Chapter 2

The Research ProcessChapter 2

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

Explain the seven steps in the sociological research process.

Know what independent and dependent variables are.Know the difference between causality and association.Know what sampling is and how it is used.Know the four main methods of research used by

sociologistsExplain the concepts of reliability and validity.Understand the problems of objectivity and ethical issues

that arise in sociological research.

 Know the three measures of central tendency and what they refer to

It is useful for human beings to seek to understand themselves and the social world in which they live. Sociology has a great contribution to make to this endeavor, both in promoting understanding for its own sake and in providing social planners with scientific information with which well-founded decisions can be made and sound plans for future development adopted.

Two main goals that assist with approaching a study scientifically Describe in detail particular things and

eventsPropose and test theories that help

understand things are events

Research ProcessInvolves the following:

1 Defining a problem2 Reviewing previous research on the topic3 Developing one or more hypotheses4 Determining the research design5 Defining the sample and collecting data6 Analyzing and interpreting data7 Preparing the research report

Step 1: Define the Problem

Two types of questions that will assist with defining the problem

EmpiricalEmpirical

Ex: Ex: How many students in How many students in this class voted last this class voted last election?election?

OperationalOperational

Ex: What are some features Ex: What are some features of a community college of a community college educational system? educational system?

Operational definition A definition of an abstract concept in terms of

the observable features that describe the thing being investigated Ex: Concept – Educational Level - Years of education, degrees completed, type

of school attended, etc

Def: Empirical Question - A question that can be answered by observing and analyzing the world as it is known (Empiricism = measurement)

.STEP TWO: Review Previous Research. This

allows you to avoid duplicating previous work and to build upon previous work in expanding knowledge of the subject. Also known as a literature review.

STEP THREE: DEVELOP ONE OR MORE HYPOTHESIS:

Def: Hypothesis - A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

Def: Variable – Anything that vary (change) EX: childbirth rate in different countries

Two different kinds of variables:Independent

Causes or changes another variable

DependentIs influenced by the independent variable

Ex. : Men who live in cities (independent variable) are more likely to marry (independent variable) at a young age than are men who live in the country.

A hypothesis can be a statement of causality or association

Statement of Causality (independent/dependent) Says that something brings about, influences, or

changes something else. Ex: Higher education results in higher income

Statement of association (independent/independent)Says that changes in one thing are related to

changes in another but one does not necessarily cause the other. Ex: People who live in cities have higher mobility rates

than those who live in the country.

4: Determine the research designThere are four main methods of research used

by sociologist:Survey – A group is questioned to reveal specific

facts about themselves. Can be interviews, computer based, or face to face.

Participant observation – Researchers entering into a groups activities and observing the members.

Experiment - investigation in which the variables being studied are controlled and the researcher obtains the results through precise observation and measurement.

Secondary Analysis - process of making use of data that has been collected by others.

5: Define Sample and Collect DataFOR SURVEYS, CASE STUDIES AND

EXPERIMENTS:The particular subset of the population chosen for the

study is called sample. Sampling is a research technique through which

investigators study a smaller number of people, known as the sample, selected from the larger population

The failure to achieve a representative sample is called sampling error.

A Survey you directly sample the group; Experiment you select the type of people you are interested in to participate; a case study you seek secondary data on them.

FOR PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION: Identify the social group you want to learn about and find a suitable association of these individuals to join

Def - Research Bias - The tendency for researchers to select data that support, and ignore data that goes against, their hypotheses.

How to deal with research bias?Use blind investigators, those who do not know

whether a specific subject belongs to the group of actual cases being investigated or to a comparison group.

Double-blind investigators are kept uninformed not only of the kinds of subjects (case subjects or comparison group subjects) they are studying but also of the hypotheses being tested.

.

STEP 6: ANALYZE THE DATA and DRAW A CONCLUTION

Def: Analysis - The process through which large and complicated collections of scientific data are organized so that comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn.

STEP 7: PREPARE THE RESEARCH REPORT

Researchers generally publish their findings in scientific journals. These reports must follow a very specific protocol.

STUDIES MUST SHOW VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Def: Validity -The study must actually test what it was intended to test

Def: Reliability - The findings of the study must be repeatable.

If other scientists cannot repeat the study, or if it is invalid due to the operational definition or measurements used, than it will be ignored.

Ethical Issues in Sociological ResearchFundamental questions.

Whose interests are served by the research? Who will benefit from it? How might people be hurt? To what degree do subjects have the right to

be told about the research design, its purposes, and possible applications?

Who should have access to and control over research data after a study is completed—the agency that funded the study, the scientists, the subjects?

Should research subjects have the right to participate in the planning of projects?

The three measures of central tendencyEx: 9 people aged - 18 19 20 20 (21 21 21) 22

23Mean-average

Add up the numbers (185) divide by cases (9) = 20.5

Median falls midway in the series of numbers = 21

Mode-the number that occurs often in the data = 21