4 E T H I C A L T H E O R I E S
1 Utilitarianism : Mill &
Others
2 Duty Ethics : Kant
3 Rights Ethics : Locke
4 Virtue Ethics : Aristotle
1) U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • Those actions which produce the
maximum benefit for the
greatest number of people ( Ex.
Democracy )
• Emphasizes on maximizing the
well being of the society as a
whole and not on that of an
individual
U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • Tries to achieve a balance between the
Good and Bad consequences of an
action
• Tries to maximize the well being of
society and emphasizes what will
provide the most benefit to the largest
group of people
• This method is fundamental to many
types of engineering analysis, including
Risk – Benefit Analysis and Cost –
Benefit Analysis
D R A W B A C K S • Sometimes what is best for the
community as a whole is bad for
certain individual in the
community
• It is often impossible to know in
advance which decision will lead
to the most good
P R O B L E M S • Difficult to quantify benefits for
all those affected
• “Greatest Good” difficult to
apply to an all – inclusive
population
• Some gets “Shafted” –
approach justifies perpetrating
injustice on individuals
3 A P P R O A C H E S
• Cost Benefit
• Act
Utilitarian
• Rule
Utilitarian
1) COST BENEFIT APPROACH • In a Project, Costs & Benefits are
assessed
• Projects with highest ration of
Benefits to Costs will be implemented
• Easy to estimate the cost but difficult
to predict the Benefit in tangible
terms
• It is important to ensure that those
who benefit are also those who pay
the cost
2) A C T U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • It focuses on individual actions rather
than Rules
• Well known proponent was “John
Stuart Mill”
• Mill felt that individual actions should
be judged based on whether the most
Good was produced in a given
situation and rules shall be broken if
doing so will lead to the most Good
R U L E U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • It differs from Act utilitarianism as
it holds that Moral Rules are most
important
• It contends that adhering to rules
might not always maximize good in
a particular situation. Overall
adhering to moral rules will
ultimately lead to the most Good
D U T Y E T H I C S ( K A N T )• Contends that certain acts ( or
duties ) shall be performed because
they are inherently ethical
These actions can be listed
( Honesty, fairness )
• Concludes that individuals who
recognize their ethical duties will
choose ethically correct moral
actions
• May not always lead to Maximization
of Good to society
E X A M P L E S O F D U T Y E T H I C S
1 Be Honest
2 Be Fair
3 Do not hurt Others
4 Keep your promises
5 Obey the Law
This leads to “ R e s p e c t
for H u m a n i t y ”
RIGHTS ETHICS - LOCKE • Formulated by John Locke
• It holds that people have
fundamental rights that other
people have a duty to respect
• Any act that violates an
individual’s moral rights is ethically
unacceptable
• Duty Ethics & Rights Ethics are just
two sides of the same coin
R I G H T S E T H I C SE x :
• Charter of Human Rights and
Freedom
• Rights to a Harassment Free
Discrimination - Free Environment
D r a w b a c k
• How to prioritize the rights of
different individuals ?
• It often promotes rights of
individuals at the cost of society
P R O B L E M S W I T H D U T Y & R I G H T S E T H I C S • Basic right of one person ( group )
may conflict with that of others
• Ex. Dam construction project
Individuals objection is overlooked
as per utilitarianism & not by
Rights Ethics
Rights Ethics can result in project
termination although it is Good to
society
ie Rights Ethics favour
individual while
Utilitarianism favours
society as a whole
Now the Question is
Which Theory to use ?
Fortunately, many - a - times all
these theories lead to the same
conclusion
Ex : Chemical Plant that
discharges a hazardous waste
into Ground Water
U t i l i t a r i a n T h e o r y :
Doesn’t permit this as it causes
‘ N o G o o d ’ to
society
P O I N T T O T H E S A M E C O N C L U S
I O N
R i g h t s E t h i c s :
Says it causes harm to many
individual ( unethical )
V i r t u e E t h i c s :
Discharging Waste into GW
is irresponsible & harmful
act
V I R T U E E T H I C S • Focuses on the Type of person we
should strive to be
• Actions which reflect good
character traits ( Virtues ) are
inherently right
• Actions which reflect bad
character traits ( Vices ) are
inherently wrong
• More tied to individual behaviour
than to that of an organization
A R I S T O T L E ’ S V I R T U E E T H I C S
• It makes proper balance between
of conduct, emotion, desire and
attitude
• This he refers as “G o l d e n M e a
n”
• That is between the extremes of
“T o o M u c h” ( Excess ) or
“ T o o L i t t l e ”
( deficiency )
• Viz. Truthfulness, Generosity,
friendliness etc
U S E O F E T H I C A L T H E O R I E S
I m p o r t a n t U s e s
• Understanding Moral Dilemmas
• Justifying Professional
Obligation and Ideals
• Relating Ordinary & Professional
Morality D I S C U S S I O N F O L L O W S
1) R E S O L V I N G M O R A L D I L E M M A S
• U t i l i t a r i a n i s m :
Construes Dilemma in terms of
Competing Goods & Public
Safety
• V i r t u e E t h i c s :
In terms of competing ideals &
relationship
Loyalty to employers vs to public
D u t y E t h i c s :
Duty to protect public
affected by the work and to
respect employer’s authority
R i g h t E t h i c s :
Rights of the people vs rights
of Management
2 Provides more precise sense of
kind of information needed to
solve the moral dilemma
3 Offers ways to Rank the relevant
moral considerations in the
order of importance and provide
guidance in solving them
4 Helps to identify the full
moral ramifications of
alternative course of
actions
5 By providing framework for
moral development, the theories
strengthen our ability to
reach balanced judgments
Further Ethical Theories are
also useful in justifying the
obligations of Professionals
( Engineers )
1. Acquire Moral Obligation
Concerning Safety by being
Subject to Laws
2. Acquire special obligation by
joining a professional society
thereby agree to live by society’s
code
3. Acquire Safety obligations
through contractual Agreement
4. Promise tacitly the public on
his responsibility to protect the
safety of society
3 T Y P E S O F I N Q U I R Y Engineering Ethics Combines
Inquiries into Values,
Meanings & Facts
(a) N o r m a t i v e
Inquiry
(b) C o n c e p t u a l
Inquiry
(c) F a c t u a l
Inquiry
a) N O R M A T I V E I N Q U I R YIt aims at identifying & justifying
the morally desirable norms or
standards that ought to guide
individuals or groups
Ex :
(i) When whistle blowing shall be
resorted to
(ii) Judgment in Acceptable Risks
etc
b) C O N C E P T U A L I N Q U I R I E S
• Directed towards clarifying the
meaning of concepts, principles
and issues in Engineering Ethics
Ex : What does “ S a f e t y ” mean
and how is it related to
Risk ?
What is Bribe ?
What is a profession & a
professional etc.,
c) F A C T U A L I N Q U I R I E S • Also known as “ D e s c r i p t i
v e I n q u i r i e s ” seek to
uncover information bearing
upon value issues
• Where possible, researchers
attempt to conduct factual
enquiries using proven Scientific
Techniques
• Factual inquiries involve
what is actually known about a
case ie what the facts are ?
• Ofcourse, Facts can be
controversial
Ex : Global Warming process is
only barely / partly understood and
the need to curtail emission of
these has become a controversial
issue
M O R A L D E V E L O P M E N T
2 Theories
Exist
1. Kohlberg’s
Theory
2. Carol Gilligan’s
Theory
K O H L B E R G ’ S T H E O R Y
Six stages of Moral
Development that
could be classified into
3 identifiable level
Level 1 : Pre conventional (Self
Centric)
Ex : Children and Few Adults
O r i e n t a t i o n :
Stage 1 : Obedience /
Punishment
Behave according to socially
acceptable norms because they are
imposed on you. This is compelled
by threat of Punishment
Stage 2 : Individualism
Characterized by “Right
Behaviour means in acting one’s
own interest”
Level 2 : Conventional ( Family /
Society Centric )
Ex : My Family, Group & Society
Stage 3 : Good Boy / Good Girl
Characterized by an attitude that
seek to do those things that gain
the approval of others
Stage 4 : Law and Order
Abiding by Law & responding to the
obligations of duty
Highly Motivated to Please
Others
Level 3 : Post conventional
( Principle Centric )
Based on General Principles for
the Large Good
Stage 5 : Social Contract
Stage 6 : Principled Conscience
Kohlberg feels that this level is
not reached by Majority of adults
S 5 : Genuine interest in
welfare of others
S 6 : Respect for Universal
Principle & the demands
of Individual
Conscience Autonomous People, think on their own
In essence, Kohlberg believed that
“Moral Development” can be
promoted through Formal Education
and Social Interaction
Children develop through stages 1 &
2 and settle into 3 & 4
Only a minority of adults pass into
higher stages 5 & 6
CAROL GILLIGAN'S THEORY
No
Men Women
1
More interested to try & solve moral problems by applying Abstract Moral Principles
Try to preserve personal relationship with everyone involved in the situation
2
Resolve Moral Dilemmas by determining most important Moral Rule
Hence focus greater attention on the context & details of M Dilemma rather than simply invoking & ranking General Rules
Gillighan’s Recasting of Kohlberg 1 Preconventional : Self centric
2 Conjugational level : Sacrificial, Quite
often women are prone to fall a prey
& are willing to give up their personal
interest to serve needs of others
3 Post Conventional : Strikes a
Reasoned, Balance of ones own
interest with that of the others needs
- Based on Mutual Caring
M O R A L A U T O N O M Y• Autonomous individuals think for
themselves and do not assume
that customs are always right
• They seek to reason and live by
general principles
• Their motivation is to do what is
morally reasonable for its own
sake, maintaining integrity, self
respect and respect for others
SKILLS TO BE DEVELOPED for M A
1 Proficiency in recognizing moral
problems
2 Skill in comprehending, clarifying
& critically assessing opposing
views
3 Ability to form consistent &
comprehensive view points based
on relevant facts
4 Imaginative awareness of
alternative responses
5 Sensitive to genuine difficulties
6 Increased precision in the use of
common ethical language
7 Sense of appreciation for using
both Rational Dialogue and
Tolerance with morally reasonable
beings
8 Awakened sense of integrating
one’s Professional Life & Personal
Convictions ie Moral Integrity
A N E X A M P L E Martin Luther King Jr ( 1 9 6 3 )
“One who breaks an unjust law must
do so openly, lovingly and with a
willingness to accept the penalty.
I submit that an individual
who breaks a law that conscience
tells him is unjust and willingly
accepts the penalty is in reality
expressing the highest respect for
the law
M O R A L D I L E M M A S • Moral Dilemmas, at the very least,
involve conflicts between moral
Requirements
Why Does Moral Dilemma Arise ?
1 Problems of Vagueness
2 Problems of Conflicting Reasons
3 Problems of Disagreement
ie. You have moral reasons to do each
of 2 action but doing both is not
possible
S T E P S T O C O N F R O N T M O R A L D I L E M M A S
1 Identify the Moral Factors &
Reasons
2 Gather all available facts that
are pertinent
3 Rank the moral considerations
4 Consider alternative course of
action
5 Talk to colleagues
6 Arrive at a carefully reasoned
judgment
TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMAS1 Epistemic vs Ontological
Epistemic : Two or more moral
requirements & not knowing which
one takes precedence
2 Ontological
Two or more moral requirements
and neither is overridden. Both are
Genuines
2) SELF IMPOSED vs BY WORLD
S e l f I m p o s e d :
Arises by one’s own wrongdoing.
Promising to do things knowing
fully well they can’t be
I m p o s e d b y W o r l d :
Imposed by the world and not
arising rut of one’s action
D I F F I C U L T to R E S O L V E
3) O B L I G A T I O N vs
P R O H I B I T I O N D
I L E M M A O b l i g a t i o n :
More than one feasible
action is obligatory
P r o h i b i t i o n :
All feasible actions are
forbidden
M O R A L R E L A T I V I S M
• Moral relativists maintain
that moral disagreements
stem from the fact that
what is right for one is not
necessarily right for another
• Morality is purely relative
M O R A L A B S O L U T I S M • Moral Absolutists believe
that their moral
viewpoint is the only
legitimate one
• Religions fundamentalist
are absolutists
STUDY THE FOLLOWING ALSO 1 Moral Pluralion
2 Moral Disagreement
3 Ethical Egoism
4 Universalizability
5 Caring
6 Compassion
7 Value Based Ethics