Chapter 2.1 Game Design

Chapter 2.1Game Design

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Overview Folk games [Costikyan]

“Traditional” games, cultural origins Examples:

Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker

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Overview There is no one “right” way to

design There are many successful

approaches Specific requirements and constraints

of each project and team determine what works and what does not.

This introduction is but a scratch

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The Language of Games Game development – a young

industry Standards are still being

formulated Theory Practice Terminology

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The Language of Games Debate continues over high-level

views Lack of standard (concrete)

definitions Game Play

High-level concepts tricky to articulate

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The Language of Games Workplace differences low-level

Working terminology Example

“actors” instead of “agents” “geo” instead of “model”

Workflow – how things get done Individual responsibilities Processes under which work is performed

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The Language of Games Why do we play?

Not a designer’s problem What is the nature of games?

Not a designer’s problem How is a game formed of parts?

A designer’s problem

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Aesthetics and Frame Aesthetics

Emotional responses during play Naïve practical approach, not classical

Frame The border of a game’s context

Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life

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Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Game design is a technical discipline

like music, film, poetry The art of making dynamic models

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Approaching Design

Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps

Examples: Locations Relationships

Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms

A model represents something

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Approaching Design Abstract model

Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false

Abstract game One rule

The piece is moved to the open square

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A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game

relationship

M e c hanic s Inte r f ac e Sys te m

P LAYER G AM E

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A Player-Game Model Mechanics

Things the player does Interface

Communication between player and game

System Underlying structure and behavior

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Play Mechanics Gameplay

Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular

game (Play/game) Mechanics

Specific to game activities “What the player does”

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Seven Stages of Action

Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action

sequence

Evaluation Evaluating

interpretations Interpreting

perceptions Perceiving states

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuatinginte rpre tat io ns

E xe c ut io n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac tio n

Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action A goal is formed

Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples:

Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre tingpe rc e pt io ns

E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns

E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac tio n

Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action

Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre tingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuat ingin te rpre tat io ns

E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac t io n

Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action

Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns

E xe c ut io n o fac tio n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac tio n

Inte ntio nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action

The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte r pre tingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuat ingin te rpre tat io ns

E xe c ut io n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac tio n

Inte ntio nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action

The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre tingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuat ingin te rpre tat io ns

E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac t io n

Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action

Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuat inginte rpre tatio ns

E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac t io n

Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action

Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and

goals

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre tingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuat ingin te rpre tat io ns

E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac t io n

Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action

Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all

stages

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Seven Stages of Action Scales to…

…an individual mechanic A “primary element”

Examples: Move Shoot Talk

…an entire game A generalized model of interaction

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Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental

models Design models may only anticipate player

goals

D esigner U ser

Us er 'sM o d el

D es ig nM o d el

S y s tem I m ag e

System

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Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics

Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation

Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly

Designer U ser

Us er 'sM o d el

D es ig nM o d el

S y s tem I m ag e

System

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Core Mechanics Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled

repeatedly Examples:

Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit,

exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”

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Premise

The metaphors of action and setting

Directs the player experience Provides a context in which

mechanics fit Players map game states to the

premise

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Premise Story is the typical example of

premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.

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Premise Premise may also be abstract

Tetris operates under a metaphor The metaphor: arranging colored shapes

Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language

of the premise

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Premise Games are models Activities being modeled form

premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite

different Sports games are good examples

Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport

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Premise Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players mental model

Basis of player understanding and strategy

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Premise Possible

Capable of happening in the real world

Plausible Possible within the unique world of

premise “Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as

understood

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Choice and Outcome Choice

A question asked of the player Outcome

The end result of a given choice Possibility space

Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome

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Choice and Outcome Consequence or Weight

The significance of an outcome Greater consequences alter the course of

the game more significantly Choices are balanced first by

consequence

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Choice and Outcome Well-designed choice

Often desirable and undesirable effects

Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices

Too much weight to every choice is melodrama

Orthogonal choices – distinct from others

Not just “shades of grey”

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Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices

Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other

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Goals and Objectives Objectives

Designed tasks players must perform Rigid requirements – formal

Goals An intentional outcome

Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation

From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)

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Goals and Objectives

Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates

with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used

Designer U serSystem

F in d s w o r dKill d r ag o nR es c u e p r in c es s

F in d s w o rdR es c u e d rag o nKill p r in c es s

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Resources Resources

Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be…

Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply

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Economies Economies

Systems of supply, distribution, consumption

Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?

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Player Strategy

People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect

Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear

strategy

Situat io n R e s ultAc t io n

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User Interface Interface

Game controls Presentation, and feedback

Input Player to game

Output Game to player

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User Interface Elements Contains both hardware, software, and

performance elements. Hardware such as game pads and

touchscreens Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button

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Interface – main display Typical perspectives:

First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric

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Interface - audio General categories of audio

Music A powerful tool for establishing mood and

theme Sound effects Dialog

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Interface Controls

Physical input devices Control inputs

User manipulations of the controls They are not strategies

Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo

Strategies involve deciding when to perform, and which to perform

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Interface Keymaps and Control tables/diagrams

Show input, action, and contextAction Con tro l Con text

Le ft a llR igh t a llFo rwa rd a llBackwa rd a llSp rin t a llPass O ffenseLob O ffenseShoo t O ffenseStea l De fenseBlock De fenseHit De fense

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Interface Front-end

In application software The visible portion of the application

In games GUI elements not displayed during play

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Interface HUD (Head-Up Display)

Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to

present directly in the game environment Examples

Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level

2>nee d backup!!!>No>...

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Interface Mapping

An understood relationship between two things

Especially the relationship of a model to its subject

Examples

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HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics

HCI – Human-Computer Interaction Study of…

Communication between users and computers

How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work

Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations

and processes involved with performing tasks

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Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design

Visibility Making the parts visible

Mappings Understandable relationships between controls

and actions Affordances

The perceived uses of an object Constraints

Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback

Reporting what has been done and accomplished

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Systems Emergent complexity

Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply from the rules of a system

Emergence Coined by George Henry Lewes in

1873

See: John Conway’s Game of Life

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Genres Genre – a category describing

generalities of conventions, style, and content

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Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person

shooter Platform

Racing Rhythm Role-Playing

(RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional

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Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro

Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities

Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving

Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure

Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition,

teamwork, bonding, and recognition

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Creativity

Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action,

or object considered new and valuable

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Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace

Preparation Background research and comprehension

Incubation Mulling things over

Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka!

Evaluation Validating revealed insights

Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance

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Creativity Brainstorming

Generating ideas without discrimination

Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused

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Creativity Six Thinking Hats

White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control

Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor

Edward de Bono

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Inspiration Board games

Spatial relationships Card games

Resource management

Paper RPGs Dynamic narratives

Books Fantasy and agency

Sports Team competition

Film Continuity techniques

Television Serialized stories

Music Temporal systems

Martial arts Discipline in action

Children Invention

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Psychology Working Memory

Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time while other cognitive operations on them

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Psychology Attention

Method of enhancing perceptions relative to other stimuli in the same environment

How we focus on important things Limited capacity

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Psychology Classical conditioning

Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally

C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndi t io ning

B e fo re c o ndi t io ning

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Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone

C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning

B e fo re c o ndit io ning

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Psychology Operant conditioning

Learning by encouraging or discouraging

Operant A response; the action in question

Example: pressing a button Reinforcement contingency

Consistent relationship between the operant and a result in the environment

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Psychology Reinforcers

Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement

Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry

Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus

Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment

Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove