Akrivoulis DE. "American leadership as a self-fulfilling prophecy: transatlantic journeys of Enlightenment ideas and their impact on early American thought"

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the Law Faculty, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki & the U.S. Consulate General in Thessaloniki

with the support of the Thessaloniki Municipality

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March 16, 2009

13:30 – 14:00 Arrival of Students, Registration 14:00-14:15 Welcoming Remarks

Costas Hadjiconstantinou, Chair of the Law Faculty Hoyt B. Yee, Consul General of the United States of America

14:15 - 15:00 Lecture: “AMERICAN LEADERSHIP AS A SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY: TRANSATLANTIC JOURNEYS OF ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS AND THEIR IMPACT ON EARLY AMERICAN THOUGHT”

Dimitrios Akrivoulis, Lecturer, Department of Balkan Studies, University of Western Macedonia

15:00 – 15:30 Break

15:30 – 17:00 Panel: Mapping Law and Politics across the Atlantic Moderator: Costas Hadjiconstantinou, Chair of the Law Faculty, Aristotle

University of Thessaloniki

“IMAGING SOME AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVES IN INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC LAW: MARS, VENUS AND SPATIO-LEGAL FRAGMENTATION?” Miltiadis Sarigiannidis, Lecturer, Faculty of Law, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

“ANTI-AMERICANISM IN EUROPE SINCE 1945” Ioannis D. Stefanidis, Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki “EU - U.S. CO-OPERATION IN G-8” Konstantinos Hazakis, Lecturer, Department of International Economic Relations and Development, Democritus University of Thrace

“Cosmo-political Visions of America in the 1950s: the case of

Giorgos Theotokas” Ioanna Lalioti, Assistant Professor, Department of History, Archeology and

Cultural Anthropology, University of Thessaly

Discussion

March 17, 2009 13:30 – 14:00 Arrival of Students 14:00 – 15:00 Lecture: “TBA” 15:00 Break 15:30 – 17:00 Panel: Building a Euro-American Homo Economicus

Moderator: Yannis Hajidimitriou, Associate Professor, Alternate Chairman of Department of Business Administration, University of Macedonia “AN ALLEGEDLY UNPRECEDENTED FINANCIAL CRISIS: WHO IS TO BLAME?” Panagiotis Glavinis, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

“EU-U.S. STRATEGIC COOPERATION IN SOUTH EAST EUROPE” Fotini Bellou, Lecturer, Department of International and European Studies, University of Macedonia “EU AND U.S. CONSTITUTIONALISM” Iossif Ktenidis, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki “EU ENLARGEMENT POLICY IN THE FRAMEWORK OF TRANSATLANTIC RELATIONS: COMPETITION OR CONVERGENCE?” Sotiris Serbos, Lecturer, Department of Social Policy, Democritus University of Thrace

Discussion

Concluding Remarks Miltiadis Sarigiannidis, Lecturer, Faculty of Law, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

“Transatlantic Relations: A C it   f V l   d I t t ”A Community of Values and Interests”

Seminar organized by g yLaw Faculty, Aristotle University of  Thessaloniki & the U.S. Consulate General in Thessaloniki 

with the support of  the Thessaloniki Municipality Monday,  March 16,  2009

Ideas gain importance in times of uncertainty If post 9 11 worldIdeas gain importance in times of uncertainty. If post‐9‐11 worldpolitics has left us with an abiding sense of vertigo, the first signs of ourdaze could be safely traced as early as the mid‐1990s.

“The pudding lacked a theme”, said Winston Churchill when askedto comment on an undistinguished meal. Gregory Treverton of RANDused exactly the same phrase to describe world politics in 1996, in hiswelcoming remarks at the symposium on Complexity, Global Politicsand National Security, co‐sponsored by the National Defencey p yUniversity and the RAND Corporation.

“How are we to understand the world without a theme?”, TrevertonHow are we to understand the world without a theme? , Trevertonwent on asking.

For the symposium participants putting a theme in the puddingFor the symposium participants, putting a theme in the puddinginvolves a closer attention to current evolution in science.

O h h ll d h h l fOne way or another, they all suggested that the employment ofmetaphors or models drawn from Newtonian science has given riseto an overarching paradigm in modern Western culture that “shapesboth our interpretation of the problems we face and the solutions wegenerate to those problems” in ways that stay unrealisable, because thisNewtonian paradigm has been already “internalised”. (Schmitt, 1996)p g y ( 99 )

But how was this Newtonian paradigm ‘internalized’ in Americanculture?culture?

From the Homeric poem we know that human thought travels fastFrom the Homeric poem, we know that human thought travels fast,faster than the fastest ship. But in the case of Newtonian ideas, theycrossed the Atlantic on English ships with copies of Newton’s Principiai h i d h fi N i h i d kin their cargos and the first Newtonians on their decks.

The story I am going to tell you today draws from these transatlanticjourneys.

In England Sir Isaac Newton’s thought wasIn England, Sir Isaac Newtons thought wassystematised by his followers andpopularisers, the so‐called Newtonians, into

h i i b i hian authoritative system, abstracting histheories into universal ‘laws’ of eternal validity.

The metaphors employed for making hisscientific theories more intelligible were seenas validations of their eternal, universal truths,, ,extending their applicability to areas otherthan nature, such as politics.

This is also reflected in the diversity of aspects,political programs and social, cultural andeconomic objectives that Newton’s work was

Sir Isaac Newton(1643 – 1727)

economic objectives that Newtons work wascalled to serve in its dissemination.

For the first Newtonians writing in the 1690s almost all of whom wereFor the first Newtonians, writing in the 1690s, almost all of whom wereclergymen like Richard Bentley and Samuel Clarke, Newton’snatural philosophy was not separated from its religious

d i i i ifi d i f h f hunderpinnings, an apt scientific demonstration of the power of theCreator.

Richard Bentley Samuel ClarkeRichard Bentley(1662 –1742)

Samuel Clarke(1675 –1729)

At the same time more practicalAt the same time, more practical,technical and mechanicalapplications were also extracted fromN ’ i d li d iNewton’s science and applied in areaslike mining, drainage and pumping, asevident in the work of a more utilitariancontemporary follower from Francewith secular interests, Jean T.Desaguliers.g

Jean T. Desaguliers(1683‐1744)

In these early years of their expansion Newton’s ideas functioned in aIn these early years of their expansion, Newtons ideas functioned in adestabilising manner against both the authoritative textuality of theBible and the imaginary extremes of either political radicalism or pro‐R l i Whi bli iRevolutionaryWhig republicanism.

With arguments enriched by metaphors drawn from Newton’s science,this early Newtonian imaginary supported the Protestantsuccession and a king‐in‐parliament form of governance.

The cultural imaginary promulgated by the first Newtonians fittednicely in the political order that followed the Revolution and therepudiation of absolute monarchy, ideologically now silencing therepudiation of absolute monarchy, ideologically now silencing thesubversive claims to power and property by the radical reformers andmiddle‐class republicans.

From the 1720s onwards the Newtonians were gradually identifiedFrom the 1720s onwards, the Newtonians were gradually identifiedwith the Whig program of ruling oligarchy and up until the 1750s thewell‐established culture of Newtonianism was equalled with a more

l if i ‘l f ’ l bli d ‘ i h ’ J bigeneral strife against ‘left’ secular republicans and ‘right’ Jacobites.

Indeed, it was in the beginning of the 18th century and especiallyafter Newton’s death in 1724 that the dialogic situation betweenNewton and his readers fully ‘exploded’.

The same metaphors were now employed to subvert the ideology ofearly Newtonianism from within and offer an alternative, this time,materialist, rational and mechanical imaginary of sociopoliticalmaterialist, rational and mechanical imaginary of sociopoliticalorganisation and interaction.

As this mechanistic (mis )reading of Newton’s science wasAs this mechanistic (mis‐)reading of Newtons science wasdisseminated in the forms of textbooks, lectures or commentaries incontinental countries like France, Holland or Italy, Newton’s legacy“b di i i l W d d b dl ib d h“became distinctively Western and undoubtedly contributed to thesense of superiority that sanctioned European wealth and overlookedthe misery of others.”(Dobbs and Jacob, 1995).

Facilitated by the institutionalisation of Newtonian scientific inquiryand the sociopolitical implications of the wider enterprise ofp p ptechnological and scientific applications, Newtonianism soon obtaineda clearly ideological context.

In this re creation science appeared more as an autonomous areaIn this re‐creation, science appeared more as an autonomous areaprogressing in a linear and idealised manner, able to mimeticallyrepresent the harmony, hierarchy and causality found in nature,h di b h l d i li i l d b ithe mediator between the natural and sociopolitical orders, becomingthe omni‐science of society and politics.

In their dissemination and popularisation, Newton’s theories becamerelated less to the ‘consumption’ of the new science, than to theindirect revelation of the divine order found in nature, offering thegsecure basis for the construction of the sociopolitical order.

As Jacob notes (1987), the recipients of this dissemination, “theAs Jacob notes (1987), the recipients of this dissemination, theconsumers of the new science”, “were repeatedly told that what theywere learning sanctioned the existing social and constitutionalorder ”order.

The idealisation of sociopolitical order and government is the mainThe idealisation of sociopolitical order and government is the mainfocus of Newtonian treatises like Desaguliers’s Newtonian System of theWorld, The Best Model of Government: An Allegorical Poem, published

f N ’ d ha year after Newton’s death.

Distanced from Newton’s own intentions, Desaguliers metaphoricallyconnected the harmony found in post‐revolutionary Englishgovernment with the one found in the Newtonian planetary system:

What made the Planets in such Order move.He said, was harmony and mutual Love.The Musick of his Spheres did representThe Musick of his Spheres did representThat ancient Harmony of Government.(Desaguliers, The Newtonian System of the World, ..., 1728)

Three points need to be elucidated here:Three points need to be elucidated here:

a) the rupture of meaning of Newtonian metaphors during the eighteenthcenturycentury,

b) the ideological function of the imaginary evoked by their employmentduring this same period andduring this same period, and

c) the relation between the employment of Newtonian metaphors and thesociopolitical reality of the times.soc opo ca ea y o e es.

The first theme relates to the meaning re generation of Newtonian The first theme relates to the meaning re‐generation of Newtonian metaphoricity, which was facilitated by two factors:

) Th  di ti   f th  di l i   it ti  b t  N t   d hi  a) The disruption of the dialogic situation between Newton and his readers after the textualisation of his work and especially the explosion of this situation that followed his death. From then onwards Newton’s texts mattered more than his own intentions  In that sense  it is perhaps more mattered more than his own intentions. In that sense, it is perhaps more useful to examine how Newton was read than what he actually wrote. 

b) The incorporation of these metaphors in texts that were not directly b) The incorporation of these metaphors in texts that were not directly addressed to scientists (sermons, poems, or public lectures) that aimed to educate as well as entertain the audience.

The second theme relates to the ideological functions of the socialThe second theme relates to the ideological functions of the socialimaginary emerging through the employment of Newtonianmetaphors during the 18th century.

Because of its ideological function, the Newtonian imaginary firstcontributed to the integration of society. It offered the premises of ashared symbolic system that followed the post‐Revolutionary years inEngland, contributing to Protestant succession, the repudiation ofabsolute monarchy and the celebration of a new form of government,y gwhere both king and parliament were in rule.

It was due to this integrating function of the Newtonian imaginary, thatIt was due to this integrating function of the Newtonian imaginary, thatit could also function at the level of legitimation, portraying the noviceorganisation of society and the functions of government as naturallyordainedordained.

Moreover it was due to its integrating function that the NewtonianMoreover, it was due to its integrating function that the Newtonianimaginary functioned at the level of distortion as well, meaning the‘becoming frozen’ of the integrating function of the Newtoniani i h i d b h l fimaginary, a process characterised by the prevalence ofschematisation and rationalisation.

This ‘becoming frozen’ of integration finally led to ‘a stagnation ofpolitics’ through the reaffirmation of the existing social order andthe canonisation of the existing political system. (Ricoeur)g p y ( )

The third theme relates both to the meaning metamorphosis ofNewtonian metaphoricity into one that evokes a mechanicalNewtonian metaphoricity into one that evokes a mechanicalimaginary, and also to the parallel metamorphosis of politicalreality through its depiction as mechanical and hence deterministic.

Let us now turn to the employment of Newtonian metaphors inLet us now turn to the employment of Newtonian metaphors inthe American Founding era and its parallel metamorphosis alongwith the political reality represented.

By examining the employment of Newtonian metaphoricity inAmerican political thought, my aim here is not to investigate itsconformity or accurate correspondence to Newton’s own theories.

Moreover, my interest here is not limited in tracing the impact ofN t i i A i ’ F di F th i l i iNewtonian science on America’s Founding Fathers, nor in claimingthat the Newtonian metaphoricity had permeated early Americanpolitical thought, nor even in deciphering their intentions concerningh h f hthemechanisation of the American Constitution.

Instead, America’s founding textuality is discussed as an ideologicalit i l t th t h t b t d f di t th tsite, an inaugural event that has to be repeated, a founding act thathas to be constantly reactualised.

Th i l t t l t t ti b t l t ti F it iThe issue relates not only to representation but also to action. For it isthrough this textuality that the American people first representedand realised itself and its relations to others.and realised itself and its relations to others.

Necessitated by practical problems such as the limited number ofavailable copies of Newton’s work the process of popularising Newton’savailable copies of Newtons work, the process of popularising Newtonsscience was even more demanding in America compared to England,given also what Ernest May (1976) has called its somewhat “archaic”g y ( 97 )society.

In the American environment Newton’s theories were soonIn the American environment, Newtons theories were soondisseminated through both the works of his English explicators, andalso some fresh popularising writings related either to religion orp p g g gscience.

As in England Newton’s thought continued toAs in England, Newtons thought continued tooffer the authoritative basis for thelegitimation of theological or political objectivesi h iin the new continent.

For example, in the early‐18th‐century writings ofJonathan Edwards the leading spirit of theJonathan Edwards, the leading spirit of theGreat Awakening in the colonies, Newton’sthought was once again used to aestheticise the‘b t ’ f th t l d th h‘beauty’ of the natural order throughmetaphoricity.

Combining an interpretation of Newton’s ‘law of

Jonathan Edwards(1703 – 1758)

Combining an interpretation of Newtons law ofnature’ and the ‘mechanical philosophy’ ofLiberal religion, Edwards repackaged Newton’sid i hi f di t ti i th tideas in his famous dissertations in the mostconvenient way.

In a similar manner GeorgeIn a similar manner, GeorgeWhitefield, an Englishevangelist that arrived fromE l d i l dEngland in 1739, also usedNewton’s thought in hisintellectual weaponry againstboth foreign atheists and arather liberal appreciation ofscience.

George Whitefieldg(1714 ‐ 1770)

The process of Newton’s popularisation wasThe process of Newtons popularisation wasfurther encouraged by evolution in scienceand technology, which played ani i l i l i h li fincreasingly important role in the lives ofthe first Americans.

Newtonian metaphoricity was soonequalised with the machine metaphor,which could offer an oversimplified andpeasy to conceptualise depiction of a system,ordered by either God or nature.

J li  Off  d  L  M tt iThis blending was also facilitated by theparallel impact of European mechanisticconcepts such as Julien de la Mettrie’s

Julien Offray de La Mettrie(1709 ‐ 1751)

concepts, such as Julien de la Mettrie s“Mechanical man”. (Man AMachine, 1748)

The materialism implicit in the radicalThe materialism implicit in the radicalemployment of Newtonian metaphoricity byEnglish republicans like John Toland, or Frenchhil h lik D i Did h B d’philosophes like Denis Diderot or the Baron d’

Holbach, was soon echoed in the writings ofAmerican thinkers like Thomas Paine.

Although neither the early Newtonians norNewton himself would have approved thisppmaterialistic metamorphosis of Newtonianmetaphors, it soon came to characterise theiremployment on both sides of the Atlantic,

Thomas Paine(1737 –1809)

employment on both sides of the Atlantic,leading to a metaphorical blending together ofthe Newtonian planetary system regulated bygravitational forces with the functions of agravitational forces with the functions of amachine.

A nice example of such a blendingA nice example of such a blendingcould be found in Rittenhouse’sorreries.

Situated in a long tradition ofmimetic representation of naturethrough mechanistic, clockworkmodels of the cosmos, orreries wereseen as providing “the best concrete A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on p grepresentation of Newton’smechanical world.” (Brooke, 1956)

A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery

(Joseph Wright of Derby, 1766)

With the Newtonian ‘system’ metaphorically reduced to a machineoperating like a giant clockwork, it is not difficult to appreciate theimpact of such metaphors especially given the importance of time inimpact of such metaphors, especially given the importance of time inthe organisation of social life.

Also influenced by the writings of the leading figures of the ScottishAlso influenced by the writings of the leading figures of the ScottishEnlightenment, the American belief in the discovery of theimmutable laws of human nature through reason was strengthened,f i i f d iforming a science of man and society.

As a result of this ‘scientism’ (Voegelin, 1948), the progressivereshaping of sociopolitical and economic institutions would bepossible by harmonising them with nature’s divine plan, creating anew, divine, and thus, legitimate and fair social order.g

For most Americans Newton’s Principia was appreciated as anFor most Americans, Newtons Principia was appreciated as anexplication of how forces impressed upon bodies generate motion inlinear, absolute and immovable space and time.

Reducing the complexity of Newton’s understanding of causality, themetaphor usually employed was the one of the billiard balls collidingwith and moving in response to one anotherwith and moving in response to one another.

Similarly, then, human interaction was imagined in terms of suchhomogeneous, clear‐cut, cause‐effect relationships that takehomogeneous, clear cut, cause effect relationships that takeplace in absolute space and time.

The contextual metamorphosis of this Newtonian metaphor and itsp pextensive use could be explicated better, once it is situated in adiscursive relationship with parallel philosophical discourses of theScottish Enlightenment or revolutionary France, which, animatedScottish Enlightenment or revolutionary France, which, animatedsimilar understandings of causality and change.

In this ‘great uniformity’In this great uniformity,however, individuality was stillcelebrated, or, better, fetishised.

By acknowledging productivityas both the result of the rationalcalculation of individual interestand, at the same time, anelement “complimentary top yhuman nature”, ThomasJefferson believed, for example,that human life is “undirectedthat human life is undirectedbut patterned, uncoerced butorderly, free but predictable.” (inAppleby 1984) Th  J ffAppleby, 1984) Thomas Jefferson

(1743 – 1826)

Since these laws it was thought could notSince these laws, it was thought, could notderive either from the English tradition orfrom ancient history, they had to be traced in

h l ibl f A i ’nature, the only possible source of America’s‘enlightenment’, along with the rights of thewhole ‘Mankind’, according to Richard Bland.

As then we can receive no Light from theLaws of the Kingdom, or from ancientf g fHistory, to direct us in our Inquiry, we musthave Recourse to the Law of Nature, andthose Rights of Mankind which flow from it. Richard Bland those Rights of Mankind which flow from it.(Bland, “An Inquiry into the Rights of theBritish Colonies, Williamsburg, 1766”)

(1710‐1776)

In 18th century American writing there are numerous assertions thatIn 18th‐century American writing, there are numerous assertions thatindicate the general belief that these laws were known and applicableto societal structures, bringing History to an end.

Although a direct reference is not always made to Newton’s ‘system’ ofthe world, and his theories do not always appear as the authoritativebasis for the legitimation of social order the impact of his scientificbasis for the legitimation of social order, the impact of his scientificdiscoveries on strengthening the belief that nature is knowable tohumans is undeniable.

As Newton was thought to have unveiled the eternal and immutablelaws of nature that regulate the cosmos, the discovery of similarlyimmutable laws regulating the social world seemed possible as wellimmutable laws regulating the social world seemed possible as well.

The ultimate trust in the revelatory capacities of science that couldprogressively, and rather deterministically lead to a legitimate andprogressively, and rather deterministically lead to a legitimate andimmutable social structure was also shared by the Founding Fathers.

Th f ti f th N t i iThe perfection of the Newtonian universehad already aestheticised a natureoperating by perpetual laws of divineorigin, in conformity with a wider designwhere, in Pope’s words, “[w]hatever is, isright.” (“An Essay on Man”, 1734)g y 734

In this universe, usually depicted as alegitimate hierarchical pattern, “alegitimate hierarchical pattern, acontinuous scale or ladder of creatures,extending without a break from the wormto the seraph” Man arose capable toto the seraph , Man arose capable todiscover through reason the already fixedorder of nature. (Wiley, 1940; Lovejoy,

6)

Alexander Pope(1688 –1744)

1936)

For John Adams both political and naturalFor John Adams, both political and naturalscience, traditionally implyingdeterminism, could set human reason free

“di h fi d f i lto “discover the fixed pattern of socialphenomena, but the phenomenathemselves follow a predestined course ofdevelopment. The seventeenth‐centuryreason of Isaac Newton discovered the lawsof the solar system, but no man couldf ychange those laws or the pattern of theplanets' orbits…” (in Adair, 1974)

As Adair has noted (1974), such a scientificreading of history committed both Adamsand his contemporaries “in varying degrees

John Adams(1735 – 1826)

p y g gof rigidity to a species of politicaldeterminism.”

Experience appears in many writings ofExperience appears in many writings ofthe epoch as the best possible method fordiscerning the divine “Plan” that regulatesh h i fthemechanism of government.

For one of the signers of the Declarationof Independence, Judge James Wilson,“Immortal” Newton and his “just andbeautiful system” are situated in thef ypeak of the history of experimentalphilosophy, from which the Americans’“dearest birthright and richestdearest birthright and richestinheritance” derive.(“On Municipal Law, Philadelphia, 1804”) James Wilson 

(1742 – 1798)

For the Founding Fathers these natural laws the eternal patterns ofFor the Founding Fathers these natural laws, the eternal patterns ofnature found by experience, could offer the legitimate mould forcarving out not only the sociopolitical order, but also the functions ofh bli d f d lthe new republican government and federal system.

Once again the Newtonian ‘system’ reduced to a harmonious andbalanced machine was used for the authoritative depiction of abalanced machine was used for the authoritative depiction of a‘balanced government’.

Thus, government could be erected as its own representation, itsThus, government could be erected as its own representation, itsreplica, also establishing the same causal relations between humanactions and physical motions.

Yet, in this process of re‐creation, neither Newtonian metaphors werealways used for the same purposes and with the same meanings, northe images of political balance they evoked were always takenthe images of political balance they evoked were always takenunproblematically for granted.

Despite his earlier worries and moral impediments towardsDespite his earlier worries and moral impediments towardssociopolitical balance, Adams advocated the possibility of establishinga balanced government after the American Revolution in aN i l h h h j i “ i fNewtonian language, when he wrote that just as an army is “a piece ofclock‐work, ... to be governed only by principles and maxims, as fixed asany mechanics”, so “by all that I have read in the history of mankind ... Iam much inclined to think a government must manage a society inthe same manner; and that this is machinery too.” (“Adams toJames Sullivan, May 26, 1776”)J y 77 )

Acknowledging, though, the internal complexities of such a machine,he referred to “the Management of so complicated and mighty ahe referred to the Management of so complicated and mighty aMachine, as the United Colonies”, and exhorted that “forced attemptsto accelerate their Motions, would have been attended withDiscontent and perhaps Convulsions ” (“Adams to James Waren AprilDiscontent and perhaps Convulsions. ( Adams to James Waren, April22, 1776”)

Similarly mixed appreciations of and feelings about such NewtonianSimilarly mixed appreciations of and feelings about such Newtonianconcepts were also shared by other Revolutionaries of the epoch,especially since most of these concepts were also metaphorically

l d i E l d l b h b l f h B i i hemployed in England to celebrate the balance of the BritishConstitution.

Cautioning against a system that would depend on complicatedCautioning against a system that would depend on complicatedbalances, Paine, for example, called for simplicity in design, byusing the same metaphors as Adams:

As the greater weight will always carry up the less, and as all the wheelsof a machine are put in motion by one, it only remains to know whichpower in the constitution has the most weight for that will govern: andpower in the constitution has the most weight, for that will govern: andthough the others, or a part of them, may clog, or, as the phrase is,check the rapidity of its motion, yet so long as they cannot stop it, their

d ill b i ff t l Th fi t i ill t l t hendeavours will be ineffectual: The first moving power will at last haveits way. (Paine, Common Sense, 1776)

Evoking a planetary imagery he later discussed the emergence of aEvoking a planetary imagery, he later discussed the emergence of asociety “in the midst of a wilderness”, where

i lik i i l ld f lnecessity, like a gravitational power, would soon form our newlyarrived emigrants into society, the reciprocal blessings of which would ...render the obligations of law and government unnecessary. ... But asnothing but Heaven is impregnable to vice, it will unavoidably happenthat in proportion as they surmount the first difficulties of emigration,which bound them together in a common cause, they will begin to relaxg y gtheir duty and attachment to each other: and this remissness will pointout the necessity of establishing some form of government to supply thedefect of moral virtue. (Paine, Common Sense, 1776)defect of moral virtue. (Paine, Common Sense, 1776)

What the above passages reveal is a contestation less on thecomplexities of a balanced American government, than on thep ginternal tensions of the contextual meanings and the imagesdepicted by Newtonian metaphoricity.

Another example of such internaltensions are also obvious in themetaphors used by Benjamin Rush inmetaphors used by Benjamin Rush inhis educational Plan, which was, in hisown words, an effort “to convert meni bli hi ” iinto republican machines”, assertingthat “[t]his must be done, if we expectthem to perform their parts properly, inthe great machine of thegovernment of the state.” (Rush, APlan for the Establishment of Publicf fSchools and the Diffusion of Knowledgein Pennsylvania, 1786)

Benjamin Rush(1745 – 1813) 

Similar tensions are also evident in theSimilar tensions are also evident in thepolitical discourses on the nature andfunctions of the new Constitution,h h i l i fwhere metaphorical images of

machines and planetary systems werefrequently and interchangeably evokedwith disputed meanings.

At the Federal Convention of 1787,7 7,John Dickinson compared “theproposed National System to the SolarSystem, in which the States were theSystem, in which the States were theplanets, and ought to be left to movefreely in their proper orbits.” (inFarrand 1937) John DickinsonFarrand, 1937) J

(1732 –1808) 

In Madison’s reply though theIn Madisons reply, though, thesame metaphors were employedto support the opposite claim:

[T]o recur to the illustrationsborrowed from the planetarySystem, This prerogative of theGeneral Govt. is the greatpervading principle that mustp g p pcontrol the centrifugal tendencyof the States; which, without it,will continually fly out of theirwill continually fly out of theirproper orbits and destroy theorder and harmony of thepolitical system (in Farrand 1937)

James Madison(1751 – 1836)

political system. (in Farrand, 1937)

Yet metaphors like these were not mere attempts to make theYet, metaphors like these were not mere attempts to make theproposed system of government more intelligible, but also, and morecrucially, carriers of normative claims about how politics shouldb d dbe conducted.

Although both Dickinson and Madison used the same Newtonianmetaphors, the meanings they conveyed were highly contested.

The states of the federation might resemble the ‘planets’ of the ‘Solar’g pNational system, but their courses of ‘movement’ remaineddisputed in the contestation of what constitutes a ‘proper orbit’, asimmovable, fixed, and legitimated by nature itself.immovable, fixed, and legitimated by nature itself.

While asserting the necessity of bicameral checks and balances AdamsWhile asserting the necessity of bicameral checks and balances, Adamsalso referred, in a similar vein, to

h i d l i b hi h h b l f ithose attractions and repulsions by which the balance of nature ispreserved; or ... those centripetal and centrifugal forces by which theheavenly bodies are continued in their orbits, instead of rushing tothe sun, or flying off in tangents among comets and fixed stars;impelled or drawn by different forces in different directions, they areblessings to their own inhabitants and the neighbouring systems; but ifg g g y fthey were drawn only by one, they would introduce anarchy whereverthey should go. (Adams, A Defence of the Constitutions of theGovernment of the United States of America, 1786‐1787)”.Government of the United States of America, 1786 1787) .

In George Washington’s famousIn George Washingtons famousand often quoted words, on theother hand,

the several departments ofGovernment may be preserved intheir outmost Constitutionalpurity, without any attempt of theone to enroach on the rights orgprivileges of another – that theGeneral and State governmentsmay move in their propermay move in their properOrbits. (“Farewell Address” 1796)

George Washington( 32 99)(1732 –1799)

Filled with ‘checks and balances’ the Constitution itself wasFilled with checks and balances the Constitution itself wasinterchangeably imagined as a giant clock, a machine, or theplanetary system. Despite their respective differences, all these

h d h i fi d d b l d dmetaphors represented a harmonious, fixed, and balanced orderfound either directly in nature (planetary system), or in thereflections of its harmony (machine), thus seeking to legitimate theaspired orderly function of the new government.

As the new Constitution was submitted for ratification by the member‐t t N t i t h i l d l ithstates, Newtonian metaphors were once again employed along withother scientific metaphors both as a means to celebrate its perfectionand as powerful weapons for its reproach.

The powerful debates on the new federal system of governmentrevealed as well the discursive relationship of the Newtonianh t i ith th i tifi d t h l i l di f th tirhetoric with other scientific and technological discourses of the times(‘engine’, ‘composition’, ‘structure’, or ‘cement’).

In his response to New York’sIn his response to New York santifederalists, Alexander Hamiltondeclared: “Make the system

l i i icomplete in its structure, give aperfect proportion and balance to itsparts, and the powers you give it willnever affect your security.” (Addressof June 27, 1788 )

As he said, one has to devise “theinterior structure of the governmentas that its several constituent partsas that its several constituent partsmay, by their mutual relations,be the means of keeping eachother in their proper places ” (The

Alexander Hamilton(1755/1757 – 1804) 

other in their proper places. (TheFederalist, No. 5)

The trust in the legitimating powers of Newtonian metaphoricity wasThe trust in the legitimating powers of Newtonian metaphoricity wasalso evident in its later employment in times of crises engenderedeither by the rise of political ambivalence concerning the effectivenessf h h k d b l b h d i fof the checks‐and‐balances system, or by the deepening of party

animosities.

In an attempt to strengthen the confidence in the Constitutionalfunctions, Jefferson still spoke about the “beautiful equilibrium” onwhich it was founded, predicting that the federal system, “like thep g yplanets revolving around their common sun”, would finally disclose“a degree of perfection, unexampled but in the planetary systemitself.” (Jefferson to Peregrine Fitzhugh, February 23, 1798)itself. (Jefferson to Peregrine Fitzhugh, February 23, 1798)

In this pristine phase American discourses focused mostly on theIn this pristine phase, American discourses focused mostly on theorganisation of the governmental system. Only few accounts concernedthe external affairs of the state, and they were mostly related to itsl i i h E l drelations with England.

In his Common Sense (1776) Thomas Pain metaphorically evokes aIn his Common Sense (1776), Thomas Pain metaphorically evokes aNewtonian image, resembling England to the ‘primary planet’ andAmerica to its ‘satellite’, only to reject it by his reference to the‘ d f ’ d l i b ill N i‘common order of nature’ and replace it by a new yet still Newtonianimage:

[I]n no instance hath nature made the satellite larger than its primaryplanet; and as England and America, with respect to each other, reversethe common order of nature, it is evident that they belong tof y gdifferent systems.

Here the ‘common order of nature’ is used to destabilise the commonHere the common order of nature is used to destabilise the commonorder in the relationship between the two states, and thus to legitimateAmerica’s independence as belonging to a different gravitationalsystemsystem.

The same anxiety of the newly born state to be acknowledged andThe same anxiety of the newly born state to be acknowledged andrecognised as an autonomous, independent entity, is also evident inThomas Pownall’s Memorial ... to the Sovereigns of Europe (1780),h i d d “fi d f ” d A i “ iwhere independence appears “fixed as fate”, and America as “a mistress

of her own fortune”.

To legitimate his assertion, Pownall employs a Newtonian metaphorportraying a dynamic, almost cosmogonic, image of the Americanstate, depicting independence as the ‘proper orbit’ of the state,p g p p pimmovable, fixed and, thus, legitimated by nature itself:

This new system of power united in a moving round its own properThis new system of power united in a moving round its own propercentre ... is growing, by accelerated notions, and accumulated accretionof parts, into an independent organised being, a great and powerfulempire It has taken its equal station with the nations upon earthempire. It has taken its equal station with the nations upon earth.

Nevertheless later in the sameNevertheless, later in the sametext, Pownall notes that Americahas become “a new primaryl i h f hplanet in the system of the

world.”

While this planet naturally followsits own orbit, it“must have effect on the orbitffof every other planet”,

and necessarilyand necessarily

“shift the common centre ofgravity of the whole system of

Thomas Pownallgravity of the whole system ofthe European world.”

(1722 – 1805)

Another interesting example of suchAnother interesting example of suchmetaphorical depiction could be foundin Francis Hopkinson’s playful “LiteraryCh i G b l” ThChristmas Gambol” to ThomasJefferson

This great Philosopher has representedThis great Philosopher has representedthe Court of Great Britain by the Sun andthat of France by a Comet. France in theExcentricity of her Political movementsy fhath at length struck forcibly againstBritain and, by the Collision, struck off aParty of her Body, which, being balancedby the counteracti[ng] Powers of

Francis Hopkinsonby the counteracti[ng] Powers ofcentrifugal and centripetal Force, hathfound an Orbit of it’s own, and rolls anew Planet in the System, called the

(1737 – 1791)

yAmerican Empire.

In an attempt to gradually accommodate itself to an internationalIn an attempt to gradually accommodate itself to an internationalstate‐system operating in terms of power, the new American state hadto first make this system intelligible, and then discover the laws that

l iregulate it.

In Europe, the counterpoise imagery was already frequently evokedto describe the dynamics of the international balance‐of‐powersystem. (i.e. Vattel, The Law of Nations, 1758)

Given the extensive use of Newtonian metaphoricity to describe theorganisation and functions of government, it is not difficult toconceptualise the accommodation of such discourses in the emergingconceptualise the accommodation of such discourses in the emergingAmerican rhetorics of international relations.

The order found in nature could once again offer the legitimateThe order found in nature could once again offer the legitimatepattern for understanding the laws that regulate the behaviour, theinterests and relations of states.

If these laws were known, then, the precise measurement of state‐power would be also possible in a scientific manner, according to itssize, population, territory, or income, reflecting the Newtonian beliefin the perfection of mathematics.

Thus, the international system was soon metaphorically depicted as aplanetary system, and its members (sovereign states) as planetsmoving in orbit. (See Gilbert, 1961)moving in orbit. (See Gilbert, 1961)

As in the case of European Newtonianism the representation ofAs in the case of European Newtonianism, the representation ofpolitics through Newtonian metaphors in America is intrinsicallyrelated to the discourses of political ontology in the newly formedstate.

To put it in Paul Ricoeur’s terms (1984), the whole issue is associatedwith the relation sustained between

a) the first Americans as a ‘first‐order entity’, a historical communitydefined by its historical persistence, andb) the founding act which established it, the American Declaration ofIndependence, as well as the textuality which represented this act, suchas the Federalist Papers and the American Constitution.p

Once Newtonian metaphoricity was incorporated in these texts it isOnce Newtonian metaphoricity was incorporated in these texts, it isdifficult to downsize its ideological role in the repeatability of thisinaugural event in social memory.

The mediating role of such a metaphorical representation of humanorganisation and interaction was not merely to facilitate the spread ofits ideological content beyond the commonly accepted conviction ofthe Founding Fathers, but to perpetuate the initial energy of thefounding act. (See Ellul, 1973)g ( 973)

It offered, that is, a basis for identification for the futuregenerations which came to understand themselves and their originsgenerations which came to understand themselves and their originsin terms of the ideas embodied in its founding textuality and itsemployed metaphoricity.

It is in this temporal distance from the founding act to its futureIt is in this temporal distance from the founding act to its futureperpetuation that Newtonian metaphoricity comes to play:

I i i hi h i i f ll i i è h hIt is into this gap, characteristic of all situations après coup, that theimages and interpretations intervene. A founding act can be revivedand reactualised only in an interpretation which models itretroactively, through a representation of itself. Perhaps no socialgroup could exist without this indirect relation to its own inauguralevent. (Ricoeur, 1981)( 9 )

In this process of metaphorical representation and as the temporal gap In this process of metaphorical representation and as the temporal gap increased, justification and rationalisation took the place of the once granted conviction and consensus. 

The Newtonian imaginary became then an ‘argumentative device’ thatjustified and legitimated what the newly born American stateeventually came to be, according to Pownall’s ‘Newtonian’ prophesy:Not only a “a new primary planet in the system of the world”, but onethat follows its own orbit “affecting the orbit of every other planet”, andg y pshifting “the common centre of gravity of the whole system of theEuropean world.”

The capacity of the Newtonian imaginary to metamorphose AmericanThe capacity of the Newtonian imaginary to metamorphose Americansociety and politics was maintained by the conveyance of the ideas itenhanced about society and politics into commonly shared opinions.

It is through this process of schematisation that the Newtonianimaginary empowered,

a) on the one hand, the idealisation of the American image of itselfand of its relations with others in these early formative years of itsexistence and,b) on the other, the perpetuation of this new idealised image in thefuture.

With this mutation of thought into doxa, the Newtonian imaginaryfunctioned at the level of rationalisation, as its metaphors weregradually added in political rhetoric and were employed as maxims org adua y added po t ca eto c a d e e e p oyed as a s oslogans.

If the initial function of ideology is to “perpetuate a founding act in theIf the initial function of ideology is to perpetuate a founding act in themode of ‘representation’”, then the ideological function of theNewtonian imaginary implicit in the American founding textuality was

i h h h l i li i d ib d i hto interpret what was thought as real in politics and ascribed withpolitical existence as well as to deter the possible, thus resulting in akind of ideological ‘blindness’ and ‘closure’. (Ricoeur, 1981)

At least in the case of what has been addressed as AmericanNewtonianism, this ideological function of the Newtonian imaginary isg g yappreciated here as one deeply rooted in the founding act ofAmerican society itself.