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MAPAC 2006 2

Assessing Leadership:

Who is a leader and how do we know it?

Tom Mitchell, U. of BaltimoreDivision of Applied Behavioral Sciences

[email protected]://home.ubalt.edu/tmitch

410 837 5348


mailto:[email protected]

http://home.ubalt.edu/tmitch


MAPAC 2006 3

Why we need to know

Selection

- hire new managers (first line to mid level)

Promotion

- succession planning and staffing

Development

- training and coaching

- diagnose problems



MAPAC 2006 4

Who are they?

• Definitions of leadership:

• Person who motivates others to perform well

• Directing & coordinating group activities (Fiedler, ‘67)

• Influencing others to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2004)

• Building networked relationships to enhance cooperation (Day, 2001)



MAPAC 2006 5

Conceptual Distinctions

• Born or bred?

• Leader Emergence vs. Effectiveness

• Leadership vs. Management /supervision



MAPAC 2006 6


• Leadership v. Management– Power sources (French & Raven, ’59)

• Position v. Personal power

• Power source: Power influence:

– 1. Reward: give rewards– 2. Coercive punish– 3. Legitimate demand– 4. Referent identifies with supervisor– 5. Expert knowledge & expertise



MAPAC 2006 7


• Leadership v. Management

• Power source: Power:

– 1. Reward: give rewards– 2. Coercive punish– 3. Legitimate demand

– 4. Referent identifies with supervisor– 5. Expert knowledge & expertise



MAPAC 2006 8

Leader vs. Manager (Kotter, ‘90)

Establish Directionvision - set strategy

Plan / Budgetresources – time lines

Align Peopleteam building - Commitment

Organize / Staffingestablish rules - hire

Motivate & InspireInspire - empower

Control / Problem SolveIncentives – take action



MAPAC 2006 9

Theories: History (short) • Trait (’20s – ’30s) -> dead end

– E.g. height / weight / ambitious / gender

• Behavioral (’50s – ’60s: Ohio state, Fleishman & Harris, ’62)– Consideration / initiating structure (LOQ)

• Contingency (’60s – ’70s: U. MI; Fiedler ‘67) – Situational leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 77)– Path -> Goal (House & Mitchell, ’74)

• Trait (again!)– Charismatic– Transformational v. transactional (Bass, ’06)



MAPAC 2006 10

Leadership: Factors and Competencies

(Jeanneret and Silzer, 1998)

• Thinking skills– Analyzing information– Solving problems

• Work management skills – Planning and organizing work– Being resourceful

• Interpersonal and communication skills– Building networks– Relating to others

• Leadership skills – Motivating and inspiring others– Coaching and developing others



MAPAC 2006 11

Factors and Competencies (cont’)

• Motivation skills– Adapting to change– Showing drive and taking action

• Personal factors– Demonstrating integrity and trust– Modeling cultural values

• Organizational skills – Focusing on customers– Committing to quality

• Technical skills– Demonstrating functional expertise– Knowing the business



MAPAC 2006 12

Transformational Leadership(Bass & Avolio, ‘2000)

• Transformational Leadership

• Transactional Leadership

• Passive/Avoidant



MAPAC 2006 13

Personal traits: Transformational Leadership

• Transactional leaders – Social exchange

• Transformational leaders– Stimulate and Inspire – Grow and develop – Empower followers

• Passive/Avoidant – MBE / Lassiez Faire



MAPAC 2006 14

Transformational Leader Characteristics

• Idealized Influence – Role model / emulation

• Inspirational Motivation– Vision / challenging

• Intellectual Stimulation – Encourages creativity

• Individualized Consideration – Coaching / mentoring



MAPAC 2006 15

Assessing Leadership

• Who they are (now we know)

• How do we know?– Why do we need to know? – Identifying and Assessing Leaders

(assessment strategies)



MAPAC 2006 16

Need to Identify Them

– Recruitment – Selection– Succession planning (promotion)– Development



MAPAC 2006 17

Assessment: How to

• Start with Job analysis:• Id SMEs

– Conduct interviews

• Review job description • Confirm leadership duties and KSAOs

– (use factors and competencies)

• Develop matrix (duties & competencies)

• Document Job Analysis findings



MAPAC 2006 18

Assessment: Issues in Assessing

• Validity & reliability

• Utility (effectiveness and cost)

• Test portability (VG)



MAPAC 2006 19

Assessment: Issues

• Validity strategies– Content validity– Criterion related validity– Construct validity– Face validity



MAPAC 2006 20

Assessment: Issues

• Utility– Effectiveness – Logistics– Screening or ranking

• Costs– Internal: Agency Personnel– External: Vendors = $$$



MAPAC 2006 21

Assessment: Issues

• Validity Generalization– Constructs are valid– Job analysis: JA verification

• Test portability– Why re-invent the wheel?



MAPAC 2006 22

Assessment: Principal Traits

(Northouse, ’04)

• Intelligence

• Self-confidence

• Determination

• Integrity

• Sociability



MAPAC 2006 23

Assessment: Methods

• Personal History

• Assessment center

• Behavioral interview / Oral board– handout “Candidate Leadership Ratings”

• Written tests / inventories



MAPAC 2006 24

Assessment: Personal History

• Supplemental application blank

• References

• Past performance reviews

• Past accomplishments

• Peer assessments (promo / dev) – 360 / multi-rater



MAPAC 2006 25

Assessment: Assessment Center

• Situational interview

• In-basket technique

• Job simulation

• Leaderless Group Discussion– Leader emergence



MAPAC 2006 26

Assessment: Written tests/ inventories

• Cognitive ability

• Integrity inventories

• Personality inventories

• Leadership ability tests

• Biodata



MAPAC 2006 27

Assessment: Cognitive Ability

• Watson-Glazer Critical Thinking Appraisal(Psychological Corporation: Harcourt Brace, Pub)

• -> Measures:– Inference– Recognition of Assumptions– Deduction– Interpretation (generalizing, conclusions)– Evaluation of Arguments

• Wonderlic Personnel Test – (Wonderlic Personnel Test, Inc., 1992. 1-800 323-3742 )

• -> Measures– “g” general intelligence (potential for development)– Extensive norms



MAPAC 2006 28

Assessment: Integrity

• Integrity tests– Overt– Personality

• Hogan Personnel Selection Scale – (organizational delinquency)– http://www.hoganassessments.com/

– Polygraph (?)


http://www.hoganassessments.com/


MAPAC 2006 29

Assessment: Personality Inventories

• NEO-PI (Five factor model)– (Costa & McRae, ’92)

• CPI (California Psychological Inventory)– CPP (Gough)

• HPI (Hogan Personality Inventory)– (R. & J. Hogan)

• IPIP (International Personality Item Pool) – (L.Goldberg)



MAPAC 2006 30

Five Factor Model: Big Five Personality Dimensions (C A N O E) (Barrick & Mount, ’91

• Conscientiousness – persistence, doggedness, hardworking, dependable, – thorough, and responsible.

• Agreeableness

– being liked, courtesy, good-natured, cooperative, forgiving, soft hearted.

• Neuroticism – anxiety, depression, anger worry, and insecurity.

• Open to Experience

– imaginative, creative, broad-minded and intelligent.

• Extroversion – sociability, gregariousness, talkativeness, and activity.

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MAPAC 2006 31

NEO-PI

• NEO-PI-R (Costa & McRae, ‘92)

– NEO Personality Inventory: Revised• Long & short version

• Management report

• Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. (PAR) http://www3.parinc.com/


http://www3.parinc.com/


MAPAC 2006 32

CPI:Psychological Personality Inventory (3rd ed)

• 20 scales (approximate “Big five”)

• 2 special scales:– Managerial Potential (Mp)– Leadership Potential (Lp)

• Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. (CPP)– http://www.cpp.com/


http://www.cpp.com/


MAPAC 2006 33

Hogan Personality Inventory:(HPI)

• 7 traits: BIG Five– Adjustment (Neuroticism)– Ambition / Sociability (Extraversion)– Likeability (Agreeableness)– Prudence (Conscientiousness)– Intellectance & (Openness)– school success

• Hogan Assessments, Inc. http://www.hoganassessments.com/


http://www.hoganassessments.com/


MAPAC 2006 34

IPIP

• IPIP International Personality Item Pool – (L.Goldberg) http://ipip.ori.org/ipip/

• Five Factors:

– http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/j/5/j5j/IPIP/

– Long version: 300 items (40-60 minutes)– Short version: 120 items (15-20 minutes)


http://ipip.ori.org/ipip/

http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/j/5/j5j/IPIP/


MAPAC 2006 35

Leadership Ability:Measures

• Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ)– (Self report)

• The Supervisory Behavior Description (SBD) – (used by subordinates to rate supervisor)

• (E. Fleishman, Ohio State studies)

• Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)• (B. Bass, transformational Leadership)



MAPAC 2006 36

Leadership Ability: LOQ

• Two dimensions (independent constructs)

– Consideration• Concern for others

– Initiating structure• Task oriented

– Creative Organizational Design, Inc. (COD)• http://www.creativeorgdesign.com/testpages/loq.htm


http://www.creativeorgdesign.com/testpages/loq.htm


MAPAC 2006 37

LOQ: Consideration

• Relationships with subordinates characterized by: – Mutual trust – Respect for their ideas

– Consideration of their feelings

– Warmth between manager and subordinate

• High score: Good rapport and two-way communications

• Low score: More impersonal in relations with group members



MAPAC 2006 38

LOQ: Initiating Structure

• Defines own and subordinates’ roles toward goal attainment

• High score: Takes very active role in directing activities through

– Planning– Communicating information – Scheduling– Criticizing– Trying new ideas

• Low score: Relatively inactive in directing activites



MAPAC 2006 39

LOQ used for:

• Training

• Assessment of culture

• Selection

• Coaching



MAPAC 2006 40

MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Bass & Avolio)

• Transformational Leadership

• Transactional Leadership

• Passive/Avoidant• Mindgarden, Inc. http://mindgarden.com/products/mlqr.htm


http://mindgarden.com/products/mlqr.htm


MAPAC 2006 41

MLQ: Used for

• Selection

• Succession Planning

• Development (3600 Feedback)

• Diagnosis / coaching



MAPAC 2006 42

Some Vendors

• CCL Center for Creative Leadership– http://www.ccl.org/leadership/index.aspx

• PDI Personnel Decisions International– http://www.personneldecisions.com

• DDI Development Dimensions International – http://www.ddiworld.com/our_expertise/leadership.asp

• Personnel Testing Council Metropolitan Washington– http://www.ptcmw.org/

(I/O consulting firms)


MAPAC 2006 43

Conclusion

• Because

– We know who they are &– Can identify them

• We can

– Improve Agency functioning & productivity • Through effectiveness

– Reduce costs• Improve the bottom line


MAPAC 2006 44

Leadership

• Comments?

• Questions?


MAPAC 2006 45

Online Sources:

• Center for Creative Leadership• http://www.ccl.org/leadership/index.aspx

• Development Dimensions International (DDI)• http://www.ddiworld.com/our_expertise/leadership.asp

• Personnel Decisions International• http://www.personneldecisions.com

• Hogan Personnel Selection Scale • http://www.hoganassessments.com/

• Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire• http://mindgarden.com/products/mlqr.htm

• Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ)• http://www.creativeorgdesign.com/testpages/loq.htm


MAPAC 2006 46

References

• Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26.

• Bass, B. M. & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational Leadership. 2nd ed. Lawrence Erlbaum, pub.• Bass, B. & Avolio, B. (2000). MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire 2nd ed. Redwood City, CA: Mind Garden• Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO PI Personality Inventory: NEO PI and NEO Five Factor

Inventory (NEO FFI: Professional Manual: Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.) • Fiedler, F. (1967). A theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw Hill.• Fleishman, E. A. & Harris, E. F. (1962). Patterns of leadership behavior related to employee grievances and

turnover. Personnel Psychology, 15, 43-56.• French, J. R. P, & Raven, B. H. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright. (Ed.),

– Studies of social power ) pp. 150-157. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research. • Jeanneret, Richard, & Silzer, Rob. (1998). Individual Psychological Assessment Predicting behavior in

organizational settings. Jossey Bass pub. Chapter 12 Shaping organizational leadership.• Johnson, Jeff W., Questar Data Systems, Inc. Mineapolis, MN [email protected] • (Handout for ratings leadership characteristics)• Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior, 3rd 3d. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice Hall• House, R. J., & Mitchell, T. R. (1974). Path-goal theory of leadership. Journal of Contemporary Business, 3, 81-

97.• Kotter, J. P. (1990). A force for change: How leadership differs from management (pp. 3-8). New York: Free Press• Northouse, Peter G. (2004). Leadership: Theory and Practice. 3rd ed. Sage, pub.


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Education

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definitions of leadership

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thinking skills

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