1 [??? ???????] · 2016-12-26 · Edward Lee Thorndike Born August 31, 1874 Died August 9, 1949 Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts Studied animal behaviour Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy

Behaviourism

Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy

Behaviourism

� All things should be looked at from the

perspective of behaviour.

Behaviourism argues that there is no mind,


� Behaviourism argues that there is no mind,

no thoughts, no feelings, and the only

important thing to consider is behaviour.

Behaviorism Key Ideas

Deterministic- The way you act is determined by external stimuli provided by the culture in which you live.

Observable- Over time the individual develops a “behavioral repertoire” (Steinberg, 1980) that


“behavioral repertoire” (Steinberg, 1980) that can be used to predict behavior.

Controllable-

� Desirable behaviors can be brought about byincentives;

� undesirable behaviors can be eradicated by consequences or punishment.

What Behaviorist Reject�Concepts of

�Freedom

�Dignity (self esteem or respect)

Self-fulfillment


�Self-fulfillment

�Skinner said: although people look and feel free they are always controlled by the environment – Education & Religion control people = NO FREE WILL

Behaviourism.

• Period: 1920’s to 1950’s

• Question: How is behaviour learned?

Behaviourism

Goal was to explain complex behaviour in terms of


� Goal was to explain complex behaviour in terms of learning from simple behaviour

� Logic: if you can control the simple behaviour, and have a theory of learning, you can predict complex behaviour.

Behaviorism Recap (summary)...

• Method: Experimentation

• Contributions:– Rigorous scientific methodology


methodology

• Objective observation– Theories of associative learning

Behaviourists

Ivan Pavlov

Edward Thorndike


Edward Thorndike

John B. Watson

B.F. Skinner

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

� Born Sept 14, 1849

� Died Feb 27, 1936

� born in Ryazan, Russia

� physiologist, psychologist, and


psychologist, and physician

� awarded the NobelPrize in Physiology or

Medicine in 1904 for research on the digestive system

Classical Conditioning

� A type of learning that occurs when

individuals learn to produce


involuntary emotional or physiological

responses similar to instinctive or

reflexive responses.




Unconditioned stimulus

� Object or event causing the instinctive or

reflexive physiological or emotional

response.(food)


response.(food)

Unconditioned response

� Instinctive or reflexive physiological or

emotional response caused by the

unconditioned stimulus.(salivation)


unconditioned stimulus.(salivation)

Neutral stimulus

� An object or event that does not initially

impact behaviour one way or the other.(bell)


Conditioned stimulus

� Formerly neutral stimulus that becomes

associated with the unconditioned

stimulus.(bell)


stimulus.(bell)

Conditioned response

� A learned physiological or emotional

response that is similar to the unconditioned

response.


response.

Main idea for classical

conditioning

� The conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

must exist at the same time.


Pavlov’s Experiment

Food Unconditioned Stimulus

SalivationUnconditioned Response


Salivation(natural, not learned)

Bell Conditioned Stimulus

Salivation Conditioned Response (to bell)



Generalization

� Occurs when stimuli is similar- but not

identical - to a conditioned stimulus elicit the

conditioned response by themselves (N.


conditioned response by themselves (N.

Jones, Kemenes, & Benjamin, 2001)

�Discrimination: conditioned response doesnot occur to all possible similar stimuli-learned difference between stimuli

�Reaction Patterns: specific reactions-conditioned responses-past experience-

Generalization


conditioned responses-past experience-positive response = likesnegative response = dislikes

�Reactions-learned not innate

�When pairing of conditioned and unconditional stimulus stops

Association weakens-

Extinction


�Association weakens-conditioned response lessfrequent� till disappears

Therapeutic techniques based on Therapeutic techniques based on

classical conditioning conceptsclassical conditioning concepts

Systematic desensitizationSystematic desensitization


Flooding therapyFlooding therapy

Systematic Desensitization (De-conditioning of phobias)

�Extinguishes fear by

1. gradually relaxing subject


1. gradually relaxing subject

2. and simultaneous gradual introduction of the fear inducing stimulus



E.L. Thorndike


1874 - 1949

Edward Lee Thorndike

� Born August 31, 1874

� Died August 9, 1949

� Born in Williamsburg,

Massachusetts

Studied animal behaviour


� Studied animal behaviour

and the learning process

� led to the theory of

connectionism

� Laying the foundation for

modern educational

psychology.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

�Learning come thru trial and error

�Consequences of behavior will either strengthen or weaken the


Consequences of behavior will either strengthen or weaken the behavior

�Learn to do actions which bringrewards-help avoid pain

Thorndike’s Theory of

ConnectionismConnectionism

Law of Effect

If Situation + Response is followed by a positive consequence then� the connection between the Situation + Response is


between the Situation + Response is strengthened.

If Situation + Response is followed by a negative consequence then� the connection between the Situation + Response is weakened.

In Thorndike’s words:

“When a modifiable connection between an situation and a response is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs, that connection’s strength is increased: When made or accompanied or followed by an annoying state of affairs, the strength is decreased.” (Thorndike, 1913b)


decreased.” (Thorndike, 1913b)

Note: Thorndike(1932) later modified the Law of Effect when research showed that while positive consequences strengthened connections, negative consequences did not necessarily weaken them.

“Spare the reward, spoil the child” by E.L. Thorndike

The Big Idea

1. Consequences of behavior effect

behavior

2. responses resulting in satisfying


2. responses resulting in satisfying

consequences are learned.

Behavioral theories explain learning

in terms of environmental events.

E.L. Thorndike

Initial work with animal learning in laboratory setting- cat in box experiment”

Comprehensive analogy of human learning-Three volume work, Educational Psychology


Three volume work, Educational Psychology( 1913a, 1913b, 1914 )

The Cat Learned !!!

Behavior Change = Learning


Behavior Change = Learning

Cats in Puzzle Boxes



� Thorndike looked at how cats learned to

escape from puzzle boxes

� The puzzle box experiments were


motivated by Thorndike's dislike for

statements that animals made use of

insight in their problem solving.


� Thorndike's use learning curves which plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box

� He said that if the animals were showing


� He said that if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape wouldsuddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curveas an abrupt drop;

� while animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradualcurves.

What happened ?


Schunk (2000)


� His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning.


Principles of Learning

� Thorndike specified three conditions that maximizes learning:� The Law of Effect states that the likely

recurrence of a response is generally governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of


its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or punishment.

� The Law of Recency states that the most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence.

� The Law of Exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition.

Law of Effect

� "Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are


when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur"

� Thorndike, E. L. (1911). “Animal intelligence:

Experimental Studies”. p. 244

Theory of Learning

� Thorndike created 13 basic rules

� I want us to pause after each one and check

if you think this is a universal principle.


if you think this is a universal principle.

� Also see if there is some technology or

teaching approach you can imagine that

might help support this rule

Theory of Learning

1. The most basic form of learning is trial and

error learning.


Theory of Learning

2. Learning is incremental( في زيادة ( not

insightful.


Theory of Learning

3. Learning is not mediated by ideas.


Theory of Learning

4. All mammals learn in the same manner.


Theory of Learning

5. Law of Readiness:

� Interference with goal directed behaviour

causes frustration

� causing someone to do something they


do not want to do is also frustrating. � a. When someone is ready to perform some act +

become able to do so� is satisfying.

� b. When someone is ready to perform some act +

prevented to do so � is annoying.

� c. When someone is not ready to perform some act

+ and is forced to do so � it is annoying.

Theory of Learning

6. Law of Exercise: We learn by

doing. We forget by not doing. � a. Connections between a stimulus and a

response are strengthened as they are


response are strengthened as they are

used. (law of use)

� b. Connections between a stimulus and a

response are weakened as they are not

used. (law of disuse)

Theory of Learning

7. Law of Effect:

� If the response in a connection is

followed by a satisfying state of

affairs, the strength of the connection


is considerably increased

� whereas if followed by an annoying

state of affairs, then the strength of

the connection is marginally

decreased.

Theory of Learning

8. Multiple Responses: A learner would keep

trying multiple responses to solve a

problem before it is actually solved.


Theory of Learning

9. Set or Attitude: What the learner already

possesses, like prior learning

experiences, present state of the learner,

etc., while it begins learning a new task.


etc., while it begins learning a new task.

Theory of Learning

10. Prepotency of Elements:

� a learner could filter out irrelevant aspects

of a situation and respond only to

significant (proponent) elements in a


significant (proponent) elements in a

problem situation

� The aspects of a situation that will be noticed

depend upon the learner's species

membership and past experience.

Theory of Learning

11. Response from analogy: New problems

are solved by using solution techniques

employed to solve analogous problems.


Theory of Learning

12. Associative Shifting:

� Let stimulus S be paired with response R.

� Now, if stimulus Q is presented

simultaneously with stimulus S repeatedly,


simultaneously with stimulus S repeatedly,

� then stimulus Q is likely to get paired with

response R.

Theory of Learning

13. Belongingness: If there is a natural

relationship between the need state of an

organism and the effect caused by a

response, learning is more effective than if


response, learning is more effective than if

the relationship is unnatural.

John B. Watson


1878 - 1958

John Broadus Watson

� Born Jan 9, 1878

� Died Sept 25, 1958

� Born in Greenville, South Carolina

American psychologist


� American psychologist

� established the psychological school of behaviourism

� “Little Albert” experiment

John B. Watson

� Watson changed the focus of psychology

from introspection, to environmentalism.

He believed that environmental shaping of


� He believed that environmental shaping of

behavior began prenatally, and focused

his studies on infants and children.

John B. Watson

He demonstrated the conditioned response

in the case of “Little Albert” (Watson, 1925),

who was exposed to an alarming noise and

a rat at the same time, and developed not

only a fear of rats, but transferred the fear


only a fear of rats, but transferred the fear

to all furry )له فراء او شعر( objects.


"Little Albert" experiment

� Occurred in 1920

� One of the most

controversial

experiments in the


experiments in the

history of psychology

� It was an experiment

showing empirical

evidence of classical

conditioning in humansRosalie Rayner

Albert B.

John B. Watson


� Watson and Rayner selected

an infant named Albert, at

approximately 9 months of age,

� he was tested and was judged

to show no fear when


to show no fear when

successively observing a

number of live animals (e.g., a

rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a

monkey), and various

inanimate objects (e.g., cotton,

human masks, a burning

newspaper).


� He was, however, judged to show fear

whenever a long steel bar was

unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer

just behind his back.


just behind his back.


� Watson and Rayner attempted to condition

him to fear a white rat.

� This was done by presenting a white rat to

Albert, followed by a loud clanging sound (of

the hammer and steel bar) whenever Albert


the hammer and steel bar) whenever Albert

touched the animal.

� After seven pairings of the rat and noise (in two

sessions, one week apart), Albert reacted with

crying and avoidance when the rat was

presented without the loud noise.

The Behaviorist Manifesto

� In 1913, Watson published the article

"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It"

— sometimes called "The Behaviorist

Manifesto".


Manifesto".

� In this article, Watson outlined the major

features of his new philosophy of

psychology, called "behaviorism".

The Behaviorist Manifesto

� The first paragraph of the article concisely

described Watson's behaviorist position:

� “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of

natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.


natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.

Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its

data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to

interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a

unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and

brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a

part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.”


Burrhus Frederic Skinner

� Born March 20, 1904

� Died August 18, 1990

� Born in Susquehanna,

Pennsylvania

� American

psychologist, author,


psychologist, author,

inventor, advocate for

social reform and

poet.

� Innovated his own

philosophy of science

called Radical

Behaviorism

Radical Behaviorism

� Skinner views (Radical behaviourism)

differed from other behaviourists

(Methodological behaviourism) in that he

felt that thoughts and feelings could be


felt that thoughts and feelings could be

taken into account when considering that

psychology of the individual

Radical Behaviorism

� Radical behaviourism seeks to understand

behaviour as a function of environmental

histories of reinforcing consequences.

� Reinforcement processes were


� Reinforcement processes were

emphasized by Skinner, and were seen as

primary in the shaping of behaviour.

� A common misconception is that negative

reinforcement is some form of punishment.

Radical Behaviorism

� Positive reinforcement is the strengtheningof behaviour by the application of some event (e.g., praise after some behaviour is performed),

� Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behaviour by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g.,


avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you).

� Both types of reinforcement strengthenbehaviour, or increase the probability of a behaviour reoccurring.

Radical Behaviorism

� Punishment and extinction have the effect

of weakening behaviour, or decreasing the

probability of a behaviour reoccurring, by

the application of an aversive event


the application of an aversive event

(punishment) or the removal of a rewarding

event (extinction).

Operant Conditioning Learning

� In terms of observable responses that change in

frequency or duration as the result of

consequences, events that occur following

behaviours. (B.F. Skinner, 1953, 1954)


behaviours. (B.F. Skinner, 1953, 1954)

� In summary, behaviours are largely controlled

by consequences rather that by stimuli

preceding the behaviour.

� The consequence of an action results in the

behaviour portrayed.

Reinforcements

� The process of applying reinforcers to

increase behaviour


Positive reinforcements

� Process of increasing the frequency or

duration of a behaviour as the result of

presenting a reinforcer. Sometimes,


presenting a reinforcer. Sometimes,

reinforcing of undesirable behaviour may

result.

Negative reinforcements

� Process of increasing behaviour by

avoiding or removing an aversive stimulus

(Baldwin & Baldwin, 2001; B.F. Skinner,


(Baldwin & Baldwin, 2001; B.F. Skinner,

1953)

Shaping

� Reinforced succecssive

approximation of the desired

behaviour through a process called

shaping.


shaping.

Punishment

� Use of punishers to weakens behaviour.


OPERANT CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES

� POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a

behavior by administering a reward

� NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing

a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus


a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus

when a behavior occurs

� PUNISHMENT = decreasing a behavior by

administering an aversive stimulus following a

behavior OR by removing a positive stimulus

� EXTINCTION = decreasing a behavior by not

rewarding it

Type of

stimulus

Action Behaviour Concept

DesirablePresent

StrengthenPositive

Reinforcement

AversiveStrengthen

Negative


Aversive

Remove

Negative

Reinforcement

Present

Weaken Type 1 punishment

Aversive

Desirable

Remove

Weaken

Type 2 punishment:

Time out

Type of

stimulus

Action Behaviour Concept


Desirable

Withheld

Weaken

Extinction


Inventor

� Operant Conditioning Chamber

(“Skinner Box”)

� Cumulative Recorder


� Cumulative Recorder

� Teaching Machine

� Air Crib

Operant

Conditioning

Chamber


Skinner Box�Subject segregated from all irrelevantenvironmental influences

�Only stimuli were controlled by experimenter

�Reinforcement rates & schedule were measured


measured

�Positive-food, negative-electro shock

�Evolved into teaching machines and self-paced teaching regimens


Operant Conditioning Chamber

(“Skinner Box”)

� A box large enough to easily accommodate

the animal being used as a subject (including

lab rats, pigeons, and primates).

� It is often sound-proof and light-proof to avoid


� It is often sound-proof and light-proof to avoid

distracting stimuli.

� It contains one or more levers which an

animal can press

� one or more stimulus lights and one or more

places in which reinforcers like food can be

delivered.


(“Skinner Box”)

� In one of Skinner’s experiments a hungry rat

was introduced into the box. When the lever

was pressed by the rat a small pellet of food

was dropped onto a tray.


was dropped onto a tray.

� The rat soon learned that when he pressed

the lever he would receive some food.

� In this experiment the lever pressing

behaviour is reinforced by food.


(“Skinner Box”)


Operant Conditioning Chambers



(“Skinner Box”)

� Skinner also used pigeons in his experiments



pigeons would peck to receive food if a light was on, but not receive food when a light was off.

Extinction of the operant behavior occurs

Operant Conditioning Chambers


Extinction of the operant behavior occurs when you stop giving the rat a food pellet as a reward for pushing the pedal.

Cumulative recorder –records the rate of response of the animal in the operant conditioning chamber

Cumulative Recorder

� an instrument used to

automatically record

behaviour graphically

� The needle would start

at the bottom of the

page and the drum


page and the drum

would turn the roll of

paper horizontally. Each

response would result in

the marking needle

moving vertically along

the paper one tick.

Teaching Machine


Teaching Machine

� In 1954 B.F. Skinner embarked upon a series of studies designedto improve teaching methods for spelling, math, and other schoolsubjects by using a mechanical device that would surpass the usual classroom experience.

� He believed the classroom had disadvantages because the rate of


disadvantages because the rate of learning for different students was variable and reinforcement was also delayed due to the lack of individual attention.

� Since personal tutors for everystudent was usually unavailable, Skinner developed a theory of programmed learning that was to be implemented by teaching machines.

Teaching Machine

� The teaching machine is composed of mainly a

program, which is a system of combined teaching and

test items that carries the student gradually through

the material to be learned.


� The "machine" is composed by a fill-in-the-blank

method on either a workbook or in a computer. If the

subject is correct, he/she gets reinforcement and

moves on to the next question.

� If the answer is incorrect, the subject studies the

correct answer to increase the chance of getting

reinforced next time.

Teaching Machine

� The teaching machine is merely a device for presenting the set of frames of which the program is composed.

� However, it is not supplementary but all-inclusive. The program will do all the teaching through a response/reward mechanism.

� Skinner also noted that the learning process should be


� Skinner also noted that the learning process should be divided into a large number of very small steps and reinforcement must be dependent upon the completion of each step.

� Skinner suggested that the machine itself should not teach, but bring the student into contact with the person who composed the material it presented. He believed this was the best possible arrangement for learning because it took into account the rate of learning for each individual student.

1. People have a fear of failure.

2. The task is not broken down into small enough steps.

1. Give the learner immediate feedback.

2. Break down the task into small steps.

Repeat the directions as

Skinner on Education

Skinner

says that

there are


3. There is a lack of directions.

4. There is also a lack of clarity in the directions.

5. Positive reinforcement is lacking.

3. Repeat the directions as many times as possible.

4. Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks.

5. Give positive reinforcement.

there are

five main

obstacles

to learning

Skinner on Education

1. People have a fear of failure Give the learner immediate

feedback.

2. The task is not broken down into small enough steps. Break down

the task into small steps


3. There is a lack of directions Repeat the directions as many times as

possible.

4. There is also a lack of clarity in the directions. Work from the most

simple to the most complex tasks.

5. Positive reinforcement is lacking. Give positive reinforcement.

Air Crib


Air Crib

� To help his wife cope with

the day-to-day tasks of

child rearing, Skinner

improved upon the

standard crib with the 'air-


standard crib with the 'air-

crib' to meet this challenge.

� An 'air-crib' (also known as

a 'baby tender' or

humorously as an 'heir

conditioner') is an easily

cleaned, temperature and

humidity-controlled box

Skinner designed to assist

in the raising of babies.

Did you know?� Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological

Experiments of the Twentieth Century by Lauren

Slater (2004)

� In this book Slater reveals that B.F. Skinner raised

his daughter Deborah in an operant conditioning

chamber and subjected her to psychological

experiments

“. . . caged for two full years, placing within her cramped


“. . . caged for two full years, placing within her cramped

square space bells and food trays and all manners of

mean punishments and bright rewards, and he tracked

her progress on a grid. And then, when she was thirty-

one and frankly psychotic, she sued him for abuse in a

genuine court of law, lost the case, and shot herself in a

bowling alley in Billings, Montana.”



It is totally


It is totally untrue

Deborah Skinner is alive and well, living in the UK.

She was understandablydistress about these storiesand wrote an article in The

Guardian


Guardian

The Guardian, Friday 12 March 2004

“I was not a lab rat”By Deborah Skinner Buzan


Behavior modification

Therapeutic techniques based on

Operant conditioning


Aversion therapy

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1 [??? ???????] · 2016-12-26 · Edward Lee Thorndike Born August 31, 1874 Died August 9, 1949 Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts Studied animal behaviour Dr: Mohamed Adel El-Hadidy

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