Language & Nationalism in Europe
Chapter 7 Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg: The total
coincidence of nations &
speech communities?
Q: In what countries is German a majority language?
A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein
Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria?
Q: In what countries is German a majority language?
A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein
Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria?
A: Lusatia in E. Germany, where Lusatian (Sorbian) is spoken and Carinthia in S. Austria, where Slovene is spoken
Q: What other countries use German?
Q: In what countries is German a majority language?
A: Germany, Austria, LiechtensteinQ: What are the minor exceptions in Germany
and Austria?A: Lusatia in E. Germany, where Lusatian
(Sorbian) is spoken and Carinthia in S. Austria, where Slovene is spoken
Q: What other countries use German?A: Switzerland & Luxembourg
Switzerland
• German is a majority language only in the German area, which is the largest region, and is diglossic (Swiss-German/High German)
• 4 national languages: German, French, Italian, Romansh
• Romansh is a minority language even in its own region, where German predominates
• Language does not play a major role in Swiss identity
Luxembourg
• Diglossia: Majority spoken language is Luxembourgish, which is close to German; German is also used for formal purposes, although Luxembourgish does have a written standard
• French is also used
The languages of the region
• German has a complex of dialects, often mutually incomprehensible
• Significant immigrant populations in the region include Turkish, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese
• Border zone enclaves: Danish in Germany; Slovene, Croatian, and Hungarian in Austria -- all of these groups have a single standard language and receive support from their respective countries
The languages of the region, cont’d.
• Sorbian has two written standard languages: Upper Sorbian (which is closest to Czech) and Lower Sorbian (which is closest to Polish)
• Sorbian has been under uninterrupted German control since Middle Ages
• Sorbs have received support from Czechs (less from Poles) and were protected under communism
The languages of the region, cont’d.
• N. Frisian in Germany is related to Frisian in Netherlands, but suffers from dialectal fragmentation and have 4 rival written standards
• Romansh has more than 6 rival standards (severe fragmentation) and is related to Ladin & Friulian in N. Italy
• Both Frisian & Romansh suffer fragmentation and lack an external country to promote their interests
German
• Most minority languages in contact with German are non-Germanic and clearly distinct; only Danish & N. Frisian are Germanic, but mutual comprehensibility with German is very low.
• German has many dialects, often mutually incomprehensible
• Dutch is closer to the contiguous dialects of German than many other German dialects
• The identity of German cannot be established on the basis of purely linguistic criteria
German linguistic identity
• Speakers of Luxembourgish, Swiss-German, & Low German feel standard German is separate, foreign
• Luxembourg has its own version of a written standard, but Swiss-German does not
• All German speakers consider their language to be “German” even though German dialects are more diverse than the separate languages of Scandinavia
German linguistic identity, cont’d.
• Austrians see themselves as German, too, though separate Austrian identity develops since 19th c and especially post-WWII
• There has never been a state uniting all German speakers– Kulturnation: nation united only by a common
culture– Staatsnation: nation united by a state
German speakers constitute a Kulturnation -- but why?
• “Given the high diversity of its language, and the group’s increasing cultural & political fragmentation, it is indeed surprising that it did not develop into a number of different ethnic groups speaking what would have been considered to be a number of different languages, which then with the modern development of a nation, would have become a number of different nations.”
Name that country!
• Only one area of continental W. Germanic speech became separate in both language and national identity -- what is it?
The Netherlands
• Only one area of continental W. Germanic speech became separate in both language and national identity -- what is it?
Other close relatives
• Frisian -- strong influence from Dutch, German, and Danish; dialectal fragmentation; consider themselves separate from German
• Switzerland -- Multilingual state does not use language as a unifying factor; Swiss-German also identify selves as Swiss; use of German is matter of convenience, not identity
• Luxembourg -- These people consider their language distinct & have negative feelings toward Germany
Germany & Austria
• 15th-17th c single standard language developed, including Germany & Austria
• German Empire of 1871 excluded Austria• Never any serious attempt at a distinct Austrian
language• No desire for political unification with Germany• But Austrians DO see a strong link between their
identity as native speakers of German & Austrian identity
German in Germany
• 1871-1933 German Empire & Wiemar Republic fostered loyalty to state & focused attention on language as a unifying factor; promoted linguistic purism
• 1933-1945 Nazi regime & first state to politically unify all Germans
• Post-WWII divided Germany
German in Germany
• Immigration of ethnic Germans from E. Europe & former USSR creates tensions with citizens who see identity in terms of language
• GDR failed to build loyalty to state rather than culture, and political division did not result in linguistic division
• Overall, there is a strong link between German language and national identity