Neuroscience and Neuroscience and Biological FoundationsBiological Foundations
Neuroscience:Neuroscience: Interdisciplinary Interdisciplinary field studying how biological field studying how biological
processes relate to behavioral and processes relate to behavioral and mental processes.mental processes.
NeuronNeuron
Dendrites—branching structures that Dendrites—branching structures that receive neural impulses from other neurons receive neural impulses from other neurons and convey impulses toward the cell bodyand convey impulses toward the cell body
Cell Body—contains the cell nucleus, as well Cell Body—contains the cell nucleus, as well as other structures that help the cell carry as other structures that help the cell carry out its functionsout its functions
Axon—a long, tubelike structure that Axon—a long, tubelike structure that conveys impulses away from the neuron’s conveys impulses away from the neuron’s cell body toward other neurons or to cell body toward other neurons or to muscles or glandsmuscles or glands
NeuronNeuron Communication Communication
Action potential—neural impulse that Action potential—neural impulse that carries information along the axon of a carries information along the axon of a neuron. (electrical impulse)neuron. (electrical impulse)
Neurotransmitter—chemicals Neurotransmitter—chemicals manufactured and released by neurons manufactured and released by neurons that alter activity in other neuronsthat alter activity in other neurons Synapse—junction between the axon tip of the Synapse—junction between the axon tip of the
sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; during an action the receiving neuron; during an action potential, neurotransmitters are released and potential, neurotransmitters are released and flow across the synaptic gapflow across the synaptic gap
NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters
Endorphins—chemical substances in Endorphins—chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates and in structure and action to opiates and are involved in pain control, pleasure are involved in pain control, pleasure and memoryand memory
Linked to disease—Parkinson’s Linked to disease—Parkinson’s Disease (too little Disease (too little dopaminedopamine), ), schizophrenia (excessively high schizophrenia (excessively high dopaminedopamine), depression (too little ), depression (too little serotoninserotonin))
Neurotransmitters and DrugsNeurotransmitters and Drugs
Drugs act as agonists (“contest, Drugs act as agonists (“contest, struggle”) or antagonists (“members struggle”) or antagonists (“members of the opposing team”)of the opposing team”) i.e., nicotine is an agonist for i.e., nicotine is an agonist for
acetylcholineacetylcholine whereas amphetamines whereas amphetamines act as agonists for act as agonists for norepinephrinenorepinephrine
HormonesHormones
Chemicals manufactured by Chemicals manufactured by endocrine glands and circulated endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream to produce in the bloodstream to produce bodily changes or maintain bodily changes or maintain normal bodily functionsnormal bodily functions Endocrine System—a collection of Endocrine System—a collection of
glands located throughout the body glands located throughout the body that manufacture and secrete that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstreamhormones into the bloodstream
HormonesHormones
Like neurotransmitters, Like neurotransmitters, hormones activate cells in the hormones activate cells in the bodybody
Pituitary Gland—the master Pituitary Gland—the master gland of the bodygland of the body
The Nervous SystemThe Nervous System
Central Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System The Brain—directs mental processes and The Brain—directs mental processes and
maintains basic life functionsmaintains basic life functions The Spinal Cord—receives sensory input, The Spinal Cord—receives sensory input,
sends information to the brain, responds sends information to the brain, responds with motor outputwith motor output
The Nervous System The Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous SystemPeripheral Nervous System Somatic nervous system—conveys Somatic nervous system—conveys
sensory information to the central sensory information to the central nervous system and sends motor nervous system and sends motor messages to muscles (voluntary)messages to muscles (voluntary)
Autonomic nervous system—serves basic Autonomic nervous system—serves basic life functions, such as heartbeat and life functions, such as heartbeat and response to stress (involuntary)response to stress (involuntary)
Sympathetic—readies the body to respond to Sympathetic—readies the body to respond to threatthreat
Parasympathetic—calms the body down and Parasympathetic—calms the body down and maintains energymaintains energy
Phineas GagePhineas Gage
Different parts of the brain must Different parts of the brain must control different physical, emotional, control different physical, emotional, thinking processesthinking processes
Phineas could survive physically Phineas could survive physically because the part of his brain that because the part of his brain that controlled breathing, heart, etc. was controlled breathing, heart, etc. was untoucheduntouched
His injuries effected the emotions, His injuries effected the emotions, motivation, impulse control, etc.motivation, impulse control, etc.
The BrainThe Brain
Brainstem—area at the base of Brainstem—area at the base of the brain in front of the the brain in front of the cerebellum responsible for cerebellum responsible for automatic, survival functionsautomatic, survival functions
Midbrain—neural centers located Midbrain—neural centers located near the top of the brainstem near the top of the brainstem involved in coordinating involved in coordinating movement patterns, sleep and movement patterns, sleep and arousalarousal
The BrainThe Brain
Pons—structure at the top of the Pons—structure at the top of the brainstem involved in brainstem involved in respiration, movement, waking, respiration, movement, waking, sleep, and dreamingsleep, and dreaming
Medulla—structure at the base of Medulla—structure at the base of the brainstem responsible for the brainstem responsible for automatic functions such as automatic functions such as breathing and heart ratebreathing and heart rate
The BrainThe Brain
Cerebellum—structure at the Cerebellum—structure at the base of the brain, behind the base of the brain, behind the brainstem, responsible for brainstem, responsible for maintaining smooth movement, maintaining smooth movement, balance, and some aspects of balance, and some aspects of perception and cognitionperception and cognition
Thalamus—a brain structure at Thalamus—a brain structure at the top of the brainstem that the top of the brainstem that relays sensory messages to the relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortexcerebral cortex
The BrainThe Brain
Hypothalamus—a small brain Hypothalamus—a small brain structure beneath the thalamus structure beneath the thalamus that maintains the body’s that maintains the body’s internal environment and internal environment and regulates emotions and drives, regulates emotions and drives, such as hunger, thirst, sex and such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggressionaggression
The BrainThe Brain
Limbic System—An interconnected Limbic System—An interconnected group of lower-level brain structures group of lower-level brain structures involved with the arousal and involved with the arousal and regulation of emotion, motivation, regulation of emotion, motivation, memory and many other aspects of memory and many other aspects of behavior and mental processesbehavior and mental processes
Amygdala—an almond-shaped lower-Amygdala—an almond-shaped lower-level brain structure that is part of level brain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in the limbic system and is involved in emotionemotion
The Brain’s Higher FunctionsThe Brain’s Higher Functions
The Cerebral Cortex—the bumpy, The Cerebral Cortex—the bumpy, convoluted area on the outside of convoluted area on the outside of the two cerebral hemispheres that the two cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, regulates most complex behavior, including receiving sensations, including receiving sensations, motor control and higher mental motor control and higher mental processes (i.e., thinking, processes (i.e., thinking, personality, emotion, memory, personality, emotion, memory, motivation, creativity, self-motivation, creativity, self-awareness, reasoning, etc.)awareness, reasoning, etc.)
Cerebral Cortex—Four LobesCerebral Cortex—Four Lobes
Frontal Lobes—receive and Frontal Lobes—receive and coordinate messages from other coordinate messages from other lobes as well as motor control, lobes as well as motor control, speech and higher functionsspeech and higher functions
Parietal Lobes—receives Parietal Lobes—receives information about pressure, information about pressure, pain, touch and temperaturepain, touch and temperature
Cerebral Cortex—Four LobesCerebral Cortex—Four Lobes
Temporal Lobes—hearing, Temporal Lobes—hearing, language comprehension, language comprehension, memory and some emotional memory and some emotional controlcontrol
Occipital Lobes—vision and Occipital Lobes—vision and visual perceptionvisual perception
Brain HemispheresBrain Hemispheres
The Cerebral Cortex is divided The Cerebral Cortex is divided into two hemispheres connected into two hemispheres connected by the by the Corpus CollosumCorpus Collosum
Each hemisphere receives and Each hemisphere receives and sends information to the sends information to the opposite side of the bodyopposite side of the body
Each hemisphere also specializes Each hemisphere also specializes in certain functionsin certain functions
The Left Hemisphere (or Left The Left Hemisphere (or Left Brain)Brain)
Language Functions (speaking, Language Functions (speaking, reading, writing, and reading, writing, and understanding language)understanding language)
Analytical Functions Analytical Functions (mathematics, physical sciences)(mathematics, physical sciences)
Right-hand touchRight-hand touch
The Right Hemisphere (or Right The Right Hemisphere (or Right Brain)Brain)
Non-verbal abilities (music, art, Non-verbal abilities (music, art, perceptual and spatial perceptual and spatial manipulation, facial recognition)manipulation, facial recognition)
Some language comprehensionSome language comprehension Left-hand touchLeft-hand touch
Genetics and EvolutionGenetics and Evolution
Gene—a segment of DNA that Gene—a segment of DNA that occupies a specific place on a occupies a specific place on a particular particular chromosome chromosome and carries the and carries the code for hereditary transmissioncode for hereditary transmission
Chromosome—Threadlike strands of Chromosome—Threadlike strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic DNA molecules that carry genetic informationinformation
Behavioral genetics—the study of the Behavioral genetics—the study of the effects of heredity on biolgical, effects of heredity on biolgical, behavioral and mental processesbehavioral and mental processes
Study MethodsStudy Methods Heritability—the measure of the Heritability—the measure of the
degree to which a characteristic is degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic factors (think related to genetic factors (think correlation rather than cause-effect)correlation rather than cause-effect)
Twin studies—studies of identical Twin studies—studies of identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins. What traits or (dizygotic) twins. What traits or behaviors do we see the same in behaviors do we see the same in identical twins that are not in identical twins that are not in fraternal twinsfraternal twins
Adoption studies—what traits or Adoption studies—what traits or behaviors do we observe in families behaviors do we observe in families even when the child has been adoptedeven when the child has been adopted
Study MethodsStudy Methods
Family studies—are there Family studies—are there increased incidents of a increased incidents of a particular trait or behavior particular trait or behavior within family units?within family units?
Genetic abnormalities—traits or Genetic abnormalities—traits or disorders that are linked to disorders that are linked to chromosomal problems (i.e., chromosomal problems (i.e., Down syndrome)Down syndrome)
Things to RememberThings to Remember
Genetic traits are not fixed or Genetic traits are not fixed or inflexibleinflexible
Heritability estimates Heritability estimates DO NOTDO NOT apply to individualsapply to individuals
Genes, individuals and the Genes, individuals and the environment are inseparableenvironment are inseparable
Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology
A branch of psychology that A branch of psychology that studies evolutionary principles, studies evolutionary principles, like natural selection and genetic like natural selection and genetic mutations, which affect mutations, which affect adaptation to the environment adaptation to the environment and help explain commonalities and help explain commonalities in behaviorin behavior