Chapter 2.1 Game Design
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Chapter 2.1Game Design
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Overview Folk games [Costikyan]
“Traditional” games, cultural origins Examples:
Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker
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Overview There is no one “right” way to
design There are many successful
approaches Specific requirements and constraints
of each project and team determine what works and what does not.
This introduction is but a scratch
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The Language of Games Game development – a young
industry Standards are still being
formulated Theory Practice Terminology
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The Language of Games Debate continues over high-level
views Lack of standard (concrete)
definitions Game Play
High-level concepts tricky to articulate
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The Language of Games Workplace differences low-level
Working terminology Example
“actors” instead of “agents” “geo” instead of “model”
Workflow – how things get done Individual responsibilities Processes under which work is performed
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The Language of Games Why do we play?
Not a designer’s problem What is the nature of games?
Not a designer’s problem How is a game formed of parts?
A designer’s problem
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Aesthetics and Frame Aesthetics
Emotional responses during play Naïve practical approach, not classical
Frame The border of a game’s context
Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life
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Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Game design is a technical discipline
like music, film, poetry The art of making dynamic models
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Approaching Design
Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps
Examples: Locations Relationships
Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms
A model represents something
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Approaching Design Abstract model
Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false
Abstract game One rule
The piece is moved to the open square
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A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game
relationship
M e c hanic s Inte r f ac e Sys te m
P LAYER G AM E
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A Player-Game Model Mechanics
Things the player does Interface
Communication between player and game
System Underlying structure and behavior
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Play Mechanics Gameplay
Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular
game (Play/game) Mechanics
Specific to game activities “What the player does”
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Seven Stages of Action
Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action
sequence
Evaluation Evaluating
interpretations Interpreting
perceptions Perceiving states
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuatinginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c ut io n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac tio n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action A goal is formed
Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples:
Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre tingpe rc e pt io ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac tio n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre tingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat ingin te rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c ut io n o fac tio n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac tio n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte r pre tingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat ingin te rpre tat io ns
E xe c ut io n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac tio n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre tingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat ingin te rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tatio ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and
goals
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre tingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat ingin te rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all
stages
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Seven Stages of Action Scales to…
…an individual mechanic A “primary element”
Examples: Move Shoot Talk
…an entire game A generalized model of interaction
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Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental
models Design models may only anticipate player
goals
D esigner U ser
Us er 'sM o d el
D es ig nM o d el
S y s tem I m ag e
System
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Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics
Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation
Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly
Designer U ser
Us er 'sM o d el
D es ig nM o d el
S y s tem I m ag e
System
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Core Mechanics Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled
repeatedly Examples:
Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit,
exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”
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Premise
The metaphors of action and setting
Directs the player experience Provides a context in which
mechanics fit Players map game states to the
premise
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Premise Story is the typical example of
premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.
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Premise Premise may also be abstract
Tetris operates under a metaphor The metaphor: arranging colored shapes
Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language
of the premise
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Premise Games are models Activities being modeled form
premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite
different Sports games are good examples
Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport
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Premise Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players mental model
Basis of player understanding and strategy
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Premise Possible
Capable of happening in the real world
Plausible Possible within the unique world of
premise “Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as
understood
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Choice and Outcome Choice
A question asked of the player Outcome
The end result of a given choice Possibility space
Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome
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Choice and Outcome Consequence or Weight
The significance of an outcome Greater consequences alter the course of
the game more significantly Choices are balanced first by
consequence
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Choice and Outcome Well-designed choice
Often desirable and undesirable effects
Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices
Too much weight to every choice is melodrama
Orthogonal choices – distinct from others
Not just “shades of grey”
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Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices
Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other
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Goals and Objectives Objectives
Designed tasks players must perform Rigid requirements – formal
Goals An intentional outcome
Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation
From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)
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Goals and Objectives
Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates
with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used
Designer U serSystem
F in d s w o r dKill d r ag o nR es c u e p r in c es s
F in d s w o rdR es c u e d rag o nKill p r in c es s
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Resources Resources
Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be…
Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply
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Economies Economies
Systems of supply, distribution, consumption
Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?
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Player Strategy
People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect
Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear
strategy
Situat io n R e s ultAc t io n
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User Interface Interface
Game controls Presentation, and feedback
Input Player to game
Output Game to player
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User Interface Elements Contains both hardware, software, and
performance elements. Hardware such as game pads and
touchscreens Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button
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Interface – main display Typical perspectives:
First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric
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Interface - audio General categories of audio
Music A powerful tool for establishing mood and
theme Sound effects Dialog
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Interface Controls
Physical input devices Control inputs
User manipulations of the controls They are not strategies
Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo
Strategies involve deciding when to perform, and which to perform
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Interface Keymaps and Control tables/diagrams
Show input, action, and contextAction Con tro l Con text
Le ft a llR igh t a llFo rwa rd a llBackwa rd a llSp rin t a llPass O ffenseLob O ffenseShoo t O ffenseStea l De fenseBlock De fenseHit De fense
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Interface Front-end
In application software The visible portion of the application
In games GUI elements not displayed during play
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Interface HUD (Head-Up Display)
Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to
present directly in the game environment Examples
Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level
2>nee d backup!!!>No>...
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Interface Mapping
An understood relationship between two things
Especially the relationship of a model to its subject
Examples
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HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics
HCI – Human-Computer Interaction Study of…
Communication between users and computers
How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work
Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations
and processes involved with performing tasks
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Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design
Visibility Making the parts visible
Mappings Understandable relationships between controls
and actions Affordances
The perceived uses of an object Constraints
Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback
Reporting what has been done and accomplished
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Systems Emergent complexity
Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply from the rules of a system
Emergence Coined by George Henry Lewes in
1873
See: John Conway’s Game of Life
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Genres Genre – a category describing
generalities of conventions, style, and content
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Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person
shooter Platform
Racing Rhythm Role-Playing
(RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional
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Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro
Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities
Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving
Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure
Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition,
teamwork, bonding, and recognition
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Creativity
Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action,
or object considered new and valuable
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Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace
Preparation Background research and comprehension
Incubation Mulling things over
Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka!
Evaluation Validating revealed insights
Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance
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Creativity Brainstorming
Generating ideas without discrimination
Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused
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Creativity Six Thinking Hats
White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control
Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor
Edward de Bono
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Inspiration Board games
Spatial relationships Card games
Resource management
Paper RPGs Dynamic narratives
Books Fantasy and agency
Sports Team competition
Film Continuity techniques
Television Serialized stories
Music Temporal systems
Martial arts Discipline in action
Children Invention
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Psychology Working Memory
Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time while other cognitive operations on them
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Psychology Attention
Method of enhancing perceptions relative to other stimuli in the same environment
How we focus on important things Limited capacity
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Psychology Classical conditioning
Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally
C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndi t io ning
B e fo re c o ndi t io ning
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Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone
C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning
B e fo re c o ndit io ning
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Psychology Operant conditioning
Learning by encouraging or discouraging
Operant A response; the action in question
Example: pressing a button Reinforcement contingency
Consistent relationship between the operant and a result in the environment
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Psychology Reinforcers
Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement
Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry
Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus
Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment
Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove
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