Group No.5 Muhammad Khurram (SP14-BME-
031) Hafiz Muhammad Khalid (SP14-
BME-057) Muhammad Usman (SP13-BME-
073) Ahad Hameed (FA13-BME-021) Ihsan Hameed (FA13-BME-003)
Effects Theories
Walter Lippmann: Public Opinion (1922)
We see the world as "pictures in our heads"
Media shape perception of things we have not experienced personally
Powerful Effects Theory
Media have immediate, direct influence
Assumes people are passive and absorb media content uncritically & unconditionally
“Hypodermic Needle” model
“Magic Bullet” model
Minimalist Effects
Paul Lazarsfeld Erie County study (1940)
Mass media had hardly any direct effect
Personal contact more important than media contact
Media effects mostly indirect
Two-step Flow model Media affect individuals through
opinion leaders
Opinion leaders are those who influence others Clergy, teachers, neighborhood
leaders, etc.
Status Conferral Media coverage can create
prominence for issues & people
Agenda Setting Maxwell McCombs & Don Shaw Media tell people what to think about
– but not what to think
Narcoticizing dysfunction
Media do not energize people into taking action
Media lull people into passivity by overwhelming them with information
People deceive selves into believing they’re involved when they’re actually only informed
Cumulative Effects Theory Media influence is gradual over time Effect is often powerful
Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann) Vocal majority intimidates others
into silence
Uses & Gratifications People choose media that meet
their needs & interests
Needs such as: Surveillance Diversion Socialization
Socialization Mass media can help initiate
people into society
And help them fit in Demonstrate dominant behaviors
and norms “Observational learning”
Consistency theory Individuals exercise control over
media’s effects on them People choose media & messages
consistent with their existing views & values
Selective: Exposure Perception Retention & Recall
Selective Exposure
People choose some media messages over others
People ignore messages that contradict their beliefs
War of the Worlds Revisited
Why did the Orson Welles broadcast have such a powerful effect on its audience?
EarthStation1.com's Radio Sounds Showcase: The 1938 "War of the Worlds" Radio Broadcast Wavs
“Reverence” for radio as a reliable medium
Predisposition to expect bad news Selective perception Gullibility fueled by awe of science WWI memories – gas warfare Failure of common sense