Paradigm spectacles:
1. Functionalism
2. Liberal Pluralism
3. Power view
4. Participative
5. Chaos theory
Paradigms 1: Functionalism
• Policy = systems to harmonise for the reproduction of the whole entity.
• Relevance to policy on media:– Plays integrative role – eg. get agreement
that political parties will not be allowed to have radio station licences.
– Gives predictability, avoids ad hoc decisions: there are agreed rules & procedures for getting licences.
– Should go through clear stages/steps
Paradigms 2: Lib pluralism • Policy reflects interests: competition and
contest among those who can.• Highlights elite politics of policy.• Policy “sales” seen to = the most rational
outcome for the whole.• Relevance to policy on media:
– Fair & open competition for licences. – Recognise diff interests amongst power-holders
who need to be satisfied by policy process if result = legit.
Paradigms 3: Power view• Policy reflects the rulers .
– Highlights final power in policy– Focus on class and gender.
• Relevance to policy on media:– Policy decisions (& ambiguity) reflect not just
compromise but control.– Do govt, international orgs, owners or advertisers
call the final shots?– Sometimes “policy as political theatre”– Discourse of policy coverage is nb.
Paradigm 4: Participative
• Policy as consultative and empowering of powerless.
• Relevance to policy on media:– Are there provisions for media
workers, and audiences, to make input or register complaints?
– Are there provisions for access to public service media by all voices?
– Grassroots ownership – community media possibilities.
Paradigm 5: Chaos theory
• Policy as piecemeal muddle.– Disorderly, ad hoc.
• Media relevance:– Policy arises from poor info, poor
process, false perceptions, flawed cause-effect views, inconsistencies, irrational humans.
Summing up
• Paradigm insight:– policy as integrative– policy as politically contested– policy as power of the dominant– policy as empowering– policy as patchy
Summing up
• Key issues facing media policy
• Question: whose interests served?
Item: First & 3rd World policy issues.
Horwitz, Crede & Mansell, Linden
Outside of USA …
• Historically authoritarian:– media content – industry structure
• Form: – state monopoly– public must pay licence fees– universal service notion
Why broadcast & not print?
• Rationale: – uses public frequency spectrum
– nation-building power
• Exceptions are the rule!– Print is regulated in many countries!
– Rationale: seen as powerful
Regulatory rationales
• Broadcast liberalisation is also regulated:– Spectrum and order argument
– Social factors arguments
= License commercial broadcasters.
• Thus policy covers all broadcasters:• Eg. Local content, morals, elections,
news, language, univ service, tariffs, etc.
Perspectives
• Broadcast control in whose interests?– the society (functionalist view)
– government/ruling class (power)
– elite private interests (pluralist)
– consumers & communities (participative)
– nobody, random beneficiaries (chaos)
Convergence confuses
• Digital broadcasting:– Policy when frequency not at stake?
• Different channels:– When broadcast goes via Net?
• Other frequency use: – When goes via 3G or WiFi?
Summing up
• Broadcast policy issues:– Historically more susceptible to policy
and regulation
– Frequency and social issues
– Convergence issues
A. Role of the state
–The most NB site of policy?
– Role of independent regulators?
– Role of foreign influences?
– Role of international orgs?
– Role of the media?
B: Philosophies & values
• Libertarian/commercial values:• Light touch - abstentionist
• Democratic values:• Consultative, self-regulatory
• Social democratic values:• Directive
• Statist/control-freak values:• Heavy touch
C: Scope of policy
• Policing policy, or “regulate the regulatable”:
• Selection of gender sources?
• Defining field:• Training? Freebies? Plagiarism?
• Also: Capacity, monitoring, review.
D: Impact issues
• Formal vs informal policies.
• Living vs dead-letter policies:
• “No policy” can be a policy position– de facto, it is status quo friendly.
D: Impact issues cntd
• Assessing policy success:• Measurable indicators needed• Evaluation must be done
• When policy fails:– Impractical & unrealistic– Inflexible re: changing conditions
• Policy vs practice: – Where does fault lie?
Re-cap
• Definition & purpose of policy.• Who, what, where, when, how, why, so
what?• Issues in policy, structure-content-
systems• 4 paradigms: functionalist, liberal,
power, participative• Broadcasting, convergence• Key issues: philosophy, scope, impact
Ingredients of good policy
1. It should be relevant and clear:– Why this policy, what’s the purpose?
(eg. predictability, enabling, empowering)
– Whose problem/possibility is addressed? Thus: Dont’s and do’s.
– Who the policy is for? Whose interests?
– Clear objectives are spelled out.
Ingredients of good policy
1. It should address:– Who should implement it?– Where is it made, where does it
apply?– How is it made, how is it applied? – What paradigm informs it?
Good policy shd be comprehensive.
What makes for good policy?
2. Clear definition of what it covers (scope), and whether it is formal or not:
eg. What exactly is “convergence” if you wanted a policy on this?
Good policy:
3. Specifies its own genesis - Who makes/made the policy:
– Stakeholders? (Ownership)?
– What interests & politics?
– Where? How? Why (legitimacy)?
– Who makes/made the final decision? (power?)
Good policy also:
4. Recognises inputs:– External policy determinants & context
– Underlying values made explicit
– Research that is conducted
– Consultative contributions.
5. Has suitable philosophy of implementation as regards objectives.
6. Is practical (esp. budget & time issues)
Good policy further:
7. Is assess-able (yields indicators)
8. Specifies who communicates it and how.
9. Tells who monitors & assesses.
10.Sets out who must take corrective action or initiate policy review, … and when.
Checklist: Cover all points
1. Relevance, purpose, interests, objectives. (= paradigm)
2. Definition of what it covers.3. Who will make the policy, who
adopt it?4. List of inputs: external, values,
research, consultation5. What philosophy of intervention?
Checklist: Cover all points
6. Practical implications (budget, time)
7. Assessment – what indicators are there? How gauge degrees of success or failure?
8. Who will communicate the policy?
9. Who will monitor and assess?
10.Who will action change?