Definition
A harmful dysfunction that occurs when behavior is atypical, disturbing, maladaptive, and unjustifiable
Breaking it down Atypical- outside the average scope of human
behavior Ex. A person who disregards social norms like
wearing a costume every day
Disturbing- bothersome to you or others Ex. A person who sees or hears things that does not
exist and then tries to respond to those stimuli
Maladaptive- gets in the way of living one’s life Ex. A person won’t go to work because it makes him
anxious
Unjustifiable- no external explanation for the behavior Ex. When a person is sad even though their life is
going well.
Perspectives
Medical- disorders are sicknesses that can be diagnosed with symptoms and treated with therapy
Bio-Psycho-Social- disorders are a product of biology, psychology, and sociocultural factors
DSM-V
Diagnostic Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders
Classifies disorders according to symptoms, treatments, and expected duration
Types of Anxiety Disorders
generalized anxiety disorder (person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal)
panic disorder (episodes of intense dread accompanied by physiological reactions)
phobias (persistent, irrational fear marked by avoidance)
obsessive-compulsive disorder (unwanted repetitive thoughts and actions)
post-traumatic stress (people in a state of anxiety or fear after a traumatic event)
Causes
Learning Perspective
Anxiety is a result of classically conditioned fear.
Fear is generalized
Behavior that reduces fear is reinforced (because it takes the fear away)
We learn anxiety by observing the fears of others
Biological Perspective
Natural selection makes some fears more likely
Some people are genetically predisposed to have more fear
Physiology- brain areas involved in emotion and fear are overactive
Types of Dissociative and Personality Disorders dissociative-identity disorder (multiple personalities)-
very sketchy in terms of research
avoidant personality disorder (fear of rejection and therefore withdrawal from others)
schizoid personality disorder (eccentric behaviors such as social disengagement)
histrionic personality disorder (shallow, attention-getting emotions, goes to great lengths to get praise and reassurance)
narcissistic personality disorder (exaggerate their own importance, aided by fantasies)
antisocial personality disorder (sociopath, one who lacks conscience)
Debate over Dissociative Disorders
Those who say yes:
There are distinct brain and body states associated with different personalities
Handedness can switch
Visual acuity and eye-muscle balance changes
Subtle memories don’t transfer
Those who say no: Those with dissociative
disorders are also highly hypnotizable
Only 2 cases per decade from 1930-1960
20,000 cases in 1980s
Almost solely diagnosed in North America
Causes
A way of dealing with childhood trauma?Then why do the children who survived
the Holocaust not exhibit an increased rate of personality disorders?
Types of Mood Disorders
major depressive disorder (two or more weeks of depressed moods with no apparent cause)
bipolar disorder (alternating between manic and depressive episodes)
Explanations of Mood Disorders
Behavior and cognition- depressed people have negative thoughts about their behavior
Depression is common- it’s causes must likewise be common
Women are twice as likely to have major depression
Most major depressive episodes self-terminate
Stressful events often precede major depression
PerspectivesBiological
Mood disorders linked to genetics
Genes change neurotransmitters: Norepinephrine is
overabundant in mania and scarce in depression
Serotonin is scarce during depression
Social-Cognitive
Negative thoughts lead to negative moods
Negative moods lead to negative actions
Negative actions lead to a negative response from others
Negative response leads to negative thoughts
Schizophrenia
Characterized by disorganized thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
Types of Schizophrenia
paranoid (preoccupation with delusions or hallucinations)
disorganized (disorganized speech or behavior or flat or inappropriate emotion)
catatonic (immobility or repetitive movements, extreme negativism or parroting others)
undifferentiatied (many or varied symptoms)
residual (withdrawal after hallucinations and delusions have disappeared)
Potential Causes
Brain abnormalities Dopamine overactivity
Low activity in frontal lobe
High activity in thalamus during hallucination
Large fluid-filled areas that shrink cerebral tissue
Maternal virus during pregnancy
Genetic factors Identical twins are much more likely to both have
the disorder than are fraternal twins
Psychological factors
Psychotherapy
An emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties
Eclectic approach- uses techniques from various therapies to help a client
Traditional Psychoanalysis
Started by Freud in the late 1800’s
Assumption is that disorders are caused by repressed traumas (usually from childhood)
Freud used free association, where the patient would start discussing any memory focusing on thoughts and feelings
When the patient hit a block, called resistance, the psychoanalyst would interpret the underlying wishes, feelings, and conflicts.
Traditional Psychoanalysis
Another method is dream interpretation
Freud believed that the content of dreams could tell an analyst about a clients repressed feelings and drives
Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychodynamic therapy is an update to psychoanalysis
Focuses on interpretation of past memories
Comparing Therapies
Psychoanalysis
Therapist is out of the line of vision
Client comes several times a week
Client comes for several years
Psychodynamic
Therapist may talk to client face-to-face
Client comes once a week
Client comes from a few weeks
Interpersonal Therapy
A brief alternative to psychodynamic therapy
Especially used for depressed clientsFocus is on improving current
relationships and interpersonal skills
Basic Principles
Focus on the present and the futureFocus on conscious thoughts and
feelingsTaking immediate responsibility for
one’s feelings and actionsPromotes growth instead of cures
illness
Methods
Client-centered therapy- developed by Carl Rogers, a technique where the therapist creates an accepting, genuine and empathetic environment
Active listening- a type of listening in which the listeners echoes, restates, and clarifies what the speaker has said
Classical Conditioning Techniques
Counterconditioning- conditioning new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors
Two types:Systematic Desensitization- associating a
relaxed state with something that would normally cause anxietyExposure therapies- treat anxiety by exposing
people to the things they fear or avoid
Aversive Conditioning- associating an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior
Operant Conditioning Techniques
Using rewards or punishments to change behavior
Token economy- a way to reward desired behavior Patient exchanges a token
earned for exhibiting the desired behavior for privileges or treats
Basic Ideas
Teaches people more adaptive ways of thinking and acting
Based on the assumption that our thoughts intervene between our events and our emotional reactions
Example
EventYou lose your job
EventYou lose your job
Thought“I’m worthless. It’s hopeless.”
ResultDepression
Thought“I deserve something better.” Result
No Depression
Drug Therapies Antipsychotic drugs- block dopamine
receptor sites Patients must be carefully monitored
Can produce symptoms akin to Parkinson’s disease
Antianxiety drugs- depress central nervous system activity Treat symptoms but not causes
Antidepressant drugs- increase the availability of certain neurotransmitters (serotonin and norepinephrine)
Electroconvulsive Therapy
A therapy for severely depressed patients where a brief electrical current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
We don’t know for sure why it works
Only for severe depression
After 3 sessions a week for two to four weeks, 80% of patients show improvement
Psychosurgery
Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue
Only used as a last resort because the operations are irreversible
Can reduce uncontrollable seizures by deactivating specific nerve clusters
Can also cut the circuits involved in severe obsessive compulsive disorder
Lobotomies
A psychosurgery procedure used during the 1930s-1950s
Used to control uncontrollably violent or emotional patients
Procedure severs the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain
This procedure is rarely used today
Basic Principles
Using psych therapy techniques in small groups
Saves the patient time and money and is generally just as effective
Provides social support for patients
Family therapy uses group therapy principles to better family relationships
Types
Therapeutic Touch- a practitioner hovers her hands over a patient to move “energy fields”
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)- rapidly moving one’s eyes in order to relieve anxiety or stress
Light exposure therapy- exposing seasonally depressed people to a bright light
Is It Worth It? Clients often enter therapy in a crisis, so
their positive expectations can enhance healing
Unusual events tend to regress toward the mean
Clients generally like their therapists and speak kindly of them
80% of people have poorer outcomes than the average treated person
The type of therapy depends on the problem