Chapter 1 - Ppt

The Study of Human Development

Chapter 1

Recurring Issues in Human Development

1.) Nature vs Nurture2.) Continuity vs

Discontinuity3.) Universal vs Context-

Specific Development

Nature vs Nurture

Nature = – biology & genes have a greater effect

on development

Nurture = – environment has a greater influence on

development

• What do we know?• What are researchers concerned

with now?

Continuity vs Discontinuity

• Continuity = – change occurs gradually & smoothly

• Discontinuity = – Change occurs suddenly & abruptly

Universal vs Context Specific

Universal:• One path of development for all

people

Context Specific: • Development involves an interaction

of environment

Biopsychosocial Framework

• Combination of 4 interactive forces1.) Biological Forces• Genetic, Health related

2.) Psychological Forces• Cognitive/perceptual, emotional,

personality

3.) Sociocultural Forces• Societal, cultural, ethnic, interpersonal

4.) Life-Cycle Forces• Identical events, different age groups

Life Cycle ForcesExample

Pregnant Teen• Biological: lack of

nutrition in diet• Psychological: worried,

anxious, depressed• Sociocultural:

perceived as negative, outcast at school

Pregnant Married 30 yr old

• Biological: Healthy diet, vitamins

• Psychological: Excited, Nervous

• Sociocultural: Supported by family and friends

Biopsychosocial Framework Summary

• Mutually interactive• Development cannot be understood

by examining in isolation• Encompasses life span yet

appreciates unique aspects of each phase of life

Developmental Theories

Ch. 1

What is a theory?

• An organized set of ideas designed to explain behavior & development• Essential for developing predictions

about behavior• Predictions result in research that

helps to support or clarify the theory

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human

Development• Psychodynamic– Freud, Erikson

• Learning–Watson, Skinner,

Bandura

• Cognitive– Piaget, Vygotsky

• Ecological & systems

– Bronfenbrenner, Lawton & Nahemow

• Life span– Baltes

Psychodynamic Theories

• Development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts at different ages

Sigmund Freud• Founder of psychoanalysis• Believed the mind is organized into

2 main parts1. Conscious 2. Unconscious

• Emphasized unconscious mind on behavior

Contributions of Freud’s Theory

• Highlighted value of considering unconscious wishes and feelings

• First to show early experiences have profound impact on development

• Stressed the influence of early parent-child relationship on development

Erik Erikson

• Student of Freud• Psychosocial theory - lifelong theory

(stages from infancy to late-late life)

Stage AgeBasic Trust vs

Mistrust0-1 yr

Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt

1-3 yrs

Initiative vs Guilt 3-6 yrs

Industry vs Inferiority 6-Adolescence

Identity vs Identity Confusion

Adolescence

Intimacy vs Isolation Young Adulthood

Generativity vs Stagnation

Middle Adulthood

Integrity vs Despair Late Life

Stages of Psychosocial Theory

Learning Theory

What is Learning Theory?• Concentrates on how learning

influences behavior• Emphasizes the role of

experience• Stresses the influence of

consequences on behavior• Recognizes that people learn

from watching others

Behaviorism• Environment shapes behavior• Useless to consider internal mental

states• Theorists:

• Ivan Pavlov• John Watson• B.F. Skinner

Ivan Pavlov•Classical conditioning -learning occurs through associations between environmental stimulus & naturally occurring stimulus•Example: Pavlov’s Dog

John Watson•infants’ minds =“blank slates”

(tabula rasa)•Classical conditioning able to

explain all aspects of human psychology

•“Little Albert”•http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE&feature=player_embedded

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE&feature=player_embedded




John Watson• Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-

formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors”. (Watson, 1924, p. 104)

B.F. Skinner• Behavior depends on what happens

after the response• Operant Conditioning– The consequences of a behavior

determine whether the behavior is repeated in the future

Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement

• Reinforcer –• Strengthens the behavior

• Positive reinforcement• Negative reinforcement

Operant Conditioning:Punishment

• Punishment = • decreases the likelihood of the behavior

• Positive punishment• Negative reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

Social Learning Theory• Observational learning, or imitation

– People learn by watching others– Imitation is more likely when the

subject of observation is seen as smart, popular, or talented

– Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

• Cognition emphasizes thinking• Based on cognition and experience;

we understand our abilities, developing differing degrees of self-efficacy

• Consequences are insufficient to cause us to repeat behaviors or imitate them

• High self-efficacy is also needed

Basic Social Learning concepts:

Observational Learning•Bobo Doll experiment:

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU&feature=related

•3 basic models of observational learning:

1.A live model 2.Verbal instruction3.Symbolic model


Intrinsic Reinforcement•Mental states important to learning•Intrinsic reinforcement - form of internal reward

•Emphasis on internal thoughts & cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories


The Modeling Process•Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior

•Steps involved in observational learning & modeling process:

1.Attention 2.Retention 3.Reproduction 4.Motivation

Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive Development Theory

•Stresses development of thought processes

•Three approaches• Piaget: we develop in discrete stages

• Vygotsky: societal expectations of what we should know at different ages and “apprenticeship” experiences shape development

• Information-processing theory: like computers, we become more efficient at processing information as we mature

Jean Piaget

• Most influential developmental psychologist of the 20th century

• Revolutionized how we think about child development

• Believed early cognitive development based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations

Piaget’s Theory

• Children gradually learn more about how the world works by little “experiments” in which they test their understanding

• Cognitive development consists of stages in which children’s understanding of their surroundings becomes increasingly complex and accurate

Piaget’s Theory

• 4 distinct stages in development1. Sensorimotor – Birth to 2 yrs

• The Child interacts with the world through sensation and movement • Develops the ability to hold a mental

representation of objects

2. Preoperational Thoughts – 2 to 6 yrs• Develops the ability to use symbols• Egocentric: understands the world only

from his/her own perspective

Piaget’s Theory

3.) Concrete Operational Thought (7 years to early adolescence)

• Can use logic and reasoning• Cannot accurately consider the hypothetical

4.) Formal Operational Thought (Adolescence and beyond)

• Thinks abstractly• Deals with the hypothetical concepts

Support for Piaget’s Theory

• Piaget’s Impact on Education–Many educational programs based that

children should be taught at level they are developmentally prepared

– Instructional strategies have been created from Piaget’s work (i.e. providing supportive environment, utilizing social interactions & peer teaching)

Criticism for Piaget’s Theory

• Problems with research methods• Problems with formal operations• Underestimates children’s ability

Information-Processing Theory

• Views humans as information processing systems

• Believes humans process the info they receive rather than merely responding to stimuli

• Compares the mind to a computer


• Uses the computer as a model of how thinking develops

• Mental hardware: psychological structures, such as memory capacity

• Mental software: cognitive abilities that process information and help us to interact with the world

• Both improve with development


Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Emphasizes sociocultural influences on child development

• Focuses on how adults convey aspects of their culture to children

• Potential for cognitive development depends upon “zone of proximal development”

Ecological & Systems Approach

Ecological Theory

• All aspects of human development are interconnected

• No single aspect can adequately explain development

• Need to consider all factors: environmental, family, political, social, etc., and how they interact

Ecological Theory:

Bronfenbrenner’s Theory

• Urie Bronfenbrenner – developing person is embedded in a series of complex & interactive systems

• Divided the environment into 4 levels1. Microsystem2. Mesosystem3. Exosystem4. Macrosystem

Lawton & Nahemow’sCompetence-Environmental

Press Theory• Adaptation, or development, depends

upon:– A person’s abilities or “competencies”– Demands the environment (“presses”)

places on the person – Emphasis is on how these factors

interact

Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization

with Compensation, and Life-Course Perspective

Current Perspectives

• Life-Span Perspective– Many factors influence development;

no one factor adequately explains it…all must be considered

• Selective Optimization with Compensation– Describes choices that determine and

regulate development and aging

Current Perspectives (Cont)

• The Life-Course Perspective– Examines how different generations

experience and adjust to biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces within the historical time-period of their lives

Matilda Riley’sLife-Span Perspective

• Emphasizes the need to view the entire life-span to understand a person’s development

• The social, environmental, and historical aspects of one’s life must be considered

• Learning about patterns of development influences society

Four Features of the Life-span Approach

• Multidirectionality– Development involves both growth &

decline

• Plasticity– One’s capacity is not predetermined

or carved in stone

Four Features of the Life-span Approach

(Cont)

• Historical Context–Historical time periods must be

considered in examining development

• Multiple Causation– Biological, psychological,

sociocultural, and life-cycle changes must be considered

Baltes: Selective Optimization With Compensation (SOC)

• Elective Selection–Making choices to reduce involvement

in order to concentrate on another

• Loss-based Selection– Reducing involvement because of lack

of resources or abilities

• Compensation– Finding alternate ways of meeting goals

due to loss of ability or diminished skills

The Life Course Perspective

• Emphasizes how– personal life-events interact with

historical influences– individual issues integrate with

family issues– earlier life events and the period of

history in which they occurred shaped subsequent events and issues

Developmental Research

Measurement

• 4 Approaches1. Systematic Observation2. Sampling Behavior with Tasks3. Self-Reports4. Physiological Measures

Systematic Observation

• Naturalistic Observation– Observed as they behave

spontaneously in real life– Strength: Captures behavior in

natural setting–Weakness: Difficult to use with

behaviors that are rare or typically occur in private settings

Systematic Observation

• Structured Observation– Observed in a created setting that

elicits behavior of interest– Strength: Can be used to study

behaviors that are rare or typically occur in private settings

–Weakness: May be invalid if structured setting distorts the behavior

Sampling Behavior with Tasks

• Created tasks that sample the behavior of interest

• Strength: Convenient (can be used to study most behaviors)

• Weakness: May be invalid if task does not sample behavior as it naturally occurs

Self-Reports

• People’s answers to questions about the topic of interest

• Written form = questionnaire; oral = interview

• Strength: Convenient• Weakness: May be invalid because

of incorrect answers

Physiological Measures

• Measuring peoples physiological responses

• Strength: Provide a more direct measure of underlying behavior

• Weakness: Highly specific in what they measure and cannot be applied broadly

Evaluating Research Methods

• Reliability– Does this method consistently

measure what is being studied?

• Validity– Does this measure provide a true

picture of what is being studied?

Representational Sampling

• Populations– Broad groups of people in which

researchers may be interested

• Sample– A subset of the population chosen to

represent the population

Designs for Research

Research Designs:Correlational Studies

• Measures relationship between variables as they are observed naturally in the world

• Provides an index called the correlation coefficient (“r”) which indicates the strength of the relationship between variables


• Correlation Coefficient• Ranges from -1.0 to 1.0• Sign indicates direction of the

relationship• Size indicates the strength of the

relationship

• Correlation does not prove causation


•Strengths:•Behavior is measured as it occurs naturally

•Weaknesses:•Cannot determine cause & effect

Research Designs:Experimental Studies

• Studies the effect of one variable on another

• Studies possible “cause and effect” relationship

• Usually conducted in laboratory-like settings


• Factors• Variables:

– An object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of category you are trying to measure

– 2 Types1.Independent variable

» The factor being manipulated (i.e. listening to music vs no music)

2.Dependent variable» The behavior that is studied for possible

change (i.e. test scores)


• Random Assignment– Each person has an equal chance of

being assigned to each condition• Conditions

1.Experimental Condition - independent variable present

2.Control condition - independent variable absent


• Strengths:– Control of variables; can conclude

cause and effects• Weaknesses:

– Work is often lab based- can be artificial

Qualitative vs. QuantitativeInclude focus groups, in-depth interviews, & reviews

Surveys

More subjective More objective

Text based Number based

More in depth info on few cases

Less in depth but across large number of cases

Less generalizable More generalizable

Designs for Studying Development

• Longitudinal Studies• Observes or tests one group of individuals

over a long period• Microgenetic study

• Strengths:• Charts individual’s development over time

• Weaknesses:• Expensive• High drop out rate• Become “Test-wise”


• Cross-Sectional Studies• Observes or tests groups of different ages

• Issues:• Cohort effects• Example: Ability to use web based

information


• Ability to use web based information• Year studied: 2005• Age of subjects:

• 1985 - 20 yrs • 1965 - 40 yrs• 1945 - 60 yrs• 1925 - 80 yrs

• Cohort effect or development effect?


Designs for Studying Development:

Cross Sectional Studies

• Strengths• Convenient• Solves problems with longitudinal studies

• Weaknesses:• Can’t study stability of behavior• Cohort effects complicate interpretation

of differences between groups


• Sequential Studies• Combination of cross-sectional &

longitudinal designs

• Strengths:• Allows for flexibility to collect info in

several ways• Avoid cohort effects

• Weaknesses• Very expensive & time consuming

Integrating Findings from Different Studies

• Meta-Analysis• Analysis of many studies to estimate

relations between variables• Allows scientists to verify findings across

many studies

Conducting Research Ethically

• Minimize and warn of any risks to participants

• “Informed Consent”• Avoid deception• Individual results or data must be kept

anonymous or confidential• Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Communicating Research Results

• Research results are published in scientific journals

• To be published in journals, research results must be useful, well-done, & original

Applying Research ResultsSocial Policy

• Driving age• Stem cell research• Adoption policies

Chapter 1 - Ppt

Documents

studying development

operant conditioning

learning theory

ecological

processing

lawton amp

ecological

human development