Clocks/timers, Time, and GPS...– 8253/8254 PIT (Programmable Interval Timer) – APIC (Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller) – ACPI (Advanced Configuration Programmable Interrupt)

FYS3240

PC-based instrumentation and microcontrollers

Clocks/timers, Time, and GPS

Spring 2015 – Lecture #11

Bekkeng, 22.12.2014

How good is a crystal oscillator (XO) ?

• Interested in the long-term measurement stability and

accuracy

• Watch crystal oscillator: about 20 ppm, or worse

– Error > 1.73 s in 24 hours (almost 1 minute drift in one month)

• The accuracy can be improved using a:

– Temperature compensated crystal oscillator (TCXO)

– Oven controlled crystal oscillator (OCXO)

• the oscillator is enclosed in a temperature controlled oven

• Some DAQ card accuracy examples:

– TCXO : 1 ppm

– OCXO: 50 ppb

Computer clocks

• Hardware clocks

– Real Time Clock (RTC) is an integrated circuit on the motherboard.

– The RTC has a battery backup power so that it tracks the time even while the

computer is turned off.

– Based on a 32.768 kHz quartz crystal oscillator.

– Maximum resolution of 1 millisecond (1 kHz).

• Software clocks

– Maintained by the operating system, based on the RTC interrupts.

– When the system starts it sets the system time to a value based on the real-time

clock of the computer and then regularly updates the time based on interrupts

from the RTC.

• Timers/Counters

– 8253/8254 PIT (Programmable Interval Timer)

– APIC (Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller)

– ACPI (Advanced Configuration Programmable Interrupt)

High-Resolution Timers/Counters

• High Precision Event Timer (HPET) is a 64-bit up-counter with a

frequency higher than 10 MHz.

• Time Stamp Counter (TSC) is a 64-bit register in the CPU (cores)

that increment each processor clock cycle. However, can be unreliable

on a modern multicore computer due to:

– multicore computers can have different values in their time-keeping

registers.

– variability of the CPU frequency due to power management technologies or

performance technologies such as Intel Turbo Boost Technology.

Access the TSC (or HPET) timer using the Windows API functions

QueryPerformanceCounter (μs resolution) and QueryPerformanceFrequency

∆𝑇 = QueryPerformanceCounter(n) − QueryPerformanceCounter(n − 1)

QueryPerformanceFrequency

QueryPerformance from LabVIEW

TSC example

Computer clock drift

• The software clock is a bad timekeeper!

• The computer clock drifts away from the correct time. At the

time of synchronization with a time server the clock is reset to

the “correct time” (but with a small offset).

• Could update the computer clock often, but a much better

solution is to read UTC time directly from a timing card

connected to a GPS, or IRIG-B or IEEE1588 signals.

Software / Operating System (OS)

limits timing resolution and

accuracy! The performance is

system (hardware, OS) dependent.

Synchronize PC clock to a time (NTP)

server in Windows

Note: this Internet time settings is not available when the computer

is part of a domain (such as the domain UIO.no)

Windows Time service

TAI and UTC time

• International Atomic Time (TAI) as a time scale is a weighted

average of the time kept by over 300 atomic clocks in over 60 national

laboratories worldwide.

• Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the primary time standard by

which the world regulates clocks and time, and is based on TAI but

with leap seconds added at irregular intervals to compensate for the

slowing of the Earth's rotation.

• Since 30 June 2012 when the last leap second was added TAI has

been exactly 35 seconds ahead of UTC. The 35 seconds results from

the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 25 leap

seconds in UTC since 1972.

• UTC is the time standard used for many internet and World Wide Web

standards. The Network Time Protocol (NTP), designed to synchronize

the clocks of computers over the Internet, encodes times using the

UTC system.

Leap seconds

• Time is now measured using stable atomic clocks

• A leap second is a one-second adjustment that is occasionally

applied to UTC time in order to keep its time of day close to the

mean solar time.

o Solar time is a reckoning of the passage of time based on the Sun's

position in the sky.

• Leap seconds are necessary partly because the length of the

mean solar day is very slowly increasing, and partly because the

atomic, fixed-length SI second, when adopted, was already a little

shorter than the current value of the second of mean solar time.

.

Since 1967, the second has been defined to be the duration of 9,192,631,770

periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine

levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom

• GPS time is the atomic time scale implemented by the atomic clocks

in the GPS ground control stations and the GPS satellites themselves.

• Periodic corrections are performed to the on-board satellite clocks to

keep them synchronized with ground station clocks.

• GPS time is NOT corrected for leap seconds.

• GPS time is NOT equal to UTC or TAI time.

– GPS time remains at a constant offset of 19 seconds with TAI.

– As of July 2012, GPS time is 16 seconds ahead of UTC because of the

leap seconds added to UTC.

– A new leap second correction will be added to UTC in 2016

– GPS time was set to match UTC in 1980

• However, the time offset from UTC is contained in the GPS broadcast

message and is usually applied automatically by GPS receivers.

GPS time

From: http://leapsecond.com/java/gpsclock.htm

A GPS satellite clock run faster

(about 38 μs a day) due to

velocity and gravity effects

(follows the Relativity theory)

Time dilation

Time stamping of data

• Often need to timestamp an image in a video stream or a block

of data from a DAQ-card to GPS (UTC) time; e.g. for use in

data fusion in post-analysis.

• If the data samples has a deterministic (regular) interval, such

as samples from a DAQ-card, it is sufficient to time stamp the

first sample at time t0:

– 𝑡0 = 𝑇𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 − ∆𝑡 ∗ (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠) – tdelay

– Given t0 the time of the remaining samples are found from:

𝑡 = 𝑡0 + 𝑛 ∗ ∆𝑡

∆𝑡 = 1

𝑓𝑠

• If the data samples are not deterministic (regular), e.g. video

frames from a camera, each data point/video frame must

include a timestamp

0 1 2 n

Signal based vs. time-based

synchronization

• Signal-based synchronization involves sharing signals such

as clocks and triggers directly (wires) between nodes that need

to be synchronized.

• Time-based synchronization involves nodes independently

synchronizing their individual clocks based on some time

source, or time reference.

• There are advantages and disadvantages to both methods of

device synchronization.

Synchronization technologies

Signal-based synchronization

• In systems where the devices are near each other, sharing a

common timing signal is generally the easiest and most

accurate method of synchronization.

• For example, modular instruments in a PXI chassis all share a

common 10 MHz clock signal from the PXI backplane.

• To accurately use a common timing signal, a device must be

calibrated to account for the signal propagation delay from the

timing source to the device

Time-based synchronization

• Necessary for long distances

• Because of the inherent instabilities in (crystal oscillator) clocks,

distributed clocks must be synchronized continuously to a time

refererence to match each other in frequency and phase.

• Time references:

– GPS

– IEEE 1588 master

– IRIG-B sources

Timing and Synchronization Systems

Global time – possible implementations

Reference clock

Computer clock

Time

request

Time

response

Computer clock

Time

Computer clock

Time Δt

(Time Error)

Reference clock Reference clock

IRIG serial time codes

IRIG-B AM AM = Amplitude Modulation

BCD = Binary Coded Decimal

• IRIG = Inter Range Instrumentation Group (a standard)

• Several time codes, but IRIG-B is the most common

• Both AM and DC versions of the code

– Best time accuracy with DC

– AM best for transmission over long cables

– Accuracies of the order of a few microseconds or better

IRIG-B DC

Network Time Protocol (NTP)

• NTP is a protocol designed to synchronize the clocks of

computers over a network.

• Can provide accuracies of better than 10 ms over Ethernet.

– accuracy depends on the network (local area network vs. Internet)

• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used.

• Edited from Wikipedia:

– “NTP can usually maintain time to within tens of milliseconds over the

public Internet, and can achieve better than one millisecond accuracy in

local area networks under ideal conditions. Network problems can cause

errors of 100 ms or more”

– All Microsoft Windows versions since Windows 2000 and Windows XP

include the Windows Time Service, which has the ability to sync the

computer clock to an NTP server. The version in Windows 2000 and

Windows XP only implements Simple NTP (SMTP), and violates

several aspects of the NTP version standard. Beginning with Windows

Server 2003 and Windows Vista, a compliant implementation of full NTP is

included.

GPS with NTP-server and IRIG-B output

IEEE 1588 Protocol

• Gives sub-microsecond synchronization in distributed

systems

• IEEE 1588 provides a standard protocol for synchronizing

clocks connected via a multicast capable network, such as

Ethernet.

– uses a protocol known as the precision time protocol (PTP).

• All participating clocks in the network are synchronized to the

highest quality clock in the network.

• The highest ranking clock is called the grandmaster clock, and

synchronizes all other slave clocks.

• The level of precision achievable using PTP (Precision Time

Protocol) depends heavily on the jitter (the variation in latency)

present in the underlying network topology.

– Point-to-point connections provide the highest precision.

GPS & IEEE 1588 used for time

synchronization of multiple PCs

GE680C – Visual camera (205 fps)

Example - Vision time stamping

Question: How to accurately time

stamp each image from a camera

to GPS time, without any delay

added from the software loop?

PC Loop time stamp is

not equal to image

sample time!

NIC

SW

Satellite navigation

• A satellite navigation system with global coverage is called a global navigation satellite system, or GNSS. – GPS (USA)

– GLONASS (Russia)

– GALILEO (EU): In-Orbit Validation • 30 satellites in 2019

– Compass (China): Chine + Asia-Pacific • 35 satellites in 2020

• A satellite navigation systems can give very accurate – Position

– Velocity (doppler)

– Time

The Global positioning System

(GPS)

• Originally developed to determine position for autonomous navigation.

• Space segment

– 24 (28/31) satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude of approximately

20,200 km. The orbital period is about 12 hours

– Six orbital planes with four satellites in each.

– At least four satellites are visible from any point on the ground at

any time

• Control segment

– Tracking stations around the world monitor and measure orbit and

satellite clock correction parameters. These corrections are

transmitted up to the satellites and broadcasted to the user segment.

• User segment

– GPS receivers, giving the user information about the receiver

position, velocity and time

http://www.kowoma.de/en/gps/orbits.htm

Triangulation in 3D

One satellite

Two satellites

Three satellites

Satellite navigation in 3D

• The distance to at least four satellites must be known!

• Three satellites need for three distance measurements

– Measure “signal time of flight” : s = v * t

• The fourth satellites is needed in order to remove clock errors in

the receiver unit

– GPS satellites have calibrated atomic clocks, but a GPS receiver has only a

standard quartz crystal oscillator

– An error of 1 ms in the receiver clock gives a position error of

3*108 m/s * 1 ms = 300 km

• Navigation data message from each satellite: – Satellite time (when the message was transmitted) + correction

– Satellite position (when the message was transmitted), using ephemeris (orbit data)

– Almanac data (orbit data etc. for ALL satellites)

• More satellites gives better accuracy!

GPS signals

• Every satellites transmit a unique PRC (pseudorandom code)

binary sequence.

• Frequencies used in the GPS system:

– L1 = 1575.42 MHz and L2 = 1227.60 MHz

– New civilian signals in the future: L2C, L5, and L1C

• The C/A (Course Acquisition) code is the PRC modulated at the

L1 carrier, and this is the basis for civilian use.

• The P (Precise) code is modulated on both L1 and L2, but this is

an encrypted code for military users.

• A doppler shift is introduces (on L1 and L2) due to relative motion

between the satellite and the receiver

• The receiver must perform a correlation (search in received data)

in order to detect the PRC from a satellite

– local PRC codes are correlated with the navigation message

Pseudorange

• Determine code delay time t, and use s = v * t

• The measured pseudorange 𝑃 𝑘 from a satellite k can be

expressed as (since we can assume no clock error in the

satellite):

𝑃 𝑘 = (𝑋𝑘 − 𝑥)2+ (𝑌𝑘 − 𝑦)2+ (𝑍𝑘 − 𝑧)2+ 𝑑 + 𝑣 = 𝜌𝑘 + 𝑑 + 𝑣

Where d is the position error due to receiver clock error, (Xk,Yk,Zk)

is the known position of satellite k, (x,y,c) is the true receiver

position, and 𝑣 is zero mean Gaussian white noise with variance

σ2

• Solving for x, y, z and d is a nonlinear problem!

Carrier-Phase GPS

• Used in land surveying.

• An ordinary GPS receiver determines the travel time of a signal from a

satellite by comparing the PRC it's generating, with an identical code in the

signal from the satellite.

• The PRC has a bit rate of about 1 MHz but its carrier frequency has a cycle

rate of over a GHz (which is 1000 times faster)

• At the speed of light the 1.57 GHz GPS signal has a wavelength of roughly

19 centimeters, so the carrier signal can act as a much more accurate

reference than the PRC by itself.

• In essence this method is counting the exact number of carrier cycles

between the satellite and the receiver

• Carrier-phase GPS use code-phase (e.g. C/A code) techniques first to get

close to the solution.

Satellite navigation errors

• The GPS receiver compare the time of transmission of the coded signal from the satellite with the time of arrival at the receiver

• The velocity v is the velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, including a model of the average delay in the troposphere and ionosphere

• Variations in neutral density, temperature and humidity in the atmosphere, and electron density in the ionosphere, affects the velocity of electromagnetic waves, and therefore gives an error in the measured distance s

• Orbit errors and multipath (due to reflections) also contribute to the total error in the measured distance to a satellite

s = v * Δt

Index of refraction (n):

n(λ) , c = f * λ

Multipath

Space weather affect GNSS!

TEC MAP

TEC = Total Electron Content

New GPS signal L2C

Differential GPS (DGPS)

• Used to increase the GPS position

accuracy (different types of DGPS)

• Reference stations on known

locations on the Earth can calculate

the position based on the C/A coded

signals, an compare with the known

location of the station. This gives the

position error from the GPS system,

and this error can be broadcasted to

all receivers

• The accuracy depends on the

distance from the reference station(s)

GPS accuracy

• GPS (C/A code) : 10 – 30 meters (only L1 used)

• GPS (P(Y)-code) : 1 – 3 meters (military receivers, L1 and L2 used)

– P(Y) is an encrypted code!

• DGPS : 1 – 5 meters

• CPDGPS : < 1 cm (static), < 5 cm (kinematic)

• EGNOS : 1 – 5 meter (EGNOS is EU’s DGPS)

Note: SA-code turned off in May 2000 ! CP = carrier phase