THE CONSERVATIVE ORDER AND THE AGE OF METTERNICHThe Empires Strike Back!
WHAT ARE THESE TERMS?THE KEY TO YOUR AP EXISTENCE FOR THE NEXT TWO WEEKS OR SO…
Conservatism – keeping the status quo…keeping the kings in charge and letting the absolute monarchs run the show
Liberalism – open up democracy to the educated and landowning middle class…elect representatives to legislative bodies and avoid mass democracy
Nationalism – a great pride in your culture or country…will be driving force behind separate ethnicities and cultures being administered by their own representative government
THE CONGRESS OF VIENNALet’s fix this!
CONGRESS OF VIENNA
Representatives of major powers of Europe, including France, met to redraw territorial lines and to try and restore the social and political order of the Old Regime
Big Five Klemens Von Metternich – AUSTRIA Lord Castlereagh – GREAT BRITAIN Czar Alexander I – RUSSIA Some Prussian – PRUSSIA Minister Talleyrand – FRANCE
THE CONGRESS OF VIENNASEPTEMBER 1814-JUNE 1815
WHAT THE WHITE MEN WANT
Legitimacy The deposed kings are returned to their power Bourbons restored in France, Spain, and Naples
Compensation Reward states which helped defeat Napoleon with
land England receives naval bases Austria receives Italian provinces Russia receives much of Poland, and Alexander becomes
king
WHAT THE WHITE MEN DID
Balance of Power GOAL: Arrange the map so that one country can
never gain enough power to be able to take over Strategies to encircle France
Strengthen the Netherlands – buffer state of “Belgium” German Confederation (Bund)
Official end of Holy Roman Empire Austria is President of the Assembly of Confederation Loose confederation of states where members
remained pretty much sovereign
LEGACY OF THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
Goal – Make a Europe where there will never be another war
Britain emerges as the most powerful country and the lone growing power
Successfully restored the European balance of power…relative peace for the next 100 years
Criticism for limiting and discouraging the spread of Enlightenment ideas
Underestimated the new nationalism generated by the French Revolution
THE CONCERT OF EUROPE1815-1850s
CONCERT OF EUROPE
A series of arrangements to enforce the status quo as defined by the Vienna settlement Highly conservative and against
liberalism/nationalism
Two Components Quadruple Alliance Congress System
CONCERT OF EUROPEQUADRUPLE ALLIANCE
Quadruple Alliance – Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England If a dynastic leader was under attack, all
members of the Alliance promised to help one another
France was seen as a constant threat Austria used the alliance to their benefit the
most
CONCERT OF EUROPECONGRESS SYSTEM
Congress System Countries are designed to meet every couple of
years to discuss new threats Worked effectively until 1822 when Britain pulled
out Disagreed with the handling of Spanish rebellion
HOLY ALLIANCE
Russia, Prussia, Austria Designed to agree to
uphold Christian principles in foreign policy
Britain does not join
More of a way to put down liberalism and nationalism than a way to uphold Christian principles
Reactive, not proactive
QUICK WRITING ASSIGNMENT
Write the introduction…
Discuss the goals and overall legacy of the Congress of Vienna (1814-15).
Underline your thesis.
LIBERALISMSomething Different.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBERALISM
First major theory in Western thought that saw the individual as a self-sufficient being, whose freedom and well-being were the sole reasons for the existence of society
The political outgrowth of the Enlightenment
Believe in… Liberty of the individual People should get equal rights before the law Government should protect natural rights
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBERALISM
DON’T BELIEVE IN PURE DEMOCRACY AND UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE
Most identify with the bourgeoisie (middle class) and believe voting rights shouldn’t be extended below them to the lower classes
LIBERALISM IN ECONOMICS
Economics becomes known as the “dismal science”
Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations No government
intervention (laissez-faire) The Invisible Hand will take
negative qualities of people and turn them into good for the economy
Severely opposed to mercantilism
LIBERALISM IN ECONOMICSTHE DEBBIE DOWNERS
David Ricardo “iron law of wages”
Thomas Malthus Population vs. food supply
LIBERALISM IN ECONOMICS
Utilitarianism – Jeremy Bentham Laws should be made based on “the greatest
happiness of the greatest number” Every law should help the greatest amount of
people at the greatest possible amount
John Stuart Mill – On Liberty (1859) A person should be free as long as it doesn’t
infringe on someone else’s freedom Government should exist to make sure people’s
freedom doesn’t’ get infringed upon Absolute freedom of opinion to be protected from
both government censorship and tyranny of majority
IMPACT OF LIBERALISM
Inspired various revolutionary movements of the early 19th century
Left traces in written constitutions which were installed in European countries during the mid-19th century
Translated into the Romantic period of art, music, and literature
Zollverein – 1834 Economic union of 17 German states which
eliminated internal tariffs and established free trade
Free trade was a liberal idea
CONSERVATISM
WHAT IS CONSERVATISM?
A reaction to liberalism and a popular alternative for those frightened by the violence, terror, and social disorder of the French Revolution
Supported by traditional ruling classes and peasants
Believed in order, society, the state, faith, and tradition
Basically Make life the way it was before the French Revolution
THE BIGGEST THREAT…
The bourgeoisie (middle class), which had stirred up the lower classes in France
EDMUND BURKE
Reflections of the Revolution in France
One of the great intellectual defenses of European conservatism
Predicted anarchy and dictatorship in France as a result of the French Revolution
Advised England to go slow in adapting its own liberties
KLEMENS VON METTERNICH
Foreign minister of Austria and chief architect of the Congress of Vienna
Particularly concerned about the multi-ethnic character of the Austrian empire
Did not want the ideas of the French Revolution to take root in his empire
AUSTRIA AND THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION Austria had the most to lose with FR ideas in
play Carlsbad Diet (1819) – instituted by Concert
Carlsbad Decrees cracked down on liberalism in universities and drove liberalism and nationalism underground Any teacher talking about Enlightenment ideas will be
fired Student organizations would be monitored by student
spies Materials pushing for German unification will be
censored
EXCERPT FROM CARLSBAD DECREES
“The confederated governments mutually pledge themselves to remove from the universities or other public educational institutions all teachers who, by obvious deviation from their duty or by exceeding the limits of their functions, or by the abuse of their legitimate influence over the youthful minds, or by propagating harmful doctrines hostile to public order or subversive of existing governmental institutions, shall have unmistakably proved their unfitness for the important of fice entrusted to them...”
PRUSSIA
Hohenzollern dynasty continues to rule Liberal reforms in Prussia after 1815 were
designed to increase government efficiency instead of giving the people more freedom
Government and Junkers work together to suppress liberal and nationalist movements
GREAT BRITAIN
Tories vs. Whigs Conservative Tories control the government
Corn Laws (1815) Cheaper foreign grains cannot be imported Benefited wealthy landowners who could jack up the
prices of domestic product Habeas corpus repealed for first time in British
history
GREAT BRITAIN
Peterloo Massacre (1819) Pro-liberal crowd in Manchester attacked by
police Crowd wanted the Corn Laws repealed and universal
suffrage for all men 11 killed and 400 were injured Press will be brought under control, mass
meetings will be abolished, and liberals are scared to protest
England – moving toward a conservative, authoritarian state by 1820
JOHN TYAS, NEWSPAPER CORRESPONDENT, THE TIMES
It appears by every account that has yet reached London, that in the midst of the Chairman's speech, within less than twenty minutes from the commencement of the meeting, the Yeomanry Cavalry of the town of Manchester charged the populace sword in hand, cut their way to the platform, and with the police at their head, made prisoners of Hunt and several of those who surrounded him - seized the flags of the Reformers - trampled down and cut down a number of the people, who, after throwing some stones and brickbats at the cavalry in its advance towards the hustings, fled on all sides in the utmost confusion and dismay.
JOHN TYAS, NEWSPAPER CORRESPONDENT, THE TIMES
Of the crowd ... a large portion consisted of women. About 8 or 10 persons were killed, and, besides those whom their own friends carried off, above 50 wounded were taken to the hospitals; but the gross number is not supposed to have fallen short of 80 or 100, more or less, grievously wounded...
Was that [meeting] at Manchester an 'unlawful assembly'? Was the notice of it unlawful? We believe not. Was the subject proposed for discussion an unlawful object? Assuredly not. Was any thing done at this meeting before the cavalry rode in upon it, either contrary to law or in breach of the peace? No such circumstance is recorded in any of the statements which have yet reached our hands.
GOVERNMENT REACTION The Government completely endorsed the
magistrates' actions and decided it was an illegal meeting anyway. In a letter to Canning on 23 September 1819, Lord Liverpool said:
When I say that the proceedings of the magistrates at Manchester ... were justifiable, you will understand me as not by any means deciding that the course which they pursued on that occasion was in all its parts prudent. A great deal might be said in their favour even on this head; but, whatever judgement might be formed in this respect, being satisfied that they were substantially right, there remained no alternative but to support them.
FRANCE
Charter of 1814 – established a constitutional monarchy under Louis XVIII Bicameral legislature –
Chamber of Deputies and Chamber of Peers
1816 – moderate royalists were brought to power through the election…want to roll France back to an absolutist state
FRANCE Spanish revolution crushed in
1823, and French troops were brought in by the Concert of Europe to restore Ferdinand VII, a Bourbon, back to the throne
1820 – heir to the throne was murdered and royalists use it to crack down on liberals
Louis XVIII gets more reactionary and conservative the longer he remains in power
RUSSIA Death of Alexander I in 1825 leaves
power vacuum Younger brother Nicholas was in line to
rule
Decembrist Uprising (1825) Junior military officers (decembrists)
supported liberal measures in government, unlike Nicholas
Sought to prevent Nicholas’s ascension to the throne
Revolt failed, and the leaders and sentenced to death
Botched hanging
Nicholas I becomes the most reactionary monarch
NATIONALISMa great pride in your culture or country…will be driving force behind separate ethnicities and cultures being administered by their own representative government
CHARACTERISTICS OF NATIONALISM
Cultural groups should rule themselves Common language, history, and traditions
would bring about unity and common loyalties
Supported by liberals Immediate origins were in the French
Revolution and the Napoleonic wars
EARLY NATIONALISTS Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)
The father of modern nationalism Saw every groups as unique and
possessing a distinct national character – “Volksgeist”
No one culture is better than another
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814) The father of German nationalism Wanted to dehumanize other cultural
groups How to handle Jewish problem?
I see absolutely no way of giving them [the Jews] civic rights, except perhaps if one chops of all of their heads and replaces them with new ones, in which there would not be one single Jewish idea.
NATIONAL REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS
1820 Spain – revolt crushed by Concert of Europe
Revolted against the Bourbon leader of Spain England withdraws
Naples (Italy) – revolt crushed by Austrian troops Carbonari had triggered revolt
Piedmont (Italy) – revolt crushed by Austrian troops
NATIONAL REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS
Greek Revolution (1821-1829) The Eastern Question – “Sick man of Europe” Turks retreating England, France, and Russia will help Greeks
Muslims vs. Christians AND loving Greek culture Treaty of Adrianople (1829) – Greek is an
autonomous state but has a German king
REVOLUTIONS OF 1830
France – July Revolution (1830) Charles X – divine right and
absolutism Radical revolt forces Charles X to
quit Will spark a wave of revolts
throughout Europe Metternich: “when France
sneezes, the rest of Europecatches a cold”
REVOLUTIONS OF 1830
July Revolution Louis Philippe, a cousin of
the royal family, becomes the new king under a constitutional monarchy Known as the Bourgeoisie
King France now controlled by
upper-middle class…for the first time since immediately after Charles X took over (1824)
Laws will be made that support the middle class at the expense of the former nobility
REVOLUTIONS OF 1830
Italy (1831-32) Trouble breaks out in
Northern Italy…led by Guiseppe Mazzini and his Young Italy
Austrian troops put down the revolts under Metternich’s direction
German states (1830-33) Carlsbad Decrees worked July Revolution triggers
rumblings for unification Austria’s domination of
German Confederation puts these wishes down
REVOLUTIONS OF 1830
Belgium (1830) Merged with the Netherlands in 1815 but has
great cultural differences Revolt in Brussels is helped by French/British,
who have nothing to lose from Belgian independence
Poland (1830-31) Nicholas I crushes a movement for Polish
independence and reinforces rule
LIBERAL REFORM IN ENGLANDSlow but steady changes…
1820-1830
Young Tories control the government Robert Peel and George Canning
Reforms Abandoning the Concert of Europe Reformed prisons and criminal code Allowed labor unions Established the “Bobbies” Test Act repealed Civil rights for Catholics
1830 AND ONWARD
Led by Earl Grey, leader of the Whigs Heavily supported by the middle class
British national character Be free and don’t revolt when one thing goes
wrong Be a respectful reformer
REFORM BILL OF 1832
Spurred on by a recent cholera epidemic…the people wanted a more proactive government
Provisions Increased number of voters from 6% to 12%
Kept a property qualification for the franchise Eliminated rotten boroughs, which evens levels
of representation in Parliament across the country
Resulted in the supremacy of the House of Commons over the House of Lords
PARLIAMENT’S ACTIONS
Factory Act of 1833 Ages 0-8 cannot work Ages 9-13 – 8 hrs per day Ages 14-18 – 12 hrs per day Destroyed pattern of families working together
Mines Act of 1842 – ages under 10 cannot work in the mines
Factory Act of 1847 – boys under 18 and women cannot work over 10 hrs per day Also known as the “Ten Hour Act”
CHARTISM – UNION IN POLITICS
Political movement in England which fights for democracy among all people
Six Points Universal male suffrage Annual election of House of Commons Secret ballot Equal electoral districts Abolition of property qualifications for Parliament Salaries for members of the House of Commons
Movement fails but all measures will eventually be adopted
OTHER PARLIAMENTARY THINGS
Corn Laws repealed in 1846 Navigation Laws repealed in 1849
Previously all goods had to be brought in to England with British ships
The official end to mercantilism
BIG POINT: BECAUSE OF THESE SMALL BUT STEADY CHANGES, THERE WAS LIMITED INTERNAL UNREST IN ENGLAND FROM 1820-1850, UNLIKE THE REST OF THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE
1848Judgment Day.
1848 – AN OVERVIEW
The turning point in the 19th century Triggered by nationalism, liberalism, and
romanticism as well as economic instability Only Britain and Russia will survive great
instability Results…
End of serfdom in Austria and Germany Universal male suffrage in France Parliaments established in German states Stimulation of unification talk in Germany
1848 – FRANCE
February Revolution Working class and liberals unhappy with the
king, Louis Philippe The nobility unhappy with the Bourgeoisie
King King was forced to abdicate in February 1848
Second French Republic Influenced by Louis Blanc, who opened the
National Workshops which guaranteed work for the unemployed
Reforms Abolished slavery 10 hr workday in Paris Abolished the death penalty
1848 – FRANCE
After April elections, Blanc exited Assembly and workshops are closed – triggers anger
June Days Revolt led by the working class…the National
Guard will seek to crush the uprising and support the bourgeoisie’s power
Workers want to fight against poverty and desire redistribution of income
Barricades put up in street but revolt is crushed by the conservatives
1848 – FRANCE
The National Assembly creates a Constitution which allows for a strong president and a unicameral legislature
Napoleon’s nephew – Louis Napoleon – wins election and becomes president of Republic
1848 – ITALY
Nationalists and liberals seek to finally kick out foreign leaders in Italy
Many city-states defeat outside rulers Giuseppe Mazzini establishes Roman Republic,
protected by Giuseppe Garibaldi Pope Pius IX was forced to flee Rome
Austrian and French troops retake Italian regions
Why? No support from rural people Revolutionaries were not united Lack of leadership among revolutionaries
1848 – AUSTRIA
Austrian government was extremely vulnerable to nationalist and liberal activities
They were not willing to grant any freedoms to any group because they would quickly lose control
1848 – AUSTRIA
Declarations of Independence Louis Kossuth, a Magyar leader, demanded
independence for the Hungarians The Czechs and three Italian provinces also demanded
independence Mass demonstrations from students and workers
Defeat of Hungary…and everyone else Magyars cannot work with Slavs against the
conservative Austrian army Austria had help from Russian armies
Metternich is forced to abdicate because of the mass unrest…his conservatism has been defeated
1848 – GERMAN STATES
Liberals demanded constitutional government and a union or federation of German states
Frankfurt Parliament (May 1848) Liberal, nationalist/romantic
leaders call for a elections to a constituent assembly, from all states in the German Bund, for the purpose of unifying Germany
Presents Prussian king a constitution, which he accepts at first because of threats of rebellion from the lower classes across Germany
1848 – GERMAN STATES
Prussian King Frederick William IV then rejects the liberal constitution Claims “divine right” of kings “I reject your crown from the gutter that has the
stink of revolution on it King then imposes a constitution that
guarantees royal control in the government Austria then demanded that Prussia pay
allegiance to the Bund, which Austria dominated
Prussia then drops plan to unify Germany, leaving Austria the dominant German state in Bund
1848 EVALUATED
Many of the revolutions were spontaneous movements that could not effectively maintain popular support
Middle classes, who led the revolutions, came to fear the radical tendencies of their working class allies…they couldn’t work together Conservatives take advantage to keep control
Different ethnic groups cannot work together to take advantage of conservatives’ weaknesses
1848 EVALUATED
Positive Aspects Universal male suffrage in France Serfdom remains abolished in Austria/German
states Parliaments established in Prussia and other
German states, even though they are dominated by royals
Prussia, others will gain momentum for unification