Foreign Policy in the 1920s. Key Concept In the years following World War I, the United States pursued a unilateral foreign policy that used international.

Foreign Policy in the 1920s

Key Concept

• In the years following World War I, the United States pursued a unilateral foreign policy that used international investment, peace treaties, and select military intervention to promote a vision of international order, even while maintaining U.S. isolationism, which continued to the late 1930s.

-Washington Naval Conference, Stimson Doctrine, Neutrality Acts

• After WWI America returned to its isolationist tendencies

• “Irreconcilables” in Congress continued to oppose the League of Nations-U.S. sent “unofficial observers” to attend

America Seeks Benefits Without Burdens

• Making peace with fallen foe:– U.S.A., having rejected Treaty of Versailles,

technically at war with Germany, Austria, and Hungary:• In 1921 Congress passed simple joint resolution that

declared war over

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Middle East

• Nations recognized the strategic importance of oil

• Under Harding, Secretary Hughes secured for U.S. oil companies right to share in Middle East oil exploitations

– Disarmament an issue for Harding:• Businessmen did not want to finance naval building program

started during war• Washington “Disarmament Conference” 1921-1922:

– Invitations sent to all but Bolshevik Russia (U.S. refused to recognize the new government)

– Agenda included naval disarmament and situation in Far East– Hughes declared 10-year “holiday” on construction of battleships– Proposed scaled-down navies of America and Britain with parity

• Five-Power Treaty (1922)-– Agreed to reduce capital ships (ie., battleships and aircraft

carriers)– 5:5:3 ratio for U.S., Britain, and Japan

Washington Naval Conference

Figure 31-1 p723

• Four-Power Treaty (1922)– Britain, Japan, France, and United States to preserve status quo in

Pacific; agreed to consultation in the event of a crisis– In a concession to the Japanese, the U.S. and Britain agreed not to

fortify possessions in the Pacific• Nine-Power Treaty (1922)

– signatories agreed to keep open the Open Door in China- “Sick Man of the Far East”

– Recognized Japanese dominance in Manchuria• Conference important, but:

– No restrictions on construction of smaller warship– Congress made no commitment to use of armed force– U.S. did not want to spend money on building up its navy, while

other nations put money into their non-capital ships

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

• “Outlawed” war• Calvin Coolidge’s Secretary of State, Frank B.

Kellogg, won Nobel Peace Prize for his role• 15 nations signed treaty• Eventually ratified by 62 nations

• New parchment peace delusory:– Defensive wars still permitted– Pact virtually useless– Reflected American mind (1920s):• Willing to be lulled into false sense of security • Same attitude showed up in neutralism of 1930s

Foreign Policy Under Calvin• Isolation continued to reign in Coolidge era:

• Senate did not allow America to adhere to World Court (of the League of Nations)

• Coolidge halfheartedly and unsuccessfully pursued further naval disarmament

• Intervention in Caribbean and Central America:– Troops withdrawn (after eight-year stay) from Dominican

Republic in 1924– Remained in Haiti (1914-1934) – America in Nicaragua intermittently since 1909; Coolidge briefly

removed troops in 1925, but in 1926 he sent them back in order to protect American lives and interests; they remained until 1933

– Oil companies clamored for military expedition to Mexico in 1926, but Coolidge resisted; U.S.-Mexican tensions increased

Map 29-1 p667

International Debt

• overshadowed all foreign-policy problems in 1920s:– Complicated tangle of private loans, Allied war

debts, and German reparations payments (see Figure 31.2)

– 1914: U.S.A. a debtor nation to sum of $4 billion– 1922: U.S.A. a creditor nation to sum of $16

billion

Figure 31-2 p729

• U.S. Treasury had loaned to $10 billion to the Allies during war– Allies protested U.S. demand for repayment as

unfair• French and British stressed they had suffered

tremendous losses against common foe• America, they argued, should write off loans as war

costs• Borrowed dollars fueled wartime boom in U.S.

economy, where nearly all Allied purchases had been made• Final straw, protested Europeans, was America's

postwar tariffs made it almost impossible for Europeans to sell goods to earn dollars to pay debts

• Allied debts affected policy on reparations:– French and British demanded $32 billion in

reparations payments from Germany (Germany’s debt was only paid off in 2010)

– Allies hoped to use money to settle war debts since U.S.A. demanded repayment

– As Germany suffered tremendous inflation, some Europeans proposed debts and reparations be scaled down or even canceled

– Coolidge rejected any idea of debt cancellation

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Dawes Plan (1924)

• Negotiated by Charles Dawes, about to be Coolidge's running mate

• Rescheduled German reparations payments• Opened way for more private American loans to

Germany• Whole financial cycle became more complicated:

• U.S. bankers loaned money to Germany,• Germany paid reparations to France and Britain,• Former Allies paid war debts to United States

• After crash of 1929, U.S. loans dried up– President Herbert Hoover declared one-year

moratorium in 1931, but most debtors soon defaulted• Except “honest little Finland,” which struggled along

making payments until last of debt discharged in 1976• United States never did get its money, but its policies

generated ill will

Japanese Militarists Attack China

• Depression increased international difficulties• Militaristic Japan stole Far Eastern spotlight:

• September, 1931: Japanese imperialists lunged into Manchuria• America had strong sentimental stake in China, but few

significant economic interests• Americans stunned by act of naked aggression

– Flagrant violation of League of Nations covenant and other international agreements solemnly signed by Tokyo

– Not to mention American sense of fair play

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Japanese Militarists Attack China (cont.)

– Yet Washington rebuffed League attempts to secure U.S. cooperation in economic pressure on Japan

– Washington and Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson decided to fire only paper bullets• So-called Stimson doctrine (1932):

– Declared United States would not recognize any territorial acquisitions achieved by force

– Righteous indignation—or preach-and-run policy—would substitute for solid initiatives

– Verbal slap not deter Japan's militarists• Bombed Shanghai (1932) killing many civilians

Japanese Militarists Attach China (cont.)

– No real sentiment for armed intervention among depression-ridden Americans, who remained strongly isolationist during the 1930s

– Collective security died and World War II born in 1931 in Manchuria

Hoover’s Good Neighbor Policy• Hoover wanted to improve relations with Latin

America• 1928- As president-elect, he undertook a

seven week tour of the region• After stock market crash of 1929, desire to

pursue economic imperialism declined

• Hoover advocated international goodwill– Strove to abandon interventionist twist given

Monroe Doctrine by Theodore Roosevelt• Negotiated with Haiti for withdrawal of U.S.

troops by 1934• In 1933, last U.S. marines left Nicaragua after

almost continuous stay of some twenty years• Hoover engineered foundation of Good

Neighbor policy– Policy advanced by Franklin Roosevelt