Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 Chapter Twelve: Achievement.

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Chapter Twelve:Chapter Twelve:

Achievement Achievement


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What is Achievement?What is Achievement?• Achievement includes Achievement includes

performance in performance in educational settings, educational settings, hopes and plans for hopes and plans for future scholastic and future scholastic and occupational careersoccupational careers

• Important because Important because our society places our society places such an emphasis on such an emphasis on occupational successoccupational success

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Why is Achievement an Adolescent Why is Achievement an Adolescent Issue?Issue?

• Achievement is a lifelong concern, but Achievement is a lifelong concern, but adolescence merits special attention because:adolescence merits special attention because:– It is a time of preparation for adult work rolesIt is a time of preparation for adult work roles– Teens evaluate differences in school Teens evaluate differences in school

performance in regard to future success. It is performance in regard to future success. It is the first time performance in school is tied to the first time performance in school is tied to future outcomesfuture outcomes

– Educational decisions are numerous and Educational decisions are numerous and consequences of decisions are serious (i.e., consequences of decisions are serious (i.e., what type of classes; what they want to do after what type of classes; what they want to do after high school)high school)


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What Motivates What Motivates Adolescents to Achieve?Adolescents to Achieve?

• Need for achievement (Nach)Need for achievement (Nach)– Extent to which an individual strives for success Extent to which an individual strives for success

and is intrinsically motivated to perform welland is intrinsically motivated to perform well

• Teens with high need for achievement have Teens with high need for achievement have authoritative parents who have encouraged authoritative parents who have encouraged success and:success and:

• Set high performance standardsSet high performance standards• Rewarded achievement success during Rewarded achievement success during

childhoodchildhood• Encouraged autonomy and independenceEncouraged autonomy and independence


Puberty and Achievement

• Changes what is important in order to maintain status

• Dating and being attractive to opposite sex may be more important than doing well in school


Cognitive changes and achievement

• Because they think in a more sophisticated manner, they begin to hypothesize about future more

• However, they don’t really have the life experience to adequately make these decisions


Social Roles and Achievement

• Child labor laws typically keep kids out of the work force until they are in mid adolescence

• Adolescents don’t think about long-term life goals until mid adolescence


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What Motivates What Motivates Adolescents to Achieve?Adolescents to Achieve?

• Fear of failureFear of failure– Often manifested by feelings of anxietyOften manifested by feelings of anxiety– Interferes with successful performanceInterferes with successful performance– Interacts with adolescents’ need for achievement Interacts with adolescents’ need for achievement

• UnderachieversUnderachievers– Have weak need for achievement and high fear Have weak need for achievement and high fear

of failureof failure– Tend to avoid and dread challenging situationsTend to avoid and dread challenging situations– Grades are lower than expected based on abilityGrades are lower than expected based on ability


Self-handicapping strategies

• Some students don’t put in effort because it is not “cool”

• Want to hide the fact that they do poorly because of low ability

• Some of the things they do to hinder their own performance:– Joking around– Studying at last minute– Turning in incomplete

homework, if at all– Acting like school is

not important


Theories of Motivation

• 1 – Instinct Theory

– Innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior

• In animals, we look at a fixed action pattern – where an innate biological force predisposes an organism to behave in a certain way under certain environmental conditions


• 2 – Drive-Reduction Theory

• States that a need results in a drive, which is a state of tension that motivates the organism to act to reduce the tension and return the body to homeostasis

• Homeostasis – tendency for the body to return and remain in a more balanced physiological state


Drive-Reduction theory cont’d

• There are two types of drives in this theory:– Primary drives: biological needs – same for

everyone

– Secondary drives: learned needs – vary from person to person


Incentive theory• 3. Incentive theory

• States that an organism’s behavior is motivated by external stimuli, such as reinforcers or rewards.

• Different from the cognitive theory because this is more behavioral

• Behavior driven by desire, not need


• 4. – Arousal theory – – When level of stimulation drops below the

organism’s optimum level, the organism will seek ways of increasing the stimulation. Those with a high need for arousal will seek exciting experiences, called sensation-seekers – often get bored and may be unable to restrain impulses

– When level of stimulation exceeds optimal level, the organism will seek ways of decreasing the stimulation


Arousal theory cont’d

• This theory may explain behaviors that don’t appear driven by biological factors

• Why do some people feel the need to drive fast or ride on roller coasters? What is the drive behind this need? Some call it sensation-seeking


Arousal and Performance

• Yerkes-Dodson Law– People perform best under

moderate conditions of arousal – that is, a little anxiety or stress goes a long way for people

– However, too little arousal or too much arousal may hinder performance


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs


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Why Are Beliefs Important for Why Are Beliefs Important for Achievement?Achievement?

• Adolescents’ beliefs about their abilities Adolescents’ beliefs about their abilities influence their actual achievement, which, influence their actual achievement, which, in turn, shapes their beliefs about their in turn, shapes their beliefs about their abilitiesabilities


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• Two types of motivation are affected by Two types of motivation are affected by adolescents’ beliefs about their abilities:adolescents’ beliefs about their abilities:

– Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation

• Strive to achieve because of the internal Strive to achieve because of the internal pleasure they get out of learning and pleasure they get out of learning and mastering the materialmastering the material

– Extrinsic motivationExtrinsic motivation

• Strive to achieve because of external rewards Strive to achieve because of external rewards or punishment for performanceor punishment for performance


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• Stereotype threat (Claude Steele)Stereotype threat (Claude Steele)– Students’ beliefs about their Students’ beliefs about their

abilities, and their subsequent abilities, and their subsequent performance can be affected performance can be affected by situational factorsby situational factors

– Telling ethnic minorities or Telling ethnic minorities or females that their group females that their group typically does poorly on a typically does poorly on a certain kind of test results in certain kind of test results in lower scores on that testlower scores on that test


Stereotype Threat• Those who identify

themselves with a race that has a positive image do well on tests and vice versa

• Tends to last as long as the stereotype (i.e., black student’s performance went up after Obama was elected – named “the Obama effect”)


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• Three factors interact to predict Three factors interact to predict students’ behavior in schoolstudents’ behavior in school

– Belief that intelligence is fixed or Belief that intelligence is fixed or malleablemalleable

– Intrinsic or extrinsic orientationIntrinsic or extrinsic orientation– Sense of self-efficacySense of self-efficacy

• Achievement AttributionsAchievement Attributions– Explanations students give for their Explanations students give for their

success or failuresuccess or failure– Learned helplessness is the belief Learned helplessness is the belief

that failure is inevitablethat failure is inevitable– Self-fulfilling prophecies Self-fulfilling prophecies


Internal vs. external attributions

• Internal attributions – when we tend to look at the characteristics or the character of a person to judge their behavior (ours or others)

• External attributions – when we make judgments about behaviors based on the situation occurring


Attributions

• Self-serving bias – when we are successful, we tend to look at internal attributions. When we fail, we tend to look at external attributions.


If the other If the other person is person is

perceived to be:perceived to be:

A successA success A failureA failure

Like meLike me Internal Internal attributionattribution

External External attributionsattributions

Not like meNot like me External External attributionsattributions

Internal Internal attributionsattributions


Drop in Motivation During the Transition into Drop in Motivation During the Transition into Secondary SchoolSecondary School

• Students’ motivation and school performance Students’ motivation and school performance decline when they move into secondary schooldecline when they move into secondary school

– Possible explanationsPossible explanations

• Shift toward a more performance-oriented style Shift toward a more performance-oriented style of instruction and evaluationof instruction and evaluation

• Elementary schools stress mastering the Elementary schools stress mastering the materialsmaterials

• Secondary schools place emphasis on Secondary schools place emphasis on achieving high gradesachieving high grades

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Does the Home Environment Does the Home Environment Influence Achievement?Influence Achievement?

• Despite the importance of school Despite the importance of school environment, aspects of the home are better environment, aspects of the home are better predictors of academic achievement:predictors of academic achievement:– Parents’ values and expectationsParents’ values and expectations– Parents’ general approach to parentingParents’ general approach to parenting

– Quality of the homeQuality of the home environment provided - environment provided - cultural capital-exposure to art, music, cultural capital-exposure to art, music, literature has a positive impactliterature has a positive impact

social capital-having adult support, social capital-having adult support, encouragement and involvementencouragement and involvement


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How Do Friends Influence How Do Friends Influence Achievement?Achievement?

• Friends are the most salient influence on Friends are the most salient influence on adolescents’ day-to-day school adolescents’ day-to-day school behaviors such as doing homework and behaviors such as doing homework and exerting effort in classexerting effort in class

• Friends do not always undermine Friends do not always undermine successsuccess

• By middle school, adolescents are By middle school, adolescents are increasingly worried about their friends’ increasingly worried about their friends’ reactions to school successreactions to school success


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What Is Educational What Is Educational Achievement?Achievement?

• Educational achievement is Educational achievement is defined in three ways defined in three ways

– School performance (grades School performance (grades earned)earned)

– Academic achievement Academic achievement (performance on standardized (performance on standardized tests)tests)

– Educational attainment (years Educational attainment (years of schooling completed)of schooling completed)


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How Does SES Affect Educational How Does SES Affect Educational Achievement?Achievement?

• Compared to lower-class peers, middle-class Compared to lower-class peers, middle-class adolescents:adolescents:

– Score higher on basic tests of academic skillsScore higher on basic tests of academic skills– Earn higher grades in schoolEarn higher grades in school– Complete more years of schooling Complete more years of schooling

• Reasons for worse school performance of poor Reasons for worse school performance of poor youth?youth?

– They begin school with a distinct academic disadvantage They begin school with a distinct academic disadvantage (scoring lower on tests of basic skills)(scoring lower on tests of basic skills)

– Genetic (lower IQ) and environmental (less cultural and Genetic (lower IQ) and environmental (less cultural and social capital) disadvantagessocial capital) disadvantages

– Experience more stressful life eventsExperience more stressful life events


Early InterventionEarly Intervention

• Interventions designed to improve Interventions designed to improve academic achievement of very poor academic achievement of very poor youngstersyoungsters– Target school skills and strengthen links Target school skills and strengthen links

between parents and their child’s schoolbetween parents and their child’s school

• Long-term evaluations show significant Long-term evaluations show significant successsuccess

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Are There Ethnic Differences in Educational Are There Ethnic Differences in Educational Achievement?Achievement?

• Black and Hispanic students achieve less than Black and Hispanic students achieve less than White studentsWhite students

• Educational achievements of all groups lag Educational achievements of all groups lag behind Asian-American studentsbehind Asian-American students– Many Asian American adolescents believe that Many Asian American adolescents believe that

the the onlyonly way to succeed in mainstream way to succeed in mainstream American society is through educational American society is through educational achievementachievement

– Sense of obligation to parents does Sense of obligation to parents does notnot seem seem to predict school achievementto predict school achievement


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Are There Ethnic Differences in Educational Are There Ethnic Differences in Educational Achievement?Achievement?

• Asian Americans’ success may be Asian Americans’ success may be because they:because they:– are intrinsically motivated are intrinsically motivated – spend more time on homework spend more time on homework – spend less time watching TV and spend less time watching TV and

socializingsocializing• Contrary to popular belief, Asian-Contrary to popular belief, Asian-

American students: American students: – Are not subject to greater anxiety, Are not subject to greater anxiety,

depression, or stressdepression, or stress– Report more positive moods when Report more positive moods when

studying than other groupsstudying than other groups

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Has Educational Achievement Has Educational Achievement Changed Over Time?Changed Over Time?

• Trends in academic achievement (what Trends in academic achievement (what students know)students know) have not paralleled trends in have not paralleled trends in educational attainmenteducational attainment– Students stay in school longer but are not Students stay in school longer but are not

learning morelearning more


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Has Educational Achievement Changed Over Has Educational Achievement Changed Over Time?Time?

• American students fare poorly in international American students fare poorly in international comparisonscomparisons, despite the fact that spending on , despite the fact that spending on education in the United States is among the education in the United States is among the world's highestworld's highest

• Reasons given for poor achievement in the Reasons given for poor achievement in the United States United States

– Teachers aren’t spending enough time on basic Teachers aren’t spending enough time on basic instructioninstruction

– Textbooks have become less challengingTextbooks have become less challenging– Parents do not encourage academic pursuits at Parents do not encourage academic pursuits at

homehome– Students choose their own classesStudents choose their own classes– Grade inflation Grade inflation – – good grades without hard good grades without hard

workwork


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Dropping Out of High SchoolDropping Out of High School

• 9% of individuals 16 to 24 are not enrolled in 9% of individuals 16 to 24 are not enrolled in school and do not have high school diploma school and do not have high school diploma or GEDor GED– Hispanic adolescents have the highest dropout Hispanic adolescents have the highest dropout

raterate

• Dropping out is the culmination of a long Dropping out is the culmination of a long process (repeated academic failure and process (repeated academic failure and alienation from school)alienation from school)

• Interventions that focus on guided Interventions that focus on guided discussions of options are promisingdiscussions of options are promising


Dropping Out of High SchoolDropping Out of High School

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Theories of Career Development

Super’s Self-Concept Theory • Individuals’ self-concepts play central roles in their

career choices• During adolescence individuals first construct a career

self-concept• Develop ideas about work• Crystallize or narrow their choices • Begin to initiate behavior for some type of career• Begin specific training for a career • In later life - after 35 years of age - begin to

consolidate & engage in career enhancement


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How Do Adolescents Develop Occupational How Do Adolescents Develop Occupational Plans?Plans?

• Super’s theorySuper’s theory

– Occupational plans develop in stagesOccupational plans develop in stages

• Crystallization (around 4 to 18)Crystallization (around 4 to 18)

– Individuals begin to formulate ideas about appropriate workIndividuals begin to formulate ideas about appropriate work

• Specification (around ages 18 to 21) Specification (around ages 18 to 21)

– Recognizes the need to specify vocational interestsRecognizes the need to specify vocational interests

– Begins to seek appropriate information to do thisBegins to seek appropriate information to do this

• Involves an integration of influences from one’s past with one’s hopes Involves an integration of influences from one’s past with one’s hopes for the future for the future

• Labor force changes have pushed this process back to later ages Labor force changes have pushed this process back to later ages –– now crystallization may begin in late college years and specification now crystallization may begin in late college years and specification not until mid-20snot until mid-20s


Theories of Career Development

• Three main theories describe manner in which adolescents make choices about career development:

Ginzberg’s Developmental Theory • Children and adolescents go through three career-

choice stages: fantasy, tentative, and realistic• Until about age 11, children are in fantasy stage with

unrealistic visions of their career• Tentative stage is a transitional and occurs in the early

to mid-adolescent years• Realistic stage explores, focuses & then selects a

career


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What Influences What Influences Occupational Plans?Occupational Plans?

• Work valuesWork values– The different sort of The different sort of

rewards individuals rewards individuals seek from their workseek from their work

– Contemporary Contemporary adolescents have adolescents have unrealistic and overly unrealistic and overly ambitious ideas about ambitious ideas about these rewards these rewards

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 Chapter Twelve: Achievement.

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