figure 4). The lodge is 6.5m by 6.9m, with a southwest-

facing entrance. This lodge was also burned; this is indicated by the presence of burned earth and

wood. The artifact collection from this site is distinctive in the high occurrence of cores. This

11

lodge contains four times more cores than any other lodge in the sample. There is also a shell

pendant which depicts a turkey head with a weeping eye motif. Human remains from two

individuals are present. Other shell artifacts found at this site includes one hoe and one sub-

triangular pendant (Billeck 1993:137).

Figure 4. Plan view of site 13ML139.


ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA ANALYSIS

Methods

The first step in the analysis was to identify the freshwater mussel species represented in the

assemblages. MVAC (Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center) houses a comparative collection

of modern freshwater mussels which was used to help identify the archaeological specimens.

Reference books on freshwater mussels were also utilized during the identification effort and

12

included the Field Guide to Freshwater Mussels of the Midwest (Cummings and Mayer 1992),

The Fresh-water Mussels of Illinois (Parmalee 1967), and Missouri Naiads: A Guide to the

Mussels of Missouri (Oesch 1984).

The catalogued shells were separated first by site and then by species. After a mussel

species was identified, the next step was to determine if the shell was modified. To facilitate the

recording of data pertinent to each shell, a standardized data form was created. The information

recorded on this form included the catalogue number, species, side, percentage of completeness,

types of wear/modification that were visible, and any other details that may have been important,

such as recent or fresh damage or if distinct deposits of calcium carbonate was present. Each

valve was then analyzed with the aid of a magnifying lens and in some cases a microscope to

determine the presence/absence of use wear patterns on the shell. The collected data was then

entered into a computerized spreadsheet using Microsoft Excel to facilitate analysis of the data.

The process of species identification was guided by Dr. James L. Theler, Professor

Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse. Following an initial species identification by

the author, each specimen’s identification was verified by Dr. Theler.

Following this process the shells were put into specific tool categories based on type of

wear, shell shaping, and modification observed. Some tools were put into more than one

category. The tool descriptions and categories used in this analysis are from Analysis of Bone

and Shell Tools from the Wall Ridge Site, 1ML176, Southwest Iowa (Theler and Tiffany 2011).

The tool type identification was subsequently verified following the analysis by Dr. Joseph A.

Tiffany, Professor of Archaeology at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse.

13

Results

There are a combined total of 165 shell tools and tool fragments made from freshwater mussels

from sites 13ML139, 13ML136, and 13ML133 (See Appendix A). These valves show both

intentional and unintentional modification. Several of the shell tools may also have served more

than one function.

Before the categories of tools are described it is important to understand the anatomy of

the freshwater mussel shell. The parts that I will discuss throughout this paper include the umbo

and umbo margins, ventral margins, pustules, anterior and posterior margins, the exterior and

interior of the shell, and the pseudocardinal teeth (Figure 5).

Scrapers

Scrapers are valves that have smoothing, polish, or grinding along the ventral margin that leads

to visible disruption of the growth ring patterns. There are a total of 34 scrapers and scraper

fragments from 13ML139 and 13ML136; 13ML133 did not have any scrapers. The most

common species on which the scrapers were made was the black sandshell (Ligumia recta). An

example of a scraper made from a black sandshell from 13ML139 (Figure 6) shows the ventral

margin (marked by arrows) where the valve was clearly worked. An ethnographic and

experimental study of scraper tools indicates that they were probably used for shelling parboiled

corn off the cobs (Gradwohl 1982).

Shell Hoes

Two shell hoes were represented in the assemblages, one each, from 13ML139 and 13ML133.

These tools have a perforation that appears to be pecked into the valve near the umbo; this is

14

Figure 5. Anatomy of a freshwater mussel shell.

Source: www.fws.gov

15

Figure 6. Black sandshell scraper tool.

believed to be for hafting to a handle. The posterior shell margin shows evidence of grinding/use

striations and smoothing, and the exterior and interior of the valves have grinding striations. Both

specimens are made from the same species, the pink heelsplitter (Potamilus alatus). The shell

hoe from 13ML133 (Figure 7) also includes notching along the anterior margin near the umbo.

The edges of the pecked perforation have clear indications of smoothing and grinding. The shell

hoe from 13ML139 (Figure 8) shows modified posterior margins, possibly from use.

Notched Shell Margins

There are 11 valves from 13ML139 and 13ML136 that have worked margins with rough

notching along the edge of varying sizes. All 11 of the specimens fall into one of three other

categories; applicators, possible applicators, or scrapers. Two of these specimens were

specifically unidentifiable fragments. One example of a notched shell margin is made of a

pistolgrip (Quadrula verrucosa) (Figure 9) and also has a smoothed ventral margin.

339-Cl-12

16

Figure 7. Pink heelsplitter shell hoe from site 13ML133.

Figure 8. Pink heel splitter shell hoe from site 13ML139.

339-A-14

339-18-29

327-23-M

17

Figure 9. Pistolgrip mussel with notched shell margins.

Spoons

There is one shell spoon from site 13ML139; it is made from a fatmucket (Lampsilis

siliquoidea). Spoons have a short handle which is made by notching on the anterior margin of the

shell. The specimen has polish on the umbo, smoothing on the posterior margin, striations on the

umbo below the beak, and a small amount of red-brown pigment on the umbo. The most defining

characteristic is the notching located on the anterior margin next to the umbo (Figure 10); this

would be the handle, though it is not entirely finished.

Shell Beads

Four freshwater shell beads were found at 13ML139; they each have a perforation which goes

through the middle of the bead (Figure 11). They are all slightly different widths with different

339-FP-4

18

Figure 10. Shell spoon made from a fatmucket.

sized perforation holes. Bead A has a diameter of 6.3 mm and the central suspension hole is 2.7

mm. Bead B has a diameter of 6.9 mm and the central suspension hole is 2.9 mm, Bead C has a

diameter of 6.1 mm and the central suspension hole is 2.5 mm. And finally, the central

suspension hole of bead D is 2.0 mm and the diameter is 6.0 mm.

Pendants

There are six pendants and one pendant preform made from freshwater mussel shell from

13ML139 and 13ML136. Three are sub-triangular pendants with a hole drilled near the top of

each (Figure 12). These pendants have a square top with a pointed tip. Pendant No. 339-S-14 is

34.3 mm long and 11.0 mm wide and 4.3 mm in thickness. The diameter of the suspension hole

is 2.5 mm. Pendant No. 339-8-20 is 3.8 mm long and 10.0 mm wide and 3.8 mm in thickness.

The diameter of the suspension hole is 2.4 mm. One of these pendants has some different

characteristics, it has been heat damaged and is broken in half, and the drilled hole has also been

broken off (Figure 13). This pendant is 3.2 mm long and 8.7 mm wide and 3.9 mm in thickness.

Two other types of pendants are each made of entire valves; one is from the right side of

a Wabash pigtoe (Fusconaia flava) and the other is the left side of a pimpleback. These two

339-29-37

19

Figure 11. Four freshwater mussel shell beads; A, B, C, D.

Figure 12. Sub-triangular pendant.

A B

C D

336-FL-9

339-8-20

20

Figure 13. Heat damaged sub-triangular pendant.

pendants have slits that were ground into the shell, perforating the umbo (Figure 14). Both

pendants also have grinding striations all over the exterior of the shell, from the top of the umbo

reaching down to the margin on all sides. This makes the shells exterior smooth. The pendant

preform is the left valve of a pimpleback. This artifact, like the pendants just mentioned, has

grinding striations covering the exterior of the shell as well as intentional smoothing (Figure 15).

It does not have a slit in the umbo.

The last pendant is circular and has a weeping turkey motif incised into it (Figure 16)

with a hole drilled into it near the top. The edges of the pendant have notches and are also

smoothed off and on the back of the pendant you can see where drilling of another hole had been

started (Figure 16). It is 34.2 mm long and 11 mm wide and 4.3 mm thick. The suspension hole

has a diameter of 2.5 mm. Shell pendants with this type of motif are part of the Southeastern

Ceremonial Complex and are dated to A.D. 1200-1400 (Tiffany and Lensink 2010).

336-18-33

21

Figure 14. Pendant made from the left valve of a pimpleback.

Figure 15. Pendant perform made from the left valve of a Pimpleback:

A (whole valve); B (close up of the exterior) (26x).

339-14-33

339-16-41

A B

22

Figure 16. Shell pendant with turkey motif (outlined).

Shell Tool Production Material

There are two specimens in this category, one is an unidentifiable fragment and the other is a

plain pocketbook (Lampsilis cardium). They have grooved lines that were sawed into the shell

interior or exterior. This made it possible to snap off the part of part of the shell that would then

be shaped into a tool. In the unidentified fragment (Figure 17) the grooved line is very deep. In

the plain pocketbook (Figure 18) it is apparent where the grooved lines have been started but

were not worked on for very long. In this shell it appears that the grooves were outlining a square

that would have been punched out and used to make a tool.

339-C2-3

23

Figure 17. Shell tool production scrap.

Figure 18. Shell tool preform.

339-15-10

339-C2-11

24

Other Modified Shell

This category contains eight items. Seven of the specimens have grinding striations and

smoothing on the exterior of the shell (Figure 19). Four of these specimens are unidentifiable

fragments and the other three are made from a pinkheel splitter, black sandshell, and a plain

pocketbook. The eighth specimen is made from a pinkheel splitter and presents grinding

striations on the interior of the shell. The exterior of this shell is covered in calcium carbonate.

Applicators

This is a tool group that was first recognized in 2010 during a re-analysis of the Wall Ridge shell

assemblage. ―Applicators‖ have polish on the exterior of the shell, especially at the umbo and

they often have a ―pigment‖ represented by a dried, paste-like residue found near the umbo

margins (James Theler personal communication 2010). This paste-like residue is not to be

Figure 19. Close up of grinding striations on exterior of a plain pocketbook (26x).

339-C1-12

25

confused with the periostracum, the outer layer of the shell, as it can be seen over the top of the

periostracum in several cases. These tools often share many characteristics with scrapers,

including beveled ventral margins. These tools were previously processed in a lab, and therefore,

some of the paste was probably inadvertently removed during the cleaning process. This paste

was overlooked during the tools initial analysis.

These applicators are hypothesized to be hide working tools by James L. Theler and

Joseph A. Tiffany. They may have been used to hold the pigment mixture and then turned over

and the external surface of the shell was used to apply the mixture to the hide. Because of the

worked ventral margin on many of these tools, they may have also been used to scrape the hide

during the processing stages (Theler and Tiffany 2011:9).

There are a total of 70 shell applicators representing 42% of the assemblages, and 27

possible applicators in the three site assemblages analyzed here. The applicator tools have the

pigment residue on the exterior of the valve and polish that is located on or near the umbo. The

possible applicators have polished umbos, but no trace of paste or the amount is so little it cannot

be known for certain that it is paste residue. From all three sites the most common species that

the applicators are made of is the threeridge mussel (Amblema plicata). One example of a

threeridge mussel applicator (Figure 20) has a pigment residue located at the umbo margin. A

close up of the same shell shows the pigment and also the polish that is commonly seen on the

applicators (Figure 21).

To understand better the applicators paste residue, five of the applicator tools from sites

13ML139 and 13ML136 were sent to the PaleoResearch Institute for Fourier Transform Infrared

26

Figure 20. Threeridge applicator tool.

Figure 21. Close up of polish on threeridge applicator tool (26x).

339-19-36

339-19-36

27

Spectroscopy. This method will identify the material composition of the paste/pigment residue if

they do not have post-excavation contamination. Results are pending at the time of writing (April

2011).

Discussion

In the archaeological shell assemblages from 13ML139, 13ML136, and 13ML133 there are a

total of 154 valves of 15 freshwater mussel species with an MNI (minimum number of

individuals) of 93 (See appendix A Table A4). The most common mussel species recovered is

the plain pocketbook representing 42 valves or 27%. The second most abundant species is the

threeridge, this represents 36 valves or 23%.

Of the 154 valves 125 are modified representing 81.2% of the assemblages. This

suggests that the freshwater mussel shells were being frequently collected to be used primarily as

tool stock, and perhaps as a minor food source. Specific species of shells are also being selected

for certain tool types. This is seen in the applicator tools as well as the scrapers. The applicators

are most commonly made from the shell of the threeridge. They may be selecting this specific

type of shell because the ridges on the exterior of the shell make it easier to apply pigment to a

hide then a shell with a smooth exterior. The scrapers are most often made on the black

sandshell. This species may have been selected because it is long and narrow and the ventral

margin is relatively straight and flat and this would make it easier to scrape a wider area. All

identified black sandshell valves were placed in the scraper category.

There is also a selection for the left valve of the plain pocketbook. This is the second

most common species on which the applicator tools are made. Of the 31 modified valves of the

plain pocketbook from all three assemblages 23 are from the left side, or 74%.

28

COMPARISON WITH WALL RIDGE (13ML176)

Wall Ridge Tools

The Wall Ridge site assemblage has 112 shell tools and tool fragments made on freshwater

mussel shells. Like the assemblage described above, modification are on the exterior and interior

shell surfaces and along the margins, with many of the shells tools appearing to have served

more than one function. These tools are made on locally available species. Several shell tool

categories were encountered at this site, these include; applicators, possible applicators, scrapers,

notched shell margins, spoons, a shell fish lure, a tubular shell bead, and pendants.

Applicators were first encountered at this site and theorized to be tools used to work

hides. There are 50 applicators and 18 possible applicators with the threeridge being the most

common species used (Figure 22A). There are also three shell spoons, two are on lefts valves of

a plain pocketbook and the third specimen was probably made on the same species (Figure 22B)

There are 11 scrapers and scraper fragments (Figure 22C). They share features with applicators

and three of the specimens fall into the possible applicator category. There are three shells that

fall into the notched shell margins category (figure 22D). They are believed to be scrapers or

scraper fragments, but may have been cutting tools. (Theler and Tiffany 2011:9-11).

There are three pendants at Wall Ridge cut from freshwater mussel shell. Two are

elongated and sub-triangular (Figure 23) and the third is on a fragment of a right valve. This third

pendant has grinding along the dorsal margin and a suspension hole below the hinge. (Theler and

Tiffany 2011:11-12).

29

Figure 22. Wall Ridge shell tools; A (threeridge applicator); B (spoon); C (scraper);

D (notched shell margins).

Source: Theler and Tiffany 2011

Figure 23. Sub-triangular pendant from the Wall Ridge site.


A B

C

D

30

There are two unique artifacts found in this assemblage, a shell fish lure and half of a

tubular bead. The lure is cut from a freshwater mussel shell valve (Figure 23A). It is smoothed

on the interior, exterior, and the margins. The artifact is detailed and looks like a species of chub

minnow. The tubular bead is made from marine shell (Figure 23B) (Theler and Tiffany 2011:11).

In the ―modified shell‖ category there are 19 specimens of unidentifiable fragments of

worked ventral margins and worked interior and exterior surfaces. Some could be pieces of the

working edge of shell hoes or fragments of applicators or scrapers. There are three specimens in

the ―other modified shell‖ category. One specimen is from a left valve and has been cut into a

sub-rectangular shaped wafer (Figure 24A). It may be an adze-like wood working or scraping

tool. The next specimen is sub-triangular and is the ventral anterior corner of a fragment (Figure

24B). The working surface has three shallow V-shaped notches on the edge. The final artifact is

a rectilinear fragment that has notched serrated edges (figure 24C) (Theler and Tiffany 2011:10-

12).

Figure 23. Wall Ridge shell tools; A (fish lure); B (marine shell bead).


A

B

31

Results

The three sites in this study share many similarities with the Wall Ridge shell assemblage.

Applicators are present at Wall Ridge and the three Glenwood sites considered in this report and

are the most common tool type of the shell assemblages. There is also a selection in tools for

specific shell species at both sites. The applicators are most commonly made from the threeridge

and the scrapers are made from the black sandshell. There are also several other tool categories

shared among the sites including pendants, notched shell margins, and spoons.

The sub-triangular pendant found at the Wall Ridge site was also found at the three sites

in this study. It could be that this specific type of pendant form is common among Glenwood

sites.

Figure 24. Wall Ridge shell tools; A (sub-rectangular wafer); B (sub-triangular fragment); C

(rectilinear fragment).


A

B

C

32

While shell beads are uncommon at Glenwood sites they are seen in the assemblages

from Wall Ridge and also from 13ML136. The shell bead from Wall Ridge is made from marine

shell while the four beads from 13ML136 are made from freshwater mussel shells. This is a

significant difference among the sites. To obtain the marine shell bead they would have had to

travel or trade for it while the freshwater shell beads could have come from a source very close

by.

APPLICATOR TOOL EXPERIMENT

Methods

Experimental research was conducted to provide possible functions of the applicator tools. Based

on microscopic examination of archaeological applicators with ―pigment‖ residue, an attempt

was made to duplicate the pigments and wear patterns observed. To accomplish this deer fat was

mixed with charcoal and with red ochre from hematite to produce black and red pigments. These

pigments were then rubbed into a dry deer hide to see if the same wear patterns seen on the

archaeological applicators could be reproduced.

The first step was to measure and mark four 625 cm² areas on the dry deer hide (Figure

25). These equal sized areas were the test areas for pigment application. The hematite was

ground using a file to achieve a fine powder to mix with the deer fat. The charcoal was crushed

and also sanded down with sand paper and then mixed with the deer fat. Both pigments were

mixed in plastic containers using wooden dowels; these were also used to work the deer fat until

it became paste-like, as this made it easier to apply.

33

Two different types of freshwater mussels were used to apply the pigment: the

pimpleback and the threeridge. These two shell species were chosen based on the most common

species of mussel used as the applicator tool from the archaeological assemblages. A total of two

whole freshwater mussels were used, or four valves. Each mussel was a matched set with a left

and right valve. The left valve of the threeridge was used to apply the hematite pigment and the

right valve was used to apply the charcoal.

Figure 25. Test areas on deer hide.

The opposite was done with the pimpleback, the left valve was used with the charcoal

and the right valve was used for the hematite. The experiment was tried in two different ways; in

the attempts with the valves of the threeridge the amount of time it took to fill the test square was

recorded. In the other attempts with the valves of the pimpleback the amount of time was

recorded as well as the amount of strokes it took to fill the test square.

34

The specimens and the hide were photographed at different times during the application

process and also after each test was completed. After all four valves had been used they were

each photographed under a microscope to view the wear patterns more closely. The

archaeological specimens were also photographed this way so that they were able to be

compared to the shells from the experiment.

Results

The applicator experiment was done to test the hypothesized function of the applicator tools

found in the freshwater mussel shell assemblages at the previously discussed sites (Theler and

Tiffany 2010:8-9). This experiment provided evidence that these tools were in fact used to apply

pigment.

In the experiment all four test areas were completely covered with pigment (Figure 26).

The first valve used was the right side of a threeridge. This shell was used in combination with

the charcoal pigment. It took 11 minutes and 30 seconds to fill the first test area of 625 cm².

After the first minute and 30 seconds the periostracum was already wearing away and polish

began to appear around the umbo of the shell (Figure 27). After the entire test area was filled

with pigment the layer of shell under the periostracum had also started to rub off which made the

polish more noticeable.

The second valve used was the left side of the threeridge. This shell was used with the

hematite and took a total of three minutes and 30 seconds to completely fill the test area. The

shorter time length had to do with the fact that the deer fat was considerably easier to mix with

the hematite and also to apply to the hide. Another factor was that using the left side of the shell

was significantly easier than using the right side. This valve showed some signs of polish on the

umbo, but due to the short amount time it took, the periostracum did not wear off nearly as

35

Figure 26. Completed test areas on deer hide.

Figures 27. Right valve of threeridge experimental applicator; A (before); B (after).

A B

36

Figure 28. Close up of left valve of threeridge experimental applicator used with hematite (26x).

Much. The umbo shows the polish beginning to appear (Figure 28). I had originally expected the

hematite to be grittier then the charcoal and cause more wear, but it caused significantly less.

In the third test the left valve of the pimpleback was used. This time the left valve was

used with charcoal to see if the left valve was actually easier to use or it was just the hematite. It

took four minutes and 30 seconds and 640 strokes to cover the test area with pigment. I am right

handed and found the left valve was easier to work with then the first right valve, even though

both were used with charcoal. The periostracum on this shell also wore off and polish began to

show, the pustules on the back of the shell showed signs of wear (Figure 29).

The final shell used was the right side of a pimpleback. It took two minutes and 30

seconds and 116 strokes to fill the square with hematite pigment. At this point the deer fat was

37

Figure 29. Close up of pustules on left valve of pimpleback experimental applicator (26x).

Figure 30. Close up of pustule wear on right valve of pimpleback experimental applicator (26x).

38

very pasty; this made it very easy to apply to the hide which is why it did not take long to fill the

area. This shell also began to show signs of wear, mostly on its pustules (Figure 30).The wear

seen on the previous shells; this includes the polish on the umbo, on the pustules, and the

location where the pigment ends up pooling, is identical to the archaeological specimens. Shells

where the pustules have been worn down and polished include a pistolgrip (Figure 31) and a

mapleleaf (Figure 32).

Figure 31. Archaeological applicator tool made from a pistolgrip; A (whole valve); B (close up

of pustules) (26x).

Figure 32. Archaeological applicator tool made from a mapleleaf; A (whole valve); B (close up

of pustules) (26x).

339-FP-4

A B

339-19-83

A B

3 mm

39

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of the freshwater mussel shells from three prehistoric Glenwood sites clarifies the

functions and uses of certain shell tools recovered at Nebraska phase sites. These shells were

collected with their main purpose to be used as tools, their soft tissue may have been eaten, but

they do not appear to have represented a significant food source.

The three sites in this study show commonalities with the more intensively studied Wall

Ridge site. The tool categories and shape/modification of the tools is similar. The sub-triangular

pendants and spoons are two types of tools that have identical modification and are a specific

Glenwood trait. Selection for shells as specific tools is also a similarity among the sites. This is

seen in the use of the threeridge for the majority of the applicator tools and the use of the black

sandshell for the scrapers. This selection could be based on how useful the shape of each shell is

for the task that will be performed, and is a common Glenwood trait. The single marine shell

bead fragment found at Wall Ridge is the only difference between the sites. Marine shell beads

are uncommon in Glenwood sites. This specimen was probably received through trade with other

native groups; and probably was considered valuable.

The recently recognized applicator tool was also successfully replicated. This hypothesis

was tested by using four freshwater mussel valves to rub deer fat mixed with charcoal or

hematite into a dry deer hide. The wear patterns produced from this experiment matched the

archaeological applicators from the assemblages of the three sites. These patterns include high

polish on the exterior that has worn through several layers of the shell, more specifically the

umbo and the pustules (if present); pigment that has gathered at the umbo margins, and few

striations near the umbo. The archaeological specimens also have an organic residue that has

been ground onto the shell near the umbo. For this experiment it was also hypothesized that one

40

side of the shell would be easier to use based on handedness. It was found that for a right handed

person the left valve was easier to hold and maneuver.

41

APPENDIX A

SHELL TOOL DATA TABLES

42

Table A1. Shell Tool Categorization of Site 13ML139.

Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Applicators

Ligumia recta

1 L V V I, V, P B - E, P RE - E, M red tint, fresh damage on margin

Amblema plicata

10 L U B - E, D, A

11 L U RE - U

13 L U, r, A B - E, D, P scratches on interior

14 L E, U RE - U calcium carbonate on exterior

15 L U B - U calcium carbonate on exterior with charcoal underneath, Tested

16 R U red charcoal over black charcoal

18 L U B - E, V black charcoal under calcium carbonate on exterior

19 R U I, V B - U

20 R U B - U

22 R U B - U

23 R U B - U red tint unknown origin, marks on umbo

24 R V V U RE - U

27 L U B - U

29a R U B - U

29b R U B - U

43

Table A1 (continued).

Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Lampsilis cardium

32 R U B - E, V, U RE - U

33 L U RE - U most of edge is damaged

34 L U E, A RE - E, V, A red staining is pigment, underneath calcium carbonate on exterior

36 R U B - U, V, D, A

staining? calcium carbonate on exterior, charcoal underneath the umbo

37 R U E, A RE - U stained, calcium carbonate on exterior, few striations on exterior

40 L U E, D RE - U few striations on exterior, red material

41 R U I, P

RE - E, A, U B - E, A few striations on interior

44 R U R & B - E, V, A polish could be natural, no striations

46 L U U B - E, U

74 L V V U U RE - I, P B - E, A

marks on umbo, could be more smoothed margin but is damaged

77 L U B & RE - E, A, V, P, U shell hoe

Potamilus alatus

49 R U E, D, U B & RE - U traces of red ochre

50 R E, V E, D, I, D RE - E, V, P, I, D red in margins, red streaks parallel

44


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

51 L U U RE - E, V red under calcium carbonate on exterior

59 R U U U RE/Br - E, D interior scratches

Lampsilis siliquoidea

57 L U U B - E, A

Quadrula verrucosa

R V M, V B - E calcium carbonate on exterior

64 R V M, V, U B - E, D

Alasmidonta marginata

68 L U RE - U, I, P

red staining - pigment, calcium carbonate on interior, periostricum is present

69 L I, D B - E, A Polish?

Fusconaia flava

70 L V V B - U black by umbo, red could be soil

Quadrula quadrula

81 R P, V, A P, V, A U B -E, A, U orange/red is periostricum, pustules worn down and polished

82 R P, V, A P, V, A B - E, D, V, A

margin is also nicked, charcoal has striations, PS, charcoal is densely packed

83 L V, A V, A U B - U BR/Or

margin is nicked, pustules polished, black paint with brown/orange paint on top

45


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

85 L P, V, A P, V, A RE - U red ochre almost calcified

86 R V V RE/Or - U like No. 85, fits with No. 87

87 L P, V, A P, V, A RE - E, D, P

margin is fresh, fits with No. 86, same as No. 85

88 R V V B & RE - U

Quadrula pustulosa

89 R P, V, A P, V, A E, D RE - E, D pustulosa without pustules, same as No. 85

cf. Quadrula pustulosa

100 R U B - E, U red charcoal?

Lampsilis teres teres

90 L U U (faint) B - E, A interior scratches

92 R U U (faint) B - E, P RE - U

black over calcium carbonate, scratches on umbo

93 R U B - E, P RE - U

black under calcium carbonate, scratches on umbo

Possible Applicators

Amblema plicata

12 L U U calcium carbonate on exterior

17 R E, U, r E, U, r

B - U RE - U wear and striations on ridges

21 R U

Lampsilis cardium

31 L E, P U E, D calcium carbonate on exterior

46


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Ligumia recta

6 R V V U B - I, P

very little black charcoal, scratches on interior, calcium carbonate on exterior

Lampsilis cardium

38 L U E, P, D, U black coloration - unknown origin, animal marks on umbo

39 R U black coloration - unknown origin

40 L U E, D RE - U few striations on exterior, red material

42 L U

45 L U I, V, U umbo is ground, red staining - unknown origin

47 R

48 L U U ground perforation on interior

Potamilus alatus

56 R

73 L U U margins damaged V, A, P, calcium carbonate on exterior

75 L U U exterior eaten away

76 L U U

78 L E, A U I, P

red staining unknown origin, smoothed margin under calcium carbonate

102 L U E, D, A pseudo cardinal intentionally ground down

105 R? U few scratches

47


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Quadrula verrucosa

65 R U margin damaged - V, calcium carbonate on exterior

60 L U

pustules near umbo missing, brown/orange substance - unknown origin

Lampsilis teres teres

91 R

Unid. Fragment

113 V red tint

109 D E, D smoothed margin under calcium carbonate, aboriginal break

Scrapers

Ligumia recta

1 L V V I, V, P B - E, P RE - E, M red tint, fresh damage on margin

2 L V, P V, P calcium carbonate on exterior

3 R V V calcium carbonate on exterior, very small shell

4 L V V calcium carbonate on exterior

5 L V V E, D calcium carbonate on interior

6 R V V U B - I, P

very little black charcoal, scratches on interior, calcium carbonate on exterior

7 R P I, A damaged margin, calcium carbonate on exterior

48


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

8 L V V U E, U margin ground down and damaged, calcium carbonate on interior

9 R V V

99 L V V U

Lampsilis cardium

103

Quadrula verrucosa

61 R V V U periostricum present, calcium carbonate on interior

62 R V M, V red tint, could be periostricum

63 R V M, V B - E calcium carbonate on exterior

66 L V V U U margin is notched, pustules smoothed, fine striations near edge

67 L V V

Quadrula quadrula

79 L E, P, V, A

E, P, V, A

striations on umbo, red is periostracum

80 R P, V P, V margin is nicked, red is periostricum/clay

84 R P, V P, V margin is notched

Quadrula pustulosa

89 R P, V, A P, V, A E, D RE - E, D pustulosa without pustules, same as No. 85

Potamilus alatus

49


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

50 R E, V E, D, I, D RE - E, V, P, I, D red in margins, red streaks parallel

Unid. Fragment

108 V margin is fresh, mostly breaks

110 V

112 V more of margin could be smoothed, can't tell because of fresh breaks

113 V red tint

Notched Margins

Quadrula verrucosa

66 L V V U U margin is notched, pustules smoothed, fine striations near edge

Fusconaia flava

70 L V V B - U black by umbo, red could be soil

Quadrula quadrula

79 L E, P, V, A

E, P, V, A

striations on umbo, red is periostracum

80 R P, V P, V margin is nicked, red is periostricum/clay

81 R P, V, A P, V, A U B -E, A, U orange/red is periostricum, pustules worn down and polished

83 L V, A V, A U B - U BR/Or

margin is nicked, pustules polished, black paint with brown/orange paint on top

84 R P, V P, V margin is notched

50


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Unid. Fragment

107 V margin is nicked

Other Modified

Lampsilis cardium

35 L E E E smoothing of entire shell, polish all over

Potamilus alatus

52 L U I, D, A calcium carbonate on exterior, scratches from a root

96 R U U U B - U RE - U

red charcoal could be soil, a few striations on umbo from wear

Ligumia recta

5 L V V E, D calcium carbonate on interior

Unid. Fragment

111 E

Pendant

Fusconaia flava

72 R E RE - E, A hole in umbo - pendant. Filed down, red tint - shell was colored

Formal Tools

184 turkey pendant, two holes drilled

185 triangular pendant

186 triangular pendant

Quadrula pustulosa

95 L V E hole ground in - pendant

51


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Shell Hoe

Potamilus alatus

53 R I, around hole

shell hoe - perforation from pecking, D

Spoon

Lampsilis siliquoidea

58 R P P U RE - E striations on umbo below beak, spoon?

Pendant Preform

Quadrula pustulosa

94 L V E margin is fresh damage

Scrap Material

Unid. Fragment

116 mark cut on interior, ground groove

Lampsilis cardium

38 L U E, P, D, U black coloration unknown origin, animal marks on umbo

Key

A = anterior

V = ventral

P = posterior

D = dorsal

U = umbo

R = right

52


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h

I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

L = left

E = exterior

I = interior

? = uncertain

F = fragment

r = ridge

B = black

RE = red

Br = brown

Or = Orange

53


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Applicators

Potamilus alatus

118 R E, U U B - E, P edge is damaged

120 R B - E, D, A, I

charcoal paste above periostracum, scratches on interior, E, D

Amblema plicata

123 R U B - E, D, A few scratches on ridges

124 L B - U small speck

125 L U B - E, D, A, U

126 L B - U

127 L U (very light) B - U

131 R B - U

Fusconaia flava

140 L B - U

Lasmigona complanata

141 R V V R - I, D, A

169 R B - E, D conjoins with No. 170, polish

170 R B - E, D conjoins with No. 169, black paste in crevice

Quadrula verrucosa

143b L B - U

146 R V, A V, A R - U margin is notched

54


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Ligumia recta

147 R P, V, A

P, V, A U R - U

148 R V V R - E

Unid. Fragment

167 R R/Br - E, D not periostracum, like shell No. 85

171 ? E (all over) B - E, V

182 ? B - E


Unid. Fragment

181 ? B & R - E few marks on exterior from wear, polish? very little charcoal

183 R B & R - U black charcoal is questionable

Lampsilis cardium

121 L U E (all over)

Scrapers

Lampsilis cardium

122 L V V U U

Quadrula verrucosa

144 L V V


Ligumia recta

146 R P, V, A

P, V, A U R - U

55


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

147 L V trace of ground edge, polish?

148 R V V R - E

Unid. Fragment

152 ? V E

174 ? V V E (all over) margin is notched


141 R V V R - I, D, A

Notched

Quadrula ventricosa

144 L V V


Unid. Fragment

174 ? V V E (all over) margin is notched

Other Modified

Unid. Fragment

178 ? E Polish

Beads

Formal Tools

150 four beads, freshwater mussel shell, different diameter perforations,

Pendant

Formal Tools

56


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns

I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

151 shell pendant, broken, heat damage

Key A = anterior V = ventral P = posterior D = dorsal U = umbo R = right L = left E = exterior I = interior ? = uncertain F = fragment r = ridge B = black RE = red Br = brown Or = Orange

57


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

Applicators

Amblema plicata

155 L V E, D smoothed edge


157 L B - U


Lampsilis cardium

153 L U U B & R - U

black could be mineral, but probably charcoal

156 L U E, D

Shell Hoes

Potamilus alatus

154 L I (around hole)

hole pecked - D, fresh damage, marks on umbo, nicks on broken edge, shell hoe

Other Modified

Unid. Fragment

160 ? E

58


Specie

s

No.

Sid

e

Sm

ooth

ed

Marg

ins

Str

iate

d

Marg

ins

Polis

h I/E

Sm

ooth

ed

I/E

Grindin

g

Str

iatio

ns I/E

Charc

oa

l

Paste

Com

ments

163 ? E

Key A = anterior V = ventral P = posterior D = dorsal U = umbo R = right L = left E = exterior I = interior ? = uncertain F = fragment r = ridge B = black RE = red Br = brown Or = Orange

59

Table A4. MNI (Minimum number of Individuals).

Species Rt Lt Rt Lt Rt Lt Rt Lt Rt Lt Rt Lt

Alasmidonta marginata - 2 - - - - - - - - - -

Amblema plicata 12 11 1 2 2 4 2 1 - 1 - -

cf. Lampsilis - - - - - - - 2 - - - -

cf. Quadrula pustulosa 1 - - - - - - - - - - -

Fusconaia flava - 2 - 1 - 1 - - - - - -

Lampsilis cardium 8 19 1 3 - 2 1 3 - 2 - 3

Lampsilis siliquoidea 1 1 - - - - - - - - - -

Lampsilis teres teres 3 1 - - - - - - - - - -

Lasmigona complanata - - - - 3 - - 2 - 1 - -

Leptodea fragilis - - - - - - - 1 - - - -

Ligumia recta 4 6 - - 2 1 - - - - - -

Potamilus alatus 4 4 - 2 2 - 1 2 - 1 - -

Quadrula pustulosa 1 2 - - - - - - - - - -

Quadrula quadrula 6 4 - 1 - - - - - - - -

Quadrula verrucosa 5 3 - - 1 2 - - - - - -

Total 45 55 2 9 10 10 4 11 0 5 0 3

Unmodified

13ML136 13ML133

UnmodifiedModified

13ML139

Modified Unmodified Modified

60

APPENDIX B

ARTIFACTS FROM GLENWOOD SITES

61

Figure B1. Artifact Catalog of 13ML133.


62

Figure B2. Artifact catalog of 13ML136.


63

Figure B3. Ceramic artifacts from 13ML136.

Source: Billeck (1993:figure 4.21)

64

Figure B4. Artifact catalog of 13ML139.


65

Figure B5. Ceramic artifacts from site 13ML139.


66

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