03-History of Computers

The History of Computers

Wh t t ?What are computers?z The first computers were people! That is electronicz The first computers were people! That is, electronic

computers (and the earlier mechanical computers) were given this name because they performed the g y pwork that had previously been assigned to people. "Computer" was originally a job title: it was used to describe those human beings (predominantlydescribe those human beings (predominantly women) whose job it was to perform the repetitive calculations required to compute such things as q p gnavigational tables, tide charts, and planetary positions for astronomical almanacs.

Wh t t ?What are computers?z Imagine you had a job where hour after hourz Imagine you had a job where hour after hour,

day after day, you were to do nothing but compute multiplications. Boredom would quicklycompute multiplications. Boredom would quickly set in, leading to carelessness, leading to mistakes. And even on your best days you wouldn't be producing answers very fast. Therefore, inventors have been searching for h d d f f t h i (th thundreds of years for a way to mechanize (that is, find a mechanism that can perform) this task.

AbAbacusz The abacus was an early aidz The abacus was an early aid

for mathematical computations. Its only value is that it aids the memory of the yhuman performing the calculation. A skilled abacus operator can work on addition and subtraction problems at the speed of a person equipped with a hand

l l t ( lti li ti dcalculator (multiplication and division are slower).

AbAbacusz The abacus is oftenz The abacus is often

wrongly attributed to China. In fact, theChina. In fact, the oldest surviving abacus was used in 300 B.C. by the Babylonians. The

b i till iabacus is still in use today, principally in the far eastthe far east.

J h N iJohn Napierz In 1617 an eccentric (some say mad) Scotsmanz In 1617 an eccentric (some say mad) Scotsman

named John Napier invented logarithms, which are a technology that allows multiplication to beare a technology that allows multiplication to be performed via addition.

z Ex: log2x = 5g2

N i BNapiers Bonesz The magic ingredient isz The magic ingredient is

the logarithm of each operand, which was originally obtained from aoriginally obtained from a printed table. But Napier also invented an alternative to tablesalternative to tables, where the logarithm values were carved on ivory sticks which areivory sticks which are now called Napier's Bones.

N i BNapiers Bones

Slid R lSlide Rule

z Napier's invention led directly to the slide rule, first built in England in 1632 and still in use in the 1960' b th NASA i f th M1960's by the NASA engineers of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs which landed men on the moon.on the moon.

L d d Vi iLeonardo da Vinci

z Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) made drawings of gear-driven calculating machines but apparently never built any.

C l l ti Cl kCalculating Clockz The first gear-drivenz The first gear-driven

calculating machine to actually be built was probably the calculatingprobably the calculating clock, so named by its inventor, the German professor Wilhelmprofessor Wilhelm Schickard in 1623. This device got little publicity because Schickard diedbecause Schickard died soon afterward in the bubonic plague.

Bl i P lBlaise Pascalz In 1642 Blaise Pascal at age 19 invented the Pascalinez In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age 19, invented the Pascaline

as an aid for his father who was a tax collector. Pascal built 50 of this gear-driven one-function calculator (it could only add) but couldn't sell many because of theircould only add) but couldn t sell many because of their exorbitant cost and because they really weren't that accurate (at that time it was not possible to fabricate gears with the required precision)gears with the required precision).

z Up until the present age when car dashboards went digital, the odometer portion of a car's speedometer

d th h i th P li tused the very same mechanism as the Pascaline to increment the next wheel after each full revolution of the prior wheel.

8 di it P li8-digit Pascaline

6 di it P li ( Ch )6-digit Pascaline ( Cheaper )

P li I idPascaline Insides

L ib iLeibnizz Just a few years after Pascal the German Gottfried Wilhelmz Just a few years after Pascal, the German Gottfried Wilhelm

Leibniz (co-inventor with Newton of calculus) managed to build a four-function (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) calculator that he called the stepped reckonerdivision) calculator that he called the stepped reckonerbecause, instead of gears, it employed fluted drums having ten flutes arranged around their circumference in a stair-step fashion Although the stepped reckoner employed the decimalfashion. Although the stepped reckoner employed the decimal number system (each drum had 10 flutes), Leibniz was the first to advocate use of the binary number system which is f d t l t th ti f d t L ib i ifundamental to the operation of modern computers. Leibniz is considered one of the greatest of the philosophers but he died poor and alone.

St d R kStepped Reckoner

J dJacquardz In 1801 the Frenchman Josephz In 1801 the Frenchman Joseph

Marie Jacquard invented a power loom that could base its weave (and hence the design

th f b i ) tton the fabric) upon a pattern automatically read from punched wooden cards, held together in a long row by rope. g g y pDescendents of these punched cards have been in use ever since (remember the "hanging chad" from thehanging chad from the Florida presidential ballots of the year 2000?).

J d LJacquards Loom

By selectingz By selecting particular cards for Jacquard'sfor Jacquard's loom you defined the woven patternthe woven pattern

Cl f dClose up of a card

J d LJacquards Loomz Close up of a tapestryz Close up of a tapestry

woven by the loom

T h l J bTechnology -vs- Jobsz Jacquard's technology was az Jacquard s technology was a

real boon to mill owners, but put many loom operators out of work. Angry mobs smashed g yJacquard looms and once attacked Jacquard himself. History is full of examples of labor unrest following technological innovation yet most studies show that,

ll t h l hoverall, technology has actually increased the number of jobs.

Ch l B bbCharles Babbagez By 1822 the Englishz By 1822 the English

mathematician Charles Babbage was gproposing a steam driven calculating machine the size of amachine the size of a room, which he called the Difference Engine. g

Diff E iDifference Enginez This machine would be able to compute tables ofz This machine would be able to compute tables of

numbers, such as logarithm tables. z He obtained government funding for this project due to

the importance of numeric tables in ocean navigationthe importance of numeric tables in ocean navigation. z Construction of Babbage's Difference Engine proved

exceedingly difficult and the project soon became the most expensive government funded project up to that point in English history.

z Ten years later the device was still nowhere near ycomplete, acrimony abounded between all involved, and funding dried up. The device was never finished.

B bb A l ti E iBabbage-Analytic Enginez Babbage was not deterred and by then was on toz Babbage was not deterred, and by then was on to

his next brainstorm, which he called the Analytic Engine.

z This device, large as a house and powered by 6 steam engines,

z It was programmable thanks to the punched cardz It was programmable, thanks to the punched card technology of Jacquard.

z Babbage saw that the pattern of holes in a punch card could be used to represent an abstract idea such as a problem statement or the raw data required for that problem's solution. q p

B bb A l ti E iBabbage-Analytic Enginez Babbage realized that punched paper could bez Babbage realized that punched paper could be

employed as a storage mechanism, holding computed numbers for future reference.

z Because of the connection to the Jacquard loomz Because of the connection to the Jacquard loom, Babbage called the two main parts of his Analytic Engine the "Store" and the "Mill", as both terms are used in the weaving industryused in the weaving industry.

z The Store was where numbers were held and the Mill was where they were "woven" into new results. I d t th t ll dz In a modern computer these same parts are called the memory unit and the central processing unit(CPU).

B bb A l ti E iBabbage Analytic Engine

The Analytic Engine also had a key functionz The Analytic Engine also had a key function that distinguishes computers from calculators: the conditional statementcalculators: the conditional statement.

z A conditional statement allows a program to achieve different results each time it is runachieve different results each time it is run.

z Based on the conditional statement, the path of the program can be determined basedof the program can be determined based upon a situation that is detected at the very moment the program is runningmoment the program is running.

Ad BAda Byronz Babbage befriended Ada Byron the daughter ofz Babbage befriended Ada Byron, the daughter of

the famous poet Lord Byron z Though she was only 19, she was fascinated by

Babbage's ideasBabbage s ideas z She began fashioning programs for the Analytic

Engine, although still unbuilt. Th A l ti E i i d b ilt (th B iti hz The Analytic Engine remained unbuilt (the British government refused to get involved with this one) but Ada earned her spot in history as the first

tcomputer programmer. z Ada invented the subroutine and was the first to

recognize the importance of looping. g p p g

US CUS Censusz The next breakthrough occurred in America Thez The next breakthrough occurred in America. The

U.S. Constitution states that a census should be taken of all U.S. citizens every 10 years in order to determine the representation of the states indetermine the representation of the states in Congress.

z While the very first census of 1790 had only required 9 months by 1880 the U S population had grown9 months, by 1880 the U.S. population had grown so much that the count for the 1880 census took 7.5 years. Automation was clearly needed for the next censuscensus.

z The census bureau offered a prize for an inventor to help with the 1890 census and this prize was won by Herman Hollerithby Herman Hollerith,

H ll ith d kHollerith deskz The Hollerith desk consisted of:z The Hollerith desk, consisted of:

o a card reader which sensed the holes in the cards,

o a gear driven mechanism which could count (similar to Pascals)

o A large wall of dial indicators to displayo A large wall of dial indicators to display the results of the count.

H ll ith D kHollerith Desk

H ll ith D kHollerith Deskz Hollerith's techniquez Hollerith s technique

was successful and the 1890 census was completed in only 3 years at a savings of 5 million dollarsmillion dollars.

IBMIBMz Hollerith built az Hollerith built a

company, the Tabulating Machine gCompany which, after a few buyouts, eventually became Internationalbecame International Business Machines, known today as IBM. y

H ll ith I tiHolleriths Inovationz By using punch cardsz By using punch cards,

Hollerith created a way to store and retrieve information.

z This was the first type f d d itof read and write

technology

E l f P h C dExamples of Punch Cards

US MilitUS Militaryz The U S military desired a mechanical calculatorz The U.S. military desired a mechanical calculator

more optimized for scientific computation. z By World War II the U.S. had battleships that couldz By World War II the U.S. had battleships that could

lob shells weighing as much as a small car over distances up to 25 miles.

z Physicists could write the equations that described how atmospheric drag, wind, gravity, muzzle velocity etc would determine the trajectory of thevelocity, etc. would determine the trajectory of the shell, but solving such equations was extremely laborious.

US MilitUS Militaryz Human computers would compute results of thesez Human computers would compute results of these

equations and publish them in ballistic "firing tables" z During World War II the U.S. military scoured the country

looking for (generally female) math majors to hire for thelooking for (generally female) math majors to hire for the job of computing these tables, but not enough humans could be found to keep up with the need for new tables.

z Sometimes artillery pieces had to be delivered to thez Sometimes artillery pieces had to be delivered to the battlefield without the necessary firing tables and this meant they were close to useless because they couldn't be aimed properlyaimed properly.

z Faced with this situation, the U.S. military was willing to invest in even hair-brained schemes to automate this type of computationof computation.

M k IMark Iz One early success was theOne early success was the

Harvard Mark I computer which was built as a partnership between Harvard and IBM in 1944Harvard and IBM in 1944.

z This was the first programmable digital computer made in the U.S. co pu e ade e U S

z But it was not a purely electronic computer. Instead the Mark I was

t t d t f it hconstructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches.

M k IMark Iz The machine weighed 5z The machine weighed 5

tons, incorporated 500 miles of wire, was 8 feet tall and 51 feet long and had aand 51 feet long, and had a 50 ft rotating shaft running its length, turned by a 5 horsepower electric motorhorsepower electric motor.

z The Mark I ran non-stop for 15 years, sounding like a roomful of ladies knitting.

M k IMark I

Th Fi t BThe First Bugz One of the primaryz One of the primary

programmers for the Mark I was a woman, Grace Hopper.

z Hopper found the first computer "bug": a dead moth that had gotten into the Mark I

z The word "bug" had been used to describe a defect since atto describe a defect since at least 1889 but Hopper is credited with coining the word "debugging" to describe the gg gwork to eliminate program faults.

HHumor

On a humorous note the principal designerz On a humorous note, the principal designer of the Mark I, Howard Aiken of Harvard, estimated in 1947 that six electronic digitalestimated in 1947 that six electronic digital computers would be sufficient to satisfy the computing needs of the entire United Statescomputing needs of the entire United States.

Th F t f C t ?The Future of Computers?z IBM had commissioned this study to determinez IBM had commissioned this study to determine

whether it should bother developing this new invention into one of its standard products (up until then computers were one-of-a-kind items built bythen computers were one of a kind items built by special arrangement).

z Aiken's prediction wasn't actually so bad as there were very few institutions (principally thewere very few institutions (principally, the government and military) that could afford the cost of what was called a computer in 1947.

z He just didn't foresee the micro electronicsz He just didn t foresee the micro-electronics revolution which would allow something like an IBM Stretch computer of 1959:

Fi t G ti C tFirst Generation Computers

The first electronic computer was designed atz The first electronic computer was designed at Iowa State between 1939-1942Th At ff B C t d thz The Atanasoff-Berry Computer used the binary system(1s and 0s).C t i d t b d t d bz Contained vacuum tubes and stored numbers for calculations by burning holes in paper

IBM St t h 1959IBM Stretch - 1959

IBM St t h 1959IBM Stretch - 1959

At ff B C tAtanasoff Berry Computerz One of the earliest attempts toz One of the earliest attempts to

build an all-electronic (that is, no gears, cams, belts, shafts, etc.) digital computer occurred i 1937 b J V At ffin 1937 by J. V. Atanasoff,

z This machine was the first to store data as a charge on a capacitor which is how today'scapacitor, which is how today s computers store information in their main memory (DRAM or dynamic RAM). As far as its i t itinventors were aware, it was also the first to employ binary arithmetic.

C lColussusz The Colossus, built duringThe Colossus, built during

World War II by Britain for the purpose of breaking the cryptographic codes used by Germanyby Germany.

z Britain led the world in designing and building electronic machines e ec o c ac esdedicated to code breaking, and was routinely able to read coded Germany radio transmissionstransmissions.

z Not a general purpose, reprogrammable machine.

E iEniacz The title of forefather of today's all-electronic digitalz The title of forefather of today s all electronic digital

computers is usually awarded to ENIAC, which stood for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator.Calculator.

z ENIAC was built at the University of Pennsylvania between 1943 and 1945 by two professors, John Mauchly and the 24 year old J Presper EckertMauchly and the 24 year old J. Presper Eckert, who got funding from the war department after promising they could build a machine that would replace all the "computersreplace all the computers

z ENIAC filled a 20 by 40 foot room, weighed 30 tons, and used more than 18,000 vacuum tubes.

ENIACENIAC

ENIACENIAC

P i th ENIACProgramming the ENIACz To reprogram the ENIAC you had to rearrange thez To reprogram the ENIAC you had to rearrange the

patch cords that you can observe on the left in the prior photo, and the settings of 3000 switches that

b th i htyou can observe on the right. z To program a modern computer, you type out a

program with statements like: p gz Circumference = 3.14 * diameter z To perform this computation on ENIAC you had to

rearrange a large number of patch cords and then locate three particular knobs on that vast wall of knobs and set them to 3, 1, and 4. , ,

P i th ENIACProgramming the ENIAC

P bl ith th ENIACProblems with the ENIAC

The ENIAC used 18 000 vacuum tubes toz The ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes to hold a chargeV t b t i l li blz Vacuum tubes were so notoriously unreliable that even twenty years later many neighborhood drug stores provided a "tubeneighborhood drug stores provided a tube tester"

R l i t bReplacing a vacuum tube

Th St d P C tThe Stored Program Computer

In 1945 John von Neumann presented hisz In 1945 John von Neumann presented his idea of a computer that would store computer instructions in a CPUinstructions in a CPU

z The CPU(Central Processing Unit) consisted of elements that would control the computerof elements that would control the computer electronically

Th St d P C tThe Stored Program Computer

The EDVAC EDSAC and UNIVAC were thez The EDVAC, EDSAC and UNIVAC were the first computers to use the stored program conceptconcept

z They used vacuum tubes so they were too expensive and too large for households toexpensive and too large for households to own and afford

EdEdvacz It took days to changez It took days to change

ENIAC's program.z Eckert and Mauchly's next

teamed up with theteamed up with the mathematician John von Neumann to design EDVAC, which pioneered , pthe stored program.

z After ENIAC and EDVACcame other computers with phumorous names such as ILLIAC, JOHNNIAC, and, of course, MANIAC

S d G ti C tSecond Generation ComputersIn 1947 the transistor was inventedz In 1947, the transistor was invented

z The transistor made computers smaller, less expensive and increased calculating speedsexpensive and increased calculating speeds.

z Second generation computers also saw a new way data was storedy

z Punch cards were replaced with magnetic tapes and reel to reel machines

U iUnivacz The UNIVAC computer wasz The UNIVAC computer was

the first commercial (mass produced) computer. I th 50' UNIVAC (z In the 50's, UNIVAC (a contraction of "Universal Automatic Computer") was h h h ld d fthe household word for "computer" just as "Kleenex" is for "tissue".

z UNIVAC was also the first computer to employ magnetic tape. g p

Thi d G ti C tThird Generation Computersz Transistors were replacedz Transistors were replaced

by integrated circuits(IC)z One IC could replacez One IC could replace

hundreds of transistorsz This made computers

even smaller and faster.

F th G ti C tFourth Generation Computersz In 1970 the Intel Corporation invented thez In 1970 the Intel Corporation invented the

Microprocessor : an entire CPU on one chipz This led to microcomputers-computers on az This led to microcomputers computers on a

desk

Computer Programming i th 70in the 70sz If you learned computerz If you learned computer

programming in the 1970's, you dealt with ywhat today are called mainframe computers such ascomputers, such as the IBM 7090 (shown below), IBM 360, or ), ,IBM 370.

Ti Sh iTime-Sharingz There were 2 ways toz There were 2 ways to

interact with a mainframe. z The first was called time

h i b thsharing because the computer gave each user a tiny sliver of time in a round-

bi f hirobin fashion. z Perhaps 100 users would

be simultaneously logged y ggon, each typing on a teletype such as the following: g

T l tTeletypez A teletype was a motorizedz A teletype was a motorized

typewriter that could transmit your keystrokes to the mainframe and then print the computer's response on its roll of paper.

z You typed a single line of text, hit the carriage return button, and waited for the t l t t b i i ilteletype to begin noisily printing the computer's response

B t h M d P iBatch-Mode Processingz The alternative to timez The alternative to time

sharing was batch mode processing, where the computer gives its fullcomputer gives its full attention to your program.

z In exchange for getting the ' f ll icomputer's full attention at

run-time, you had to agree to prepare your program off-line on a key punch machine which generated punch cards.

P h C dPunch Cardsz University students in the 1970's bought blank cardsz University students in the 1970 s bought blank cards

a linear foot at a time from the university bookstore. z Each card could hold only 1 program statement. z To submit your program to the mainframe, you

placed your stack of cards in the hopper of a card readerreader.

z Your program would be run whenever the computer made it that far.

z You often submitted your deck and then went to dinner or to bed and came back later hoping to see a successful printout showing your resultsa successful printout showing your results

P i T dProgramming Todayz But things changedz But things changed

fast. By the 1990's a university student ywould typically own his own computer and have exclusive use of ithave exclusive use of it in his dorm room.

MiMicroprocessorz This transformation was az This transformation was a

result of the invention of the microprocessor. A i ( P) iz A microprocessor (uP) is a computer that is fabricated on an integrated circuit (IC).

z Computers had been around for 20 years before the first microprocessor was pdeveloped at Intel in 1971.

MiMicroprocessorz The micro in the namez The micro in the name

microprocessor refers to the physical size. p y

z Intel didn't invent the electronic computer, b t th th fi tbut they were the first to succeed in cramming an entire computer on aan entire computer on a single chip (IC)

I t t d Ci itIntegrated Circuitsz The microelectronicsz The microelectronics

revolution is what allowed the amount of hand-crafted wiring seen in the prior photo to be mass producedto be mass-produced as an integrated circuit which is a small sliver of silicon the size of your thumbnail

I t t d Ci itIntegrated Circuitsz Integrated circuits andz Integrated circuits and

microprocessors allowed computers to pbe faster

z This led to a new age f tof computers

z The first home-brew computers is called thecomputers is called the ALTAIR 8800

A l 1 C t 1976Apple 1 Computer - 1976

Th IBM PCThe IBM PC

C d 64Commodore 64

A l M i t hApple Macintosh

Th A iThe Amiga

Wi d 3Windows 3

M i t h S t 7Macintosh System 7

A l N tApple Newton

St d d UNIXStandard UNIX

P PCPowerPC

IBM OS/2IBM OS/2

Wi d 95Windows 95

R fReferences

Most of the information for this powerpointz Most of the information for this powerpoint was obtained from the following web page:htt // t i l b /C tz http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/History.htm

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Review perkembangan teknologi berikutz Review perkembangan teknologi berikutterkait dengan sejarahnya, perbaikan atauperbandingan dengan teknologi sebelumnyaperbandingan dengan teknologi sebelumnya. Adapun teknologi yang dibahas antara lain :1 Perangkat Processor1. Perangkat Processor2. Perangkat Storage/Penyimpan3 Operating sistem Windows3. Operating sistem Windows4. Mobile aplication5. Computer Networking5. Computer Networking