What is consciousness? Being aware of the immediate
environment? Listening to me lecture
Being aware of your inner thoughts, feelings, and memories? Things to do today anger at a slow driver smell of lilac’s reminding you of Grandma’s
house
Early psychology (early 1880’s) was interested in consciousness Wundt and Titchner
report contents of consciousness while sitting still, working, and while falling asleep.
Freud was also interested in consciousness
According to Freud people have different levels of consciousness
conscious thoughts of which we are aware
unconscious thoughts of which we are unaware
Early psychology was dualistic Descartes 17th century the mind and body are completely separate it’s as if we have a soul that is our
consciousness that is separate from our bodies physiology
Today psychology is materialistic our mind and consciousness are presumed to
be rooted in the physiology of the brain Also there is evidence that some animals
may be conscious as well.
Modern View of Consciousness
Consciousness is considered on a continuum. From alert to dreaming, hypnosis, or
drug states. Driving a familiar route - suddenly
arriving home without memory of the drive
Sleep Why do we sleep?
Circadian rhythms. The bodies natural cycle from being wakeful, to
being sleepy. Morning people; evening people jet lag factory shift work.
Day (8 - 4) afternoon (4 - 12) Night (12-8)
What good does sleep do? The repair and restoration theory
The purpose of sleep is to enable the body to recover form the exertions of the day.
Do we sleep more after heavy exercise? Do we all need the same amount of sleep? What happens if we don’t get to sleep?
Randy Gardner stayed awake for 11 days
Peter Tripp (Disc Jockey) awake 10 days.
Sleep Deprivation
For the most part Randy Gardner and Peter Tripp showed little damage from their sleep deprivation Didn’t sleep that much more
14 hours the first night Then back to normal
Didn’t get sick
Peter Tripp
No longer sure he was himself frequently tried to gain proof of his
own identity convinced that there was a
conspiracy against him to send him to jail
Demand Characteristics?
The Evolutionary or Energy-Conservation Theory
Perhaps we have evolved a regular pattern of sleeping and waking to conserve our energy, and keep us out of danger. We are more inefficient at night
without light we don’t see well wasteful of energy resources potentially dangerous
Horse, Human, Cats
Stages of sleep
A polysomnograph combines EEG brain waves with eye movement data.
Rapid-eye movement (REM sleep) eyes move rapidly back and forth
beneath the lids. High frequency (desychronized) brain waves.
REM is also called paradoxical sleep
Light - because the brain is active and heart rate, breathing rate, and temperature fluctuate substantially
Deep - because muscles that control posture and locomotion are very relaxed
EEG activity during sleep Stage 1 - quite a bit of brain activity Stage 2, 3, and 4 - The brain activity
slows and becomes more and more synchronized until the waves are much slower, larger, and well defined.
Then the person progresses back up from stage 4, to stage 3, to stage 2.
Instead of having stage 1 repeated they have REM sleep.
REM Sleep and Dreaming
about 80% of awakenings from REM sleep led to dream reports
only 7% of awakenings from nonREM-sleep stages led to dream reports
Dreams People are most likely to report
dreams during REM sleep. People do dream in the non REM
states as well though. Dreams in REM sleep are more coherent
and have a story line. Dreams in non REM sleep are less
organized. Stage 4 sleep has been associated with
dreams called night terrors.
Dream Content: What we dream about and why
Freud Dreams reveal a person’s unconscious
thoughts and motivations. Often has to do with sexual tensions
related to repressed desires. Freud may be far fetched but do you
dream about water when thirsty?
Activation-Synthesis theory spontaneous activity occurs in brain
areas - especially during REM sleep. The brain tries to make sense of this
spontaneous activity.
Interesting Dream/Sleep Facts (1) Are external stimuli incorporated into dream sequences?
Yes, dripping water onto subjects was in 14 out of 33 dream cases (2) Do dreams run on "real time"?
Yes, subjects awakened 5 or 15 minutes after the beginning of a dream could guess the correct interval on the basis of the contents of their dreams
(3) Does everybody dream? Yes, even people who claimed that they did not dream had normal
amounts of REM, and they reported dreams if they were awakened during REM--although less frequently
(5) Are somnambulism and sleep talking the acting out of dreams?
No, they usually occur during stage 4 (6) myoclonic twitch (7) hypnagogic hallucinations (8) recurring dreams
Hypnosis
A condition of increased suggestibility that occurs in the context of a special hypnotist-subject relationship. They are not asleep - brain waves like
being awake - can walk and talk Requires wanting to be hypnotized
and believing that you are hypnotized
Hypnosis can be used to inhibit pain. Dental work surgery
Post hypnotic suggestions. Stop smoking lose weight
Myths of hypnosis Becoming stiff as a board Enhance memory
from a witnessed crime if told they will remember more they will, but the
information is often not accurate From the deep past
child hood memories largely inaccurate retain vocabulary and writing skills previous lives? - kinds of money? - is your country
at war?
Age Regression Robert True (1949) - regressed
hypnotized volunteers back to Christmases and birthday parties at ages 10, 7, and 4.
Without hypnosis the odds a person could name what day of the week that Christmas fell on are 1 in 7 (14%).
The subjects were correct 82% of the time.
Could not be replicated. Orne (1982) asked why it could not be
replicated. True said the journal Science had
shortened his key question to “what day is this”.
Actually he had asked his regressed subjects “Is it Monday?”, “Is it Tuesday?” and so on until the subject stopped him with a yes.
More of Orne Will a hypnotized person do something
they would not normally do. Hand in acid grab a poisonous snake throw acid on another person.
Hypnotized - 5 out of 6 did these things 6 out of 6 pretending 2 out of 6 who just thought it was an
experiment. WHY?
Hypnotized or pretending? Pretenders can:
tolerate sharp pain make body stiff as a board experience physiological changes
associated with being told to be angry or happy
Differences between pretenders and hypnotized: subtle things - chair and imaginary person
Hill side Strangler
Bianchi - under hypnosis a second personality was found - that the defense wanted to claim did the killings (insanity defense).
Orne again. Tearing filter from a cigarette shaking hands with someone not there response to a false statement.
Is hypnosis real? People truly hypnotized are not just
faking it - there are identifiable differences
Hypnosis does not give special powers that you do not already possess.
Hypnosis merely enables people to relax, concentrate, and follow suggestions better than they usually do.
Drugs
A psychoactive drug is a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods Anything from coffee or cigarettes, to
LSD and heroin
Depressants
Drugs that cause calming effects Alcohol Valium and Xanax (benzodiazepines) Morphine and Heroin (opiates) Pentobarbital and phenobarbital
(barbiturates)
Stimuluants
Drugs that increase energy and altertness Caffeine Cocaine Amphetamine Methamphetamine
Mixed stimulant-depressants
Drugs that seem to both stimulate and depress. Nicotine - stimulates brain activity,
but many smokers find it relaxing.
Drugs that distort experience and hallucinogens
Marijuana (THC) LSD Mescaline mushrooms peyote
Why are these drugs abused? One major commonality is that these
drugs all affect the reward pathway in the brain.
Any drug that decreases output from the nucleus accumbens is rewarding.
Dopamine - shuts down (inhibits) the nucleus accumbens most of the drugs I have mentioned
increase dopamine in the synapse.
The Reward Pathway
Some drugs like Angel Dust (PCP) decrease the amount of Glutamate in synapses in the nucleus accumbens.
Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter - so the nucleus accumbens will become less active
This is also rewarding - feels good.
Which drugs are most addictive?
Two sets of standards Legal standards
Set by the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 Five different schedules of drugs
Note that alcohol and nicotine are not on the drug schedule
Can be bought without prescription
Scientific standards Reflected by expert views of addictive
potential
Two experts rated abuse potential of various drugs
Jack Henningfield, formerly Chief of Clinical Pharmacology at the Addiction Research Center at NIDA
Neil Benowitz, addiction researcher at University of California at San Francisco
1) presence and severity of withdrawal
2) how reinforcing the drug is (from human and animal studies)
3) the degree of tolerance produced by the drugs
4) degree of dependence Difficulty quitting Relapse
5) degree of intoxication
Overall rankings Heroin (1.9) Alcohol (2.5) Cocaine (2.65) Nicotine (3.35) Caffeine (5.0) Marijuana (5.4)
Two of the top 4 substances are legal
Marijuana is lowest on this list, but a schedule 1 drug.
Keep in mind long term consequences were not included.
Note that low numbers indicate the most serious abuse potential
Also note how closely the two experts rated the drugs on the various measures
Physical dependence
Psychological dependence
What does it mean to be addicted?
American Psychiatric Association has stopped using the term addiction and addict in their professional writing Due to bad connotation
They use the term substance related disorders Two general disorders
Substance Dependence (more severe) Substance Abuse
Note that merely using a drug, even if it is illegal, does not necessarily indicate a substance related disorder
The use must be maladaptive
Drug classes in more detail
Alcohol (considered a dirty drug) Ethanol is the type of alcohol that people
consume. Rubbing alcohol (isopropyl) is very dangerous to consume.
Ethanol is primarily a relaxant can lead to aggressiveness and risky
behavior by depressing brain areas that would normally inhibit those behaviors.
Excessive use of alcohol can lead to liver damage can impair memory and motor control
A woman that drinks during pregnancy can impair brain development in her child.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome stunted growth of the head and body malformation of the face, heart, and ears learning disabilities - mental retardation
Delirium Tremens (DT’s) Severe Alcoholics are dependent on
alcohol. They have changed their nervous
system, so that without Alcohol they will become very sick and could die.
Severe trembling of the hands Leaving Las Vegas
Hallucinations seeing Pink Elephants
Tranquilizers Help to relax and fall asleep decrease muscle tension suppress epileptic seizures
barbiturates - highly habit forming and can be fatal in high doses
Pentobarbital (Nembutal) Secobarbital (Seconal) Amobarbital (Amytal) phenobarbital (Luminal) slang names for these barbiturates include yellow
jackets, reds, blues, Amy's, and rainbows. benzodiazepines (Valium and Xanax) – better
therapeutic index still habit forming, but less so.
Tranquilizers and alcohol do not mix.
Benzodiazepines work by increasing the release of the neurotransmitter GABA.
GABA decreases the activity of the brain.
Alcohol works on GABA as well
If you take tranquilizers and drink alcohol you have a good chance of shutting down your medulla. The medulla is a primitive part of your
brain that controls the heart beat and breathing
Alcohol and tranquilizers interact - they increase GABA release much more
together than either would alone.
Opiates
Our body produces endorphins. Natural chemicals that bind to opiate
receptors in the brain. They serve to inhibit pain.
The opiates are drugs derived from the poppy, or human-made (synthetic) drugs that have a similar chemical structure to opium.
Morphine and heroin are opiates. Makes people feel happy and
content. Decreases anxiety and pain.
Tends to make people feel nauseous Having a good sick
Rat study Can become physically dependent
kicking the habit; going cold turkey
Myth about Morphine
Many people believe that if they take morphine to relieve pain from surgery or some injury that they risk becoming addicted. This is unlikely.
Methadone maintenance
Methadone maintenance is a program where people receive a drink that prevents the withdrawal symptoms associated with heroin addiction.
They are still addicted but they have more control.
No needles and less intense psychological effects.
Marijuana Variety of effects
drowsiness intensification of sensory experience illusion that time is passing slowly under high doses some report mild
hallucinations. Can reduce the pressure in the eye
associated with glaucoma Cancer patients - reduce nausea and pain
Can be detected for a long time
Marijuana dissolves in the fats of the body, so it can be detected weeks after taking the drug.
It is not physically addictive, but people do become psychologically addicted.
It would be very difficult to overdose on marijuana
Risks? Lung Cancer impairment of learning and memory
animal studies have shown that it can temporarily shrink dendrite size.
There are a large number of receptor sites for THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) in the hippocampus.
The hippocampus is an important brain structure involved in learning and memory
Stimulants
Boost energy, heighten alertness, increase activity, and produce a pleasant feeling. Coffee - contains caffeine. People can
become dependent drowsiness headaches
Cocaine and Amphetamine
They act by increasing the amount of dopamine in the synapse. Also increase the activity of
norepinephrine and serotonin Cocaine is also a local anesthetic.
Produces numbness - placing cocaine on the tongue. Novocaine is used by dentists
Cocaine was predominately inhaled as a powder into the nostrils until recently. This type of cocaine use has caused
addiction in many people. Makes people feel powerful, and vibrant. Can lead to holes in the nasal membrane severe use can lead to symptoms that
resemble paranoid schizophrenia (Cocaine Psychosis) - Insects under the skin.
Crack Cocaine Crack is cocaine that has been processed
so that it can be smoked. This increases it’s ability to get to the
brain. More intense rush high in seconds
It is very addictive - Addiction may not set in rapidly, but once it does the drug is more important than other basic drives.
Tobacco Cigarettes, cigars, dip, and chew all
contain nicotine. Nicotine acts at dopamine receptors much
like cocaine and amphetamine - however it produces a smaller high.
Increases heart rate and blood pressure. People still consider it calming, however nicotine addiction occurs slowly, but it is
hard to break the addiction.
Hallucinogens Drugs that cause sensory distortions. Derived from mushrooms and other
plants LSD, PCP (angel dust), and mescaline
intensify sensations. Can cause dream like states and mystical
experiences can cause hallucinations (probably due to
action at the serotonin receptors)
MDMA - Ecstasy 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine
Related to amphetamine Also phenthylamine – a hallucinogen
Sense of well being People say it helps them to open up and talk
about their feelings The relationship drug
Destroys serotonin neurons in rat models Causes abnormalities in the serotonin system
of squirrel monkeys after 12-18 months of exposure
Mood – sleep Very high doses destroy DA cells in rats
Ketamine – Special K Described as a "dissociative" drug,
meaning that it feels as if the mind is separated from the body. PCP – Angel Dust
At low doses, K gives users a floating feeling, numb extremities and an increased heart rate.
At high doses, hallucinations, depressed breathing and unconsciousness can occur, therefore, it is very dangerous when combined with alcohol or Valium.