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Vol. 60 No. 8 Pages 52 June 2012 Rs. 10/-
Environment and Rural IssuesEnvironment and Rural Issues
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Vellayani Lake: Conservation Efforts
Sreejith Sreedharan
Contd. 3rd Cover
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Te Montly Journal
MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Vol. 60 No. 8 Pages 52
June 2012
CONTENTS
Kurukshetra seeks to carry the message o Rural Development to all people. It serves as a orum or ree, rank and serious discussion on the
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l EnvironmEntal DEgraDation, D. Hede rj g
ClimatE CHangE anD EffECt on agriCulturE D. H.l . Sh 3
l EnvironmEnt anD EConomiC DEvElopmEnt:a CorrElation B mck 6
l promoting rural Sanitation for
a BEttEr EnvironmEnt in rural inDia a Hz 12
l WHEat proDuCtion in inDia unDEr
CHanging SCEnario of gloBal Warming t. p. Sh 15
l agriCulturE & ClimatE CHangE Dhurja Mukherjee 18
l EnvironmEntal protECtion: important tipS r.S. Se
for tHE DEvElopmEnt of agroforEStry resh Chdh 22
l EnvironmEntal CHallEngES & iSSuES
of inDian agriCulturE Shk l. Bd 30
l From the Ground
Community EffortS to SavE forEStS nshd a Dk,
Jhkhd 35
l mgnrEgS: a tool for SuStainaBlE
EnvironmEnt Dr. S.M. Jawed Akhtar 38
l proSpECtS of organiC aquaCulturE in inDia aeksh Che
Bh S. Skk
lx m. ahe 42
l From the Ground
StatuS of paraJa WomEn Seh pd 44
l doctor Farmer
BroCColi : D. resh Chd pd
a vEgEtaBlE tHat figHtS CanCEr D. pb K ghsh 47
CHIEF EDITORRINA SONOwAL KOULI
EDITORKAPIL KUMAR
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InsIde
accd he es sbsss b id he ued ns he
e eee id s execed se b 3.5 4.3
degrees Celsius by 2098, impacting the production of Wheat. icese
in temperature can lead to a loss of 27.5 million tones of wheat annually, by the
end of century.
Indias wheat production for year 2011-12 was 88.31 million tones. So losing
27.5 million tones annually would be more than one fourth of current production.
According to some studies there will be 14 per cent deficit in global wheat
dc, 11 e ce ce d 9 e ce ze b 2020.
Such is the impact of climate change on production of crops that the
phenomenon has not only to be studied but efforts made to reverse the changes
ced.
In this issue we discuss how various aspects of the environment impact
agriculture and ultimately the lives of the people living in the rural areas.
Climate Change can lead to serious issues relating to food security and poverty
for the vast masses living on the earth.
Production of crops like cotton, potato and short season crops such as
vegetables, fruits are also likely decrease with rising temperature and alteredpattern of precipitation.
On the impact of climate change on human health, the communication to the
ued ns ss bek s ke cese he ses d
some region of southern Ind ia especially Karnataka.
i ss h ce che d ce b he we esces e
likely to affect irrigated agriculture, installed power capacity, environment flows
in dry seasons and higher flows during the wet season, thereby causing severe
droughts and floods problems in urban and rural areas.
Forests in India are already subjected to multiple stresses like over-extraction,
hec esses d ce che w be dd sess.
Climate change will have a negative effect on all living beings and increase
the risk of extinction of several species as extreme weather conditions like
hurricanes, draughts and torrential downpours become more frequent.
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E
nvironment is the most important agenda of
he enal community due to its far
reaching consequences on the survival ofhuman beings and other forms of biodiversity on
he eh. Ce che s he s
indicator of environment degradation. Climate
change is occurring due to increase in the level of
eehse ses (gHg).
i eehse ses, cb dxde,
methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases are
EnvironmEntal DEgraDation, ClimatE ChangE anDEffECt on agriCulturE
Dr. Harender Raj Gautam and Dr. H.L. Sharma
he cbs. gHg esss he hd
a significant impact on the climate, particularly
in recent times, with the global-average surfaceeee s Sdes he eeed h he
warming of the planet is closely linked with the
build-up in the atmospheric concentrations of
cb dxde (Co2), ehe (CH4), d se
he eehse ses (gHg).
China is the major contributor of greenhouse
gases with 19.5 per cent followed by USA (19.2
aig I-Gvl Pl cli cg (IPcc), i ss f
is i gs gss bsv v ps 250 ys v b fssil fls, l s,
agriculture. The increase in greenhouse gases from the late nineteenth century to the present me has
sl i glbl ig f 1 3c pl. t ig f x 20 ys is pj
b b 0.2c p .
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%), id (5.3 %), rss (5.1 %), J (3.6 %) d
ge (2.6 %). Ce chnge affects many
d h sses. accd he Inter-
Governmental Panel on Climate Change (ipCC), he
three main causes of the increase in greenhouse
ses bseed e he s 250 es he beefossil fuels, land use, and agriculture. The increase
in greenhouse gases from the late nineteenth
ce he ese e hs esed b
warming of 1 to 3C to the planet. The warming for
he ex 20 es s jeced be b 0.2C
e decde.
Sdes dce h global warming
increases the risk for species extinction, especially
b dese ecsses, becse exee
wehe cds ke hces, dhs d
torrential downpours become more frequent.
flora and fauna become extinct at a rate 100-1000
times higher than normal. Climate change is one of
the main causes of species depletion. According to
a recent study ofStockholm Environment Institute,
greenhouse gases can inflicting costs of nearly $2
de he ces b 2100.
the ese s bsed he ss h
climate-altering carbon emissions continue their
wd s wh se. ths sd dces
that warmer seas will lead to greater acidification
and oxygen loss, hitting fisheries and coral reefs.Rising sea levels and storms will boost the risk of
flood damage, especially around the coastlines of
Afric d as.
Warmest Decade
accd he un wehe ec (World
Meteorological Organisation), Climate change hs
cceeed he s decde (2001 2010) d
ws he wes decde ecd sce ecds
began in 1850. This period was marked by extreme
levels of rain or snowfall, leading to significant
flooding on all continents, while droughts affected
parts ofEast Africa d nh aec. the b
land and sea surface temperatures estimated at
0.46 deees Cess be he e ee
of 14.0C. the un wehe ec ed h he
world is warming because of human activities and
this is resulting in far-reaching and potentially
eesbe cs Eh, shee d
ces. accd gee see
he pe, hee s 1.29 ee se se
ee he id cse.
Impact on Agriculture
Climate change will adversely affect agriculture
globally. This will have serious impact on food
sec e he wd. a he sdes dce
adverse effect on our foodgrain production.
Ches dc es w cc de
hhe eees d ch ec
es. ac dc w s be
affected due to increased carbon dioxide in the
shee. led e eces ke
Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change
(2007) d ues Ecc fd (2011) he
indicated affect of climate change on agriculture,
b. accd hese es, hee w be
14 per cent deficit in global wheat production, 11
e ce ce d 9 e ce ze b 2020.
Research findings coming from different parts of
the world indicate that climate change will affect
many crops. According to the findings of the
as scess, ce che s cs he
early ripening of grapes. These findings are based
on the harvesting data of last 64 years. Scientists
attribute the fruits ripening to climate warming
d dece s we ce, bsed
comparison of decades ofed ecds.
thee e ccse sdes id
the prospective impact of climate change on the
agriculture sector including livestock and fisheries.
Much of the countrys understanding comes from
b d ded b he ie ee
pe Ce Che, he Wd meec
oz d he wd bdes. Hwee,
hee e se exes whch dce he
adverse effects of climate on crop production.
According to a report of the Central Government
in the Parliament, the productivity of staple grain
whe cd dece b 18 per cent by 2020
due to adverse impact of climate change. The
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yield of another major food
c ce ht also fall by
6 e ce b 2020.
These findings are based
he esech cdced
under Indian Council ofac resech (iCar)s
Network Project on Climate
Change (npCC). the e
further indicates that the
productivity of kharif maize
d sh cd s be
affected by climate change.
In 2002, drought affected
food production by 10 per cent; the cold wave in
January 2003 hit cultivation of mustard, mango,
, , bj, d . Hhrainfall in 1998 and 2005 affected kharif and late
kharif onion crops, resulting in price hike. There is
urgent need for research to assess the impact of
ch ce ce. B, he esech
shd be de se b he e
agenda. The research should clearly focus on the
specific regions and crops. There is pressing need
for honest location-specific research in partnership
with small and marginal farmers to assess over
a period of time the impact of climate change.
Instead of being driven by international funding,such research should be driven by the needs of
farmers.
Adaptan Plan
Scess e wk wd e dee
adaptive plants for flood, drought and salty
conditions of soil and the work has begun to pay
off. Recent tests on farms in Bangladesh show that
a new line of rice containing the flood-resistant
gene can live underwater for two weeks. The
period of 7 to 10 days is very crucial in case of
floods that destroy the crop of paddy in thousands
of hectares every year. The problem of flooding is
edced wse s ce che bs e
intense rainfall there. These findings are crucial
because 70 per cent of the wds e as
c sh as whee ce s he se.
C s he se h s
going to be affected due to
e d ses dhs
ced wh he ce
che. rece ess Sh
Africa indicate that droughtess ze s, ceed
b beed, dced 30
50 e ce e c h
d ees de
d cds.
t e he c
of climate change, the
Government of India has launched the National
Action Plan on Climate Change in 2008. The
Ce gee hs ced s e
edce he esss es b 20 25 e
ce bewee 2005 d 2020, hs k j
cb ce che. ths
commitment is based on GHG Emissions profile
which is based on five independent studies. The
government has also formed an Expert Group on
Low Carbon Strategy for Inclusive Growth under
he p Css dee d
for low-carbon development. The government
has also launched the Indian Network for Climate
Che assesse (inCCa), ocbe 2009, s
network-based programme with broad objectives
of measuring, modeling and monitoring the
ches de ce che. i bs ehe
e 120 ss d e 220 scess
from across the country. The fight against climate
che w ke sec j he 12h
Five-Year Plan (2012-2017) with the government
ed h s 2 kh ce rees
hh s sss.
(t fis is Si Siis,
dp f mylgy Pl Plgy,
d. Y. S. P uivsiy f hil
Fsy, ni, Sl-173230, hil Ps.
s is assi Pfss, Ps-
G Gv dg cllg, Bilsp-
174004, hil Ps, -il : g_pp@
y.)
According to a report of the
Central Government in the
Parliament, the prdctivity
of staple grain wheat could
decline by pt 18 per cent by2020 due to adverse impact of
climate chane. The yield f
another major food crop rice
miht als fall by p t 6
percent by 2020.
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E
e d ec e
edeede d eed ech he.
Deee h es s eecsss
he ee w des he ee
that sustains life forms. What is needed is
ssbe deee whch w w
future generations to have a potential average
quality of life that is at least as high as that
whch s be ejed b he ce
ee.
Ee d Ecc Deepe: a ce
Barna Maulick
the e ssbe deee
ws zed Our Common Future,
e bshed b he Wd Css
Ee d Deee (WECD)
1987. According to WECD p.43development
which meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. Acceptance of the report
b he ued ns gee asseb e he
e c sece d 1992, edes se
Ssibl vlp s s f ps i pisig
biliy f f gis i s. t evil Kz cv
ypsis sbliss iv u-sp lisip b i g
vi gi. I sss vil gi iss p
pi i s i pi, ig pi. w sy is ivs
lisip b i issis, ig i, l issis vi-
vs.
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out the principles of sustainable development at
the United Nations Conferece Ee
d deee r de Je, Bz.
Ssbe deee es
ceece bewee he hee s .e.
economic development, social equity and
ee ec. Ssbe
development is a fluid concept and various
definitions have emerged over the past two
decades. Despite an on-going debate on the actual
meaning, a few common principles tend to be
emphasized. The first is a commitment to equity
and fairness As such priority should be given to
improving the conditions of the worlds poorest
and decisions should account for the rights of
future generations. The second is a long-term view
h ehszes he ec ce, .e.,
where there are threats of serious or irreversible
damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not
be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
eses ee ee ded.
thd, ssbe deee ebdes
e, d desd d c he
cex ececs h exs bewee he
ee, ec, d sce. ths s
balancing act or a playing of one issue off against
he he, b ecz he edeede
nature of these three pillars.
m es he bee we he
esh bewee ecc wh d
ee ese sce r.C. dae
bshed hs Ess ecc wh d
environmental quality in 1971. The main questions
arising before the environmentalists are: Is long-run
ecc wh cbe wh ee
ese? is ssbe wh be? Wh
would be the effect of greater concern for the
ee e ecc wh? Hw denvironmental externalities influence growth
rate, and thus, what is the effect of environmental
c ecc wh?
These questions have been analyzed in many
of these papers in the framework of stationary
des d exes wh des. i hs
type of models, either there is no long-run growth
or if there is long-run growth it is exogenously
determined, so that environmental quality may
have a negative effect on capital accumulation or
no effect on the growth rate. In addition, in this
ee he ehss hs bee ssof the efficient growth path without paying much
attention to growth based on market equilibrium.
Since the appearance of the new theory of growth
at the end of the eighties and the start of the
nineties, a series of papers has been published
in which these questions are addressed in the
framework of endogenous growth models.
m sdes he exed he
development - environment relaonship.
the Ee Kze Ce (EKC) s e
hypothesis that has elicited much aenon
(aw e .1995). the EKC cce ws
forward in early 90s by Grossman and Krueger
(1991) s we s Wd Deee re
(Shak and Bandyopadhaya 1992). This hypothesis
establishes an inverted U-shaped relaonship
bewee ecc wh d ee
degradaon. It assumes that environmental
degradaon increases when per capita income
eches ce , he .
Relanship between Envirn-mental Kznet Crve and EcnmicDevelopment:
In the early stages of economic growth, the
awareness of environmental problems is low or
negligible and environment friendly technologies
e be. Ee ded
ceses wh w ce heshd
level beyond which environmental quality improves
wh hhe e c ce (Dd 2004).
Kze (1955) edced h he ch
esh bewee e c ce d
income inequality is an inverted U-shaped curve.
As per capita income increases, income inequality
also increases at first and then starts declining after
a turning point (TP). So the distribution of income
becomes more unequal in early stage of income
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wh d he he dsb es wds
greater equality as economic growth continues
(Kuznet 1955). After 1990, the Kuznets curve got
a new existence i.e. the level of environmental
degradation and per capita income follows the same
inverted U-shaped relationship as does incomeinequality and per capita income. The inverted
U-shaped relationship between economic growth
d esed dcs (ee
quality) is known as EKC. Kuznets name was
attached to the inverted U-shaped curve which
esbshed esh bewee d
ecc deee becse esebed he
original inverted U-shaped relationship kuznet
ce whch sces he esh bewee
income inequality and economic development.
However, Panayotou (1993) first coined it as theEe Kze Ce. the esh
can be shown by an inverted U-shaped EKC. The
EKC esbshes e esh bewee
ee c d ecc wh.
as ecc deee seeds wh he
intensification of agriculture and other resource
extraction, at the take-off stage, the rate of
esce dee bes exceed he e
of resource regeneration and waste generation
increases in quantity and toxicity.
At higher levels of development, structuralchange towards information-intensive industries
d seces ced wh cesed ee
awareness, enforcement of environmental
es, bee ech d hhe
environmental expenditures results in leveling off
and gradual decline of environmental degradation.
as ce ceses, hee s s he
economy. Economy moves from natural process of
economic development i.e. from a clean agrarian
ec ds ec, d
ce sece ec (aw e .
1995).
Ecc deee c be ced bck
he ds e d he ds
deee he de wd. the ds
revolution irreversibly changed the nature of labour,
consumption, family structure, social structure
and the thought processes of the individuals. The
amazing thrust in the field of production, power,
scece d ech bh wh ee
the bad effects of environmental degradation.
Development may be defined as double-edged
sword, which has far reaching effects on the
environment. The ill effects of development are
many but unlike the benefits, they are not visible
and are camouflaged.
The following ill effects of development had
been discussed in agenda 21 of the Rio Conference
of 1992:
aspi Plli: cdes () S
csed b chec ecs bewee s
derived from different sources, mainly automobile
exhs d ds esss, cd ccs
whe ke shc cd cbes wh
droplets of water in the air, the water becomes
acidified. (ii) Acid rain kills trees and harms animals,
fishes and other wild life, green house effect or
global warming is a common fact of atmospheric
. () gb w s ces de
cese cb dxde ce he .
ths cb dxde bds bke d s
the heat from going out which causes unusual
heat in the earths surface. (iv) Ozone depletion
is the major trouble of the development rather
ds deee. o eh s sded
by layers of atmosphere, ozone gas which protects
harmful ultra violet rays from coming in the earths
surface is found in the stratosphere. The release
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from aerosol cans,
refrigerators, air conditioners etc. are continuously
h ze e cs hes d w
he d ech he eh.fe1: Ee Kze Ce (EKC)
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Air pollution effects health in many ways, may
be sh term short term effects include
irritation of eyes, nose , throat such as bronchitis,
e.
mi Plli: ces e he es
ecosystem on earth. Seventy five percent of sea
s bsed d c. Se j
types of contamination are: (i) Oil spills which
primarily effects marine mammals and reptiles like
turtles that need surface to breathe and breed.
Adult fishes living near shore waters and juveniles
shw we se d bds wh e e
shorelines are vulnerable to adverse effects of oil
. () Sewe dds sseded ces
he we c. ths sewe s hd deec
in open coast but in semi-enclosed areas, their
effects are devastating. (iii) Garbage has hugeeffect on ocean life. Litters on land find their way
to the oceans being carried by the wind; as a result
tons of plastic bags, cigarette buds, bottles etc.
are always floating in the sea. Sea turtles often
mistake plastic bags with jelly fish which blocks
their digestive system and finally leads to death.
(iv) Radioactive wastes- the worlds oceans have
been dumping ground for radioactive wastes
since 1944. Dumping of high radioactive wastes
he ce s e eed b w ee
wses e s ded dee se. m be near future its devastating effect will be seen by
c ees. () the
only affects the communities adjacent to the
dsche. Eecc ee s he
coastlines use marine waters for cooling purposes
whch eds heed we be exeed he
marine environment, tropical areas are affected
b he dsche. f e.. e ees
heed b w edce. () Ehc
means release of extra nutrients into coastal
wes. fezes sed d e wshed
the ocean through rivers; streams etc. which may
lead to the birth of phytoplankton blooms as red
tides, yellow or green foams, a higher frequency
of the occurrence of algae blooms also indicate
heh ec sse. txicity of the recent
blooms are increasing which has direct effect on
the organisms that feed upon them.
dfsi: es ee desc
of indigenous forests and woodlands. Forests
are home for many important species, they also
j e ecsse. fess dce
huge amount of oxygen, tend to help replenish
nutrients in land and prevent desertification.Forests are also a main source of timber. If people
exhaust their supply of forests, they will no longer
be be ce s he s he sce
of building materials, heating fuels and paper
(Bw,1999).
dsifii: Land degradation means
reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry
sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic
productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland,
irrigated cropland, pasture, range, forests and
woodlands resulting from land uses or froma process or combination of processes. These
cesses cde s es csed b wd
water, deterioration of the physical, chemical and
biological or economic properties of soil, and long
term loss of natural vegetation. Soil degradation,
is defined as human induced phenomenon,
which lower the current or future capacity of the
soil to support human life. In drylands, soils are
esec ebe ded de he
slowness of their recovery from a disturbance.
(Desertification, 2001)
hzs wss: The generation of
hazardous wastes is one of the major consequences
of development. As defined by the High Powered
Committee Report, hazardous wastes refer to
any substance, whether solid, liquid or gaseous
form, which has no foreseeable use and which by
reasons of any physical, chemical, reactive, toxic,
flammable, explosive, corrosive, radioactive or
infectious characteristics causes danger or is likely
cse de heh ee, whehe
e whe cc wh he wses ee, d shd be csdeed s sch
whe eeed, hded, sed sed,
treated and disposed of. Hazardous wastes are
generally a by-product of the industrial operations
which involve the use of heavy metals such as
sec, cd, ed, ec d cesses
which utilize different categories of oil and
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petrochemicals. The main difficulty is, recycling
of hazardous waste is itself very hazardous and
s e xc cce h he e
ecced.
cli cg-If temperatures rise
b s 60 C e he ex 100 es, he
the rising sea levels, shifting weather es
and an increase in the frequency of extreme
wehe ees cd cse sse s
both for human populations and for nature
ss ieee pe Ce Che
(IPCC). A blanket of water vapour and other green
hse ses (cb dxde, ehe, s
oxide) traps some of the suns radiation from
going back causing warming of the atmosphere.
The main cause of this global warming is carbon
dioxide which is produced by burning of fossil fuels
d he s ehe whch s he 30 es
e h cb dxde. mehe esss
come from cultivation of rice, pipeline leaks, the
flatulence of cattle and forest fires. It is predicted
that if global warming keeps on following the same
e he d w ce whe he ces
and ice-caps will melt and cause the sea level to
se d c dseses ke w sed
he c ces.
dli i Biivsiy: bdes s
often thought of as the variety of organisms on
the earth. It also includes factors like ecological
diversity (the variety of ecosystems and ecological
communities) and genetic diversity (the range of
genetic differences found within and between
species). All the three aspects are crucial for the
success and development of life on the earth.
Sce ee cds e cs
ch, des c ese h se
dds d seces w be be d
he ches (Bdes, 2001). a hese he
profound value for human beings. The value
of biodiversity lies not only on direct use of the
natures product but also on the vast range of
products prepared from these ranging from food,
medicines, fibres and materials. Biodiversity also
guarantees a permanent source of new genetic
materials for future breeding programmes. Life
he eh s ce de sxh ss
exc ee. is exe s e kw,
species are only recorded as extinct after their last
dd hs s ded.
But from this we cannot draw a conclusion
h deee hs ed he ded
of the environment. Every coin has another side.
i hs bee ed b eseches h
deee ech hs ed he s
of the environment in many ways. The invention
of new technology is not necessarily a threat to
the environment; rather it is usually the best hope
of environmental improvement (Ridley 2002).
the Wd Deee re, 1992 ked
he ecc deee wh he ee.
The main message of the report was the need ee ee csdes
deee c k. the e ed h
ced d cceeed ecc d h
deee s ssbe d c be csse
wh ee cds.
A more fruitful analysis of the relationship
bewee ecc deee d
ee c deeds see
factors as:
Spifi effs: There are large differences
se ee e c esss de he
enforcement of pollution laws and the use of
ded ds ech. lw ce
states are still sources of emissions because of
land conversion through burning and replanting of
ee cs whe hh ce ses e e
increasing emissions because of industrial and
c wses.
Pi S: Deeed ces
have fairly stable production structures, whereas
d dsz d dee ceshe sbe dc sce. a che
the composition of consumption has resulted in a
downturn in pollutants (Rothman, 1998).
Isiil cg: a wh he
ecc deee, scees dce wh
their social, legal and fiscal infrastructures that
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are essential to enforce ene e
(Bh d h, 2001). is
changes triggered by citizens demand for
cee ees e e ke cc
democratic countries (Shafik and Bandyopadhyay,
1992).
tlgil Pgss: techc
progress leads to greater efficiency in the use of
energy and materials. Thus, a given amount of
ds c be dced wh sccesse edced
burdens of natural resources and environment.
One aspect of the progress can be better and more
efficient reuse and recycling of materials, which
(coupled with greater efficiency in use) can yield
e esce ss.
rs dvlp: as ce
grows, people can adopt better and efficient
ech h de cee ee.
This preferential behaviour of people should
be reflected through their income elasticity.
The income elasticity of public research and
development funding for environmental
ec s se (Ke e ., 1997). ths
indicates the key role of such public investments
for environmental improvements in reducing
ee ded. as ce ees
rise, decreasing relationships are found for some
dcs deeed ces.
The effect of economic growth on pollution/
emissions differs substantially among high-
ce ces. ths s deeds he
adoption of new technology.
Ivi api: new eches,
bs, e dc b cee
e des he sce sch s ew
hzds wses, sk d he h bes.
these exees e kw he e
phase of diffusion of technology; in later stages
e beces wed ddess . oce
he ech s eed, hs se
the gradual phase out of existing technology. So,
ccc e ses eches, whch
first diffuse, then become regulated and finally
e hsed b ex eneration of technologies
(Sde d Besche, 2000).
tlgil ogisil cg:
Improved technology not only significantly
increases productivity in the manufacture of
old products but also the development of new
dcs. thee s w ed
dses ecsde he dc cessesand thereby take environmental consequences of
dc cc. ths cces
d echc secs b s he
organization of production as well as the design
of products. Technological changes associated
wh he dc cess h s es
in changes in the input mix of materials and fuels
(Lindmark, 2002). The economy-wide reforms
often contribute simultaneously to the economic,
sc d ee s (ades d
Cavandish, 2001; Pasche, 2002). Developingcountries could learn from the experiences of
dszed s, d esce wh
d deee (mshe, 1999) heeb
avoiding going through the same stages of growth
h e ee hh (d ee eesbe)
levels of environmental harm.
clsi: We find that although there is
ese esh bewee deee d
ee he dee (w d dde
income) countries of today have a unique
opportunity to learn from the past historyand thereby avoid some mistakes from earlier
wh exeeces. Wh cesed weess
of environmental hazards and the development
of new technologies in recent years that are
cleaner than ever before, we might hope to see
he dee ces he e
preservation of the environment at earlier stages
of development than has previously been the
cse.
(t is rs Sl i P
uivsiy (eis), Visiig Fly (s
L) i eis dp, mg
mil cllg, P uivsiy, rs
assi i c f ei Pliy & Pbli
Fi, asi dvlp rs Isi,
P, Gv. f Bi, -il: bggli@
y.i)
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in current context of sustainable development,
cce s mounng over an ever growing list
of environmental issues across rural India. By
tradion, Indian society and culture values personal
hygiene but gives lile importance to clean and
heh c ee. H exce
s eded s he s hed bjec d hconnected to latrine is considered so deling that
one is supposed to take a bath immediately aer
coming out of the toilet and before going into
kche de schc d es bs.
Sanitaon is, therefore, regarded as a maer of
individual iniave and not a collecve obligaon
of the community and under this socio-cultural
background, environmental sanitaon has sadly
bee e he wes .
Promoting rural Sanitation for a BEttErEnvironmEnt in rural inDia
Anupam Hazra
For a healthy living we all require a healthy
environment and sanitaon is regarded to be one
of the core components of the same. As far as the
concept of sanitaon is concerned, it is no more
conned only within the various methods and
technologies of safe disposal of human excreta, the
Central Rural Sanitaon Programme of India hasupdated and upgraded the percepon of sanitaon
by incorporang the components like liquid and
solid waste disposal, food hygiene, personal
hygiene, domesc as well as environmental
hygiene in the context of health improvement,
school and home sanitaon, and safe water and
garbage disposal. In short, sanitaon is being
csdeed s comprehensive iniave for a
heh ee wh c wh he
The deteriorang rural environment is not only creang problem for rural populaon but also emerging
s b Ii, si l Ii is ky pvi f gill iigs
products being consumed being by the big cies.
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top priority of separang excreta with its host of
biological pathogens, from contact with human
beings as well as plant and animal life.
Now coming to the environmental concern of a
rural naon like India where about 70% of its people
live in the villages - these days the queson ofimproving the sanitaon in villages is gaining much
aenon of both the people and the government
as inadequate sanitaon always puts an adverse
eect on the environment; without a clean, safe
toilet close to home people are forced to live in an
heh d es ee. oe
of faeces can contain ten million viruses, one million
bce, e hsd cs ses d b
a hundred worm eggs - so the danger of disease is
sse d whe wse s exsed d ce
water and hygiene educaon are limited, allee
he c e ebe ess csed bfaeces. On the other hand if we look into stascs
then it shows that every year around 1.8 million
children mostly from rural areas, die of diseases such
s che, hd d dsee csed b ce
water and poor sanitaon; in this regard rural women
and girls are the most disadvantaged secon as in
absence of a well-built toilet at home, they oen
have to wait ll dark for going to the eld for open
defecaon which make them vulnerable to illness
as well as somemes to sexual-assault. Moreover
sickness due to insanitary condion takes children
away from school and adults away from earning ance. medc exeses ke sse deds
on the limited incomes of the rural poor.
Rral Envirnment
The deteriorang rural environment is not
only creang problem for rural populaon but also
ee s he b id, sce
India is the key provider of agricultural and other
des dcs be csed be b he
big cies. Rural lifestyles have close links with nature
d s esces. ths he ee bes
that manifest in rural areas of the country are largelydue to over-use or misuse of resources mostly be-
cause of sheer poverty, ignorance and lack of alter-
naves.The denudaon of vegetave cover due to
expansion of agricultural acvies, indiscriminate
collecon for rewood and the overgrazing by cale
and other livestock and consequent soil erosion are
good examples of the impoverishment of environ-
e esces. Rural communies are generally
resource conscious and the amount of waste
generated in villages is, therefore, much less than
in urban centres. Also the nature and composion
of waste is dierent in villages from that of cies.
Most of the waste generated in villages is from
dd hsehds, whees b es,
commercial establishments and instuons are also
an important source of waste. At the same me, the
organic proporon of waste in village households is
much higher than that in the cies. This is mainly
because of dierent life styles, consumpon
paerns, food habits, etc. Tradionally, the village
communies never considered anything as waste
and had well-managed waste management systems
which allowed for maximum recycling and reuse of
waste. However, with increase in populaon, the
quanes of waste have increased several fold,
whereas the resources available for its managementsuch as land availability for composng of organic
waste - have diminished over me. These wastes
are, therefore, now dumped in the open and are
managed unsciencally, leading to problems of
environmental sanitaon in rural India.
Realizing the adverse impact of sanitaon
on environment as well as for recognizing and
encouraging the eorts of Panchaya Raj Instuon
under Total Sanitaon Campaign, Nirmal Gram
Puraskar (NGP) was iniated by the Government
ocbe 2, 2003. a Nirmal Gram signies anopen defecaon free village with all houses,
schs d anganwadis h s es
besides awareness amongst communies about the
importance of maintaining personal and community
hygiene, good sanitaon and clean environment.
But when we look into the very recent stascs,
we noce that out of 2.5 lakh gram panchayats
of this country, only 25,000 have received Nirmal
Gram status - which signies that only 10 percent
of Indian villages have full sanitaon coverage.
Sanitan CoverageTaking into account the different research-
findings and survey-results on Total sanitation
C, c be sesed h ces
sanitation coverage in rural areas would require
more clarity of the issue and understanding of
he sesbes. Bd es s js
one half of the battle; the other half is to make
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ee se he. mee bd es
c w ese ee
s he edcion of water-borne
dseses s nSSo se dces d
18 % of rural population are using latrines. It
s be cbed wh hee edc whch
s desed ece ches ees
es beh e d k s we
as to block the faecal-oral transmission route and
reduce the spread of diseases. This is the high
time for the social scientists to look at societys
collective blindness towards the practice of open
defecation and the reluctance to change. Despite
the high rate of urbanization - the rural population
s s chcezed b ce d e,
and the attitudes of these ee e
influenced by age-old cultural beliefs and values.
S ec ee ssbe
e hh e ee s,
ee eed che he des d
beliefs toward the whole issue. Lastly it may be
ccded h hh cce s e
an ever growing list of environmental issues
css he b ced b id,
we can still find a much better, safer and cleaner
environment across the villages of this country,
whee e c es behe ceed
fresh air.
(t is assi Pfss i
dp f sil k ass (cl)
uivsiy; Sil 788 011, ass, -il :
Ensrin a Healthy Rral Envirnment thrh
Prper Sanitatin: The Way Frward
l Encouraging more and more fundamental research in the sphere of rural sanitation with a specialfocus on different issue of environmental sanitation of rural India
l Encouraging the development of indigenous, affordable, eco-friendly and culturally acceptables eches id
l Greater emphasis on personal hygiene and environmental sanitation as essential prerequisitesfor achieving total sanitation status in rural villages
l Generating awareness and creating demand at community level for safe access to water ands hh c c
l Rural women are mostly affected by the absence of sanitary latrines at home. Access to adequateand sanitary latrines is a matter of security, privacy and human dignity, particularly for ruralwomen. So while carrying out total sanitation campaign in rural India - targeting gender issues incommunication strategy will be quite effective in focussing on the needs of the women and yieldscsdebe sccess
l Higher degree of transparency in program-implementation leading to the proactive provisionof relevant and complete information to all stakeholders to bring about their more effective
cl Ce skehdes ewk cs ee eses, cc bdes, c eeced
eesees, ds, edc ss, c sce, ed d c edes ensure smooth functioning and sustainability of rural sanitation programs
l Environmental regeneration and improvement of environmental resource-base as a source oflabour-intensive growth, while augmenting productive capacities, increasing resource-useefficiency and correcting regional and rural-urban imbalances
l Integration of poverty reduction and environmental regeneration through participatory watershedee
l Promoting behavioural change towards adoption of environment-friendly practices among the ss
l Creating provision for livelihood security to resource-poor households through sustainable accessto basic needs such as food, fodder, fuel and water
l Initiating location-specific interventions s, kee ew he dese
natural resource and socio-economic conditions of the nation
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C whe (Triticum aestivum l.)
bes Poaceae family. It is the most
important staple food crop in the world
and second important crop in India after rice. Its
straw is used as food for cattle. India is the second
largest producer of wheat in the world after China
d cbes e h 12% he b
whe bske. Whe s he secd s
crop after rice in India and occupies approximately
29.25 h e. id s s he secd es
wheat consumer after China.
WhEat ProDuCtion in inDia unDEr ChangingSCEnario of gloBal Warming
T. P. Sinh
i id, whe s w d he
winter season, planted during October-November
and harvested in March-April. The Northwestern
ps Ze (nWpZ) cs pjb, H,
Delhi, parts of Rajasthan, and western Uttar
pdesh (up) d he nhese ps Ze
(nEpZ) cd ese up, Bh, Jhkhd,
oss, Wes Be d ass e he
whe.
An in-depth analysis arrived at the following
causes for declining wheat productivity in the
In India, lower producvity is due to shorter crop duraon and period of grain-lling and higher
temperatures during crop growth, parcularly during grain-lling. The wheat crop in the northern
plains exposed to higher ambient temperatures at the me of grain lling, which signicantly reduces
the producvity .
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c: () decrease in the use of fertilizers (N, P
and K) in the NWPZ and NEPZ; (ii) micronutrient
imbalance in soils; (iii) fatigue in genetic gain in
e deee d e he sess
the NWPZ; and (iv) low minimum support price
fixed by the Government for the procurement.Though India is the second largest producer of
whe he wd, he ee dc s
2907 kg/ha against 4738 kg/ha in China and 7926
kg/ha in UK (2009).
pdc id s 27.3% h uK.
the whe c uK d nW Ee ces
ws ch we eees hh he
crop duration with no water stress, and the grain-
filling takes place over an extended period of 60
ds eees bew 20
C. i id, hewe dc s de she c d
and period of grain-filling and higher temperatures
d c wh, c
during grain-filling. The wheat
c he he s
exsed hhe be
temperatures at the time of
grain filling, which significantly
edces he dc .
Exee essdce h ech deee se be
temperature reduces the yield by 3-4%. Crop
duration varies from 150 days in the north and
es dw 100 ds mhsh d
further south, with corresponding decline in
yield. Late planting of wheat in India is common
due to the intensive cropping system, often
delays the sowing of the crop up to the middle
of January, particularly in North West India
where it is generally sown after harvest of paddy,
sce, ee , c d .
Species
the whe seces w cec
basis in India are of spring type but cultivated
d we ses. a he whe seces,
Triticum durum (Bed whe) d Triticum
dicoccum (Ee Kh) e w id.
i whe seces, T. aestivum ces be he
s seces cc b 95%
of total wheat production of the country and is
w s he whe w ses. T.
durum s ex ce wh xe4% of total wheat area and confined mostly to
central and southern parts of India. The cultivation
ofT. dicoccum is confined to the southern region
Kk d she mhsh h
contributes less than 1% of total national wheat
dc.
Heat Stress
Heat stress is one of the major abiotic stress
that reduce wheat quality and productivity.
te he sess s ses be b
40% of the irrigated wheat growing area of the
world. Hence identification
of sources of heat tolerance
whe ee he
changing scenario of global
w. the dc
under rain-fed and late sown
whe e b 50% ed
bed ed e
sw cs. Edes
identifying factors imparting tolerance against
he sess w w ces he
c dc d hs es he cse
of hunger from the planet earth. Wheat is a sink
ed c d hh eee d
filling causes the production of shriveled grains
due to forced maturity.
le sw c es exsed e
maximum temperature of about 35C d
grain growth causes yield reduction of 270 kg ha
e deee se eee. Temperature
adversely alters the rwth and develpment
f wheat drin the early phase f panicle
emerence, rain set and rain develpment.
Hih temperatre redces the yield drastically
due to in detrimental effect on metabolism and
duration of phenological phases.
expil slsii
g is ibi p
s yil by 3-4%.
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the predicons of the Indian Meteorological
Dee but rainfall are eagerly
wed he c. n e
normal rainfall like this year (2010) no doubt brings
cheer to millions of farmers all over the country. As
is well known, over 70 per annual precipitaon fallsbetween the months of June and September and
a good monsoon heralds a bounful harvest and
nancial security to millions in the country. But
climate variability -- the eect of global warming --
has been the source of both misery and prosperity
for much of rural India.
Experts have concluded that the naonal
emission targets are not sucient to limit global
w 20 Cess d hs ce. i s s
a fact that a 10 Cess se e eee
agriCulturE & ClimatE ChangE
will lead to a reducon in wheat producon in India
by 6-7 million tonnes per annum, which will have
a very great eect on the poorer secons of the
populaon.
thee c be de h id s
he dee ces whse ce
hs bee ced b ce che b whehe
he c hs he cc d sch che
is a maer of discussion and debate. According to
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
hee s ec edece shw h che
in weather paerns aected at least two cropping
cycles in recent years. The impact of changing climate
id ce s ebe b he iCar s
reported to have the capacity to iniate migaon
and adaptaon measures.
Dhrja Mkherjee
aig Ii cil f agill rs (Icar), is piil vi s
that change in weather paerns aected at least two cropping cycles in recent years. The impact of
gig li Ii gil is ivibl b Icar is p v piy
iniate migaon and adaptaon measures.
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rise of 20 C 3.50 C. le 2001 he jeced
h wh 20 C cese eee d 7 e
cent increase in precipitaon, the net revenue of
India will decline by 8.4 per cent. This would be due
we eee ced wh he w ee
of management in small and marginal farms whichconstute 60 per cent of the total.
A study by the World Bank (2006, 2009) found
that in the arid regions of Andhra Pradesh, the
climate projecons indicate substanally higher
eee (2.30 C- 3.4 0 C ee) d
modest but more errac increase in rainfall of about
4 to 8 per cent at the basin level. With high prevailing
bsee eees hese ches wd he
a deteriorang eect with declining yields for the
major crops rice, groundnut and jowar. In the
harsher climate change scenarios, farm incomescould decline substanally by over 20 per cent,
suggesng that agriculture as currently pracsed
may not be capable of sustaining large populaons
on small rain-fed areas.
Similarly in the study districts of Puri and
Jagatsingpur in Orissa, the assessment found that
rice yields could decline by 5 to 12 per cent and prots
by 6 to 8 per cent under climate change. It also found
that with the dominance of rice and high levels of
pre-adaptaon of oods, there is lile that can be
done to build ood resistance through adjustmentsin cropping paerns and farming pracces. While
the prospects of oods would increase under climate
change, obviously agricultural producon is bound
to suer.
However, in the drought prone belt of
mhsh, sec nshk d ahed
districts, climate projecons suggest a signicant
though more variable increase in rainfall around
20 30 e ce he bs ee cced
by higher temperature of about 2.40 C- 3.8 0 C
an average. As a result, the yield of several drylandcrops, including the millet variees of jowar and
bajra variees exhibit small improvements and
provide a measure of relief to rain-fed farmers with
a boost of around 8 to 15 per cent in incomes. But
de ce che sces, s ce eds
e execed dece b e 30 e ce de
cesed he sess csed b we ce.
Assam Tea and Himachal apples
Already the eects of climate change are seen
be sw bec e. assese e d
Hch es e js hee ehe s
of crops that are aected by climate change paerns.
mhshs es, gs es d cshew
s d Kes dd cs d Hs whe
are seen to be aected too. One may menon here
that Dr. H. Pathak of the Indian Agricultural Research
Instutes Climate Change Programme pointed out
that change in rainfall paerns and the terminal
heat observed in the months of February and
March, not to speak of the summer months could
aect the country severely in the coming years. The
United Naons Food & Agriculture Organizaon
have already noced this trend in India and other
ces s we.
It is well known fact that 60 per cent of the total
cropped area is sll rainfed in India, the uncertaines
of the monsoon could have an impact on agriculture.
i s ecess desd de hw he ssbe
climate change will aect the intensity, spaal and
temporal variability of the rainfall, surface and
groundwater availability for irrigaon, evaporaon
rates and temperature in dierent agro-climac
regions, soil transformaons, crop-pest interacons,
ec. d k ecess ses.
We ee es ech
priority both for current and future agricultural
deee. ths hee s ewhe cse
for aggressively pursuing water conservaon in semi-
arid and arid regions. Greater aenon must be given
to hybrid approaches and emphasize the eciency
of groundwater use and increase the eecveness
of watershed acvies to conserve soil moisture and
hes we.
Extreme Temperatre
Exes he s eed h hee s
likely to be substanal increase in extreme maximum
d eees e he c de
to increase in greenhouse gas concentraons. This
is very important nding from the point of view of
agriculture as the mid-day temee cese
increases the saturaon decit of the plants. It
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accelerates photosynthesis and ripening of fruits.
When high temperature occurs in impacts of climate
ches wd be s kharifcs b e
khari ce w bece e ebe
due to increased incidence of weather extremes
such as onset of monsoon, duraon and frequencyof droughts and oods and pest incidence and
ece. mee rabi is relavely more risky
due to possibilies of large increase in temperature
and higher uncertaines in rainfall.
Available scienc studies have found that
ce che w he e c
agriculture though the situaon may not be out
of control ll 2050. Food producon may not be
threatened by that year at least in our country if
proper strategies and correcve measures are taken.
It is thus quite appropriate that though the ICARdoes not nd an immediate threat, in the coming
decades increasing producon may denitely pose
a problem, more so because of the increase in
populaon levels.
A climate-resilient agriculture is urgently
needed at this juncture to achieve the objecves
of maximizing farm producvity and producon
d s ed d z
the adverse impact of unfavourable weather, as
witnessed in 2009. The components of the new
se wd be :
(i) to improve soil health and help farmers to
benet from the nutrient-based subsidy regime
introduced from April, 2010;
(ii) maximize the benets of all available water
sources rain, ground, river and sea water
and ensure its opmum use;
() deke esech s ee
and water use of crops while also ensuring
that dryland agriculture is pracsed in water-
decient areas;
() sed eches ed e se
of seeds in the 128 agro-climac regions of the
country; and
() ese h the benets of research undertaken
at ICAR and the agricultural universies are
translated into the eld for beer results.
(t is fl i
vlp isss, bs i Klk, -il:
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trees and forests were always considered
as an integral part of the Indian culture.
Planting of trees was reded s be c
d he ce es. nw, de ces d he bewee ded d
supply, forests have been ruthlessly exploited
to meet the increasing demand of fuel, fodder
and timber. Hence, in the light of ever increasing
demand, concept of multiple use of land with
se ee seces hs bece ese
EnvironmEntal ProtECtion:imPortant tiPS for thE DEvEloPmEnt of agroforEStry
R.S. Senar and Resh Chadhary
important. In this context. Agroforestry is an
eed approach of using the interactive
benefits from combining trees and shrubs with
crops and/or livestock. It combines agricultural
and forestry technologies to create more diverse,
productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable
land-use systems.
Agroforestry is basically a land management
sse b ece es s ce hs
been strongly felt for two main reasons. Firstly,
agfsy, i is f f lipl l s sys, diff ks vis pls
v p bfiil ff f gfsy. ms f fiigs i fv f is
sys i is piviy ipv sil iis
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hee s he esse c d de
bz d secd, de esce
crunch agriculture is becoming un-profitable.
Agroforestry is a blend of agriculture and forestry.
Agriculture means crops and forestry means trees.
Normally, it is a domain of agriculture where incrops the area is 80% or more and in trees it is
20% ess. thh ees cc e e e
in the Agroforestry system but play the dominant
role. The success of agroforestry vis--vis farmers
accepting the technology will only be possible if
the agricultural production is not affected to a
ee exe he ssc wh he ee
ce. i c, ee ehss s
being given to agroforestry but still it has not
reached to the farme s shd be, whees
Ch hs deeed ke ds d
the most popular agroforestry is the paulownia
based agrofes sse. S, se
extent popular based agroforestry in Punjab,
H d wese u pdesh hs bd
the confidence among the farming community.
Imprtant Arfrestry Systems
1. Agri-silviculture (crops + trees) including
e c
2. Agri-horticulture (crops + fruit trees)
3. Silvi-pasture (pastures + trees)
Horti-pasture (pastures + fruit trees)
Prominent agroforestry systems in different
agro-clime es id e eed
tbe 1.
Table 1. Prminent arfrestry systems fr varis ar-climatic znes
Ar-climac znes
Arfrestry systems
Ari-silviculture
Arihr-silviculture
Ari-hrcltre
Hr-pastoral
Silvi-pastoral
Specialized
Wese H
e
4 4 5 4 4
Ese H
e
3 3 5 4 3 5 jh
Lower Gangec plains 5 3 2 2 Ee
Middle Gangec plains 4 2 Hesed
Upper Gangec plains 5 5 Agri-hor-sce
Trans-Gangec plains 5 5 Agri-hor-sce
Ese e d hs 5 4 3 4 Block plantaon
Ce e d hs 4 5 4 4 Block plantaon
Wese e d
hs
4 5 2 4
She e d
hs
5 3 2 4
East-coast plains ghat 4 5 4 2 2 Home garden/Shee be
West-coast plains ghat 4 5 4 2 2 He de
gj s d hs 4 2 4 3 5 Block plantaon
Wese d e 5 3 4 5 Shee be
isds e 4 5 4 1 2 He de
Nos1-5 indicate th priority praccised model; 1, least; 5, highest
Source; Vision 2000. ICAR, New Delhi.
Contd. page 26....
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The sustainability of agroforestry systems
in different ees deeds see
factors. The important ones are environment
of the area, site characters, plant species and
cs, c es d eesystem practiced by the farmers. In agroforestry
sses hee e bh ecc d ecc
interaction amongst the different components.
Impacts
Agroforestry systems can be advantageous
over conventional agricultural and forest
dc ehds hh cesed
productivity, economic benefits, social outcomes
d he ecc ds d seces ded.
Biodiversity in agroforestry systems is typically
hhe h ce c sses.
Agroforestry incorporates at least several plant
seces e d e d cees e
cex hb h c s wde e
of birds, insects, and other animals. Agroforestry
s hs he e he edce ce
che sce ees ke d se cb
faster rate than crops.
Agroforestry tree species of research
ees he cs, c e
improving maize yields in sub-Saharan Africa,include the nitrogen fixing species Sesbania
sesb, tehs e, gcd se
d fdheb bd. f exe, e e
exee mw shwed h b s
fertilizer trees such as Tephrosia vogelii and
gcd se, ze eds eed 3.7 es
e hece, ced 1 e e hece
plots without fertilizer trees or mineral fertilizer.
resech wh fdheb bd Zb e
see es shwed h e ees c
sustain maize yields of 4.1 tonnes per hectare
ced 1.3 es e hece bed he
canopy of the tree. Unlike other trees, Faidherbia
sheds its nitrogen-rich leaves during the rainy
c w ses s des cee wh
the crop for light, nutrients and water. The leaves
he ew d he d ses d de
land cover and shade for crops.
Potential impacts of agroforestry can
cde:
l redc e hh cesed
production of agroforestry products for home
cs d se
l Contributing to food security by restoring farmsoil fertility for food crops and production of
fruits, nuts and edible oils
l Reducing deforestation and pressure on
woodlands by providing fuelwood grown on
farms
l Increasing diversity of on-farm tree crops
and tree cover to buffer farmers against the
effects of global climate change
l Improving nutrition to lessen the impacts of
he d chc ess ssced whHIV/AIDS
l ae ccessb edc ees,
the main source of medication for 80% of
Africas population
The tangible and intangible benefits of agro
forestry as suggested in the leaflet are mentioned
bew:
l To meet the demand of fuel, fodder and
timber for the increasing population.
l t edce he bc esse exsforests.
l To obtain maximum output in terms of yield
from the same piece of land.
l To develop wasteland/ degraded lands by
sbe ee seces wh c
cs.
l t edce he ee b
ee seces.
l t edce s es.
l To increase the soil fertility by plantingnitrogen fixing tree species.
l To create availability of raw material for wood
bsed dses.
l To create opportunity of employment to local
people and to increase the return in terms of
e b cesed c dc.
To be cont. page 23.....
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Role of Agrofrestry Systems
Basically in all agroforestry systems there are
w c es:
Prdctive rles: In a given agroforestry
sse hee e w e dcs ke
food, fodder, fuel, fibre, fertilizer and fruit, etc.
Commonly agroforestry system is known for five
fs.
Service roles: Agroforestry systems were
mainly borne for its service roles. The major ones
being soil and moisture conservation, fertility
ee, we d wd es c,
exed shde d shee, ec.
Ml-prpse thee Species
The multi-purpose tree species (MPTs)
e hse h c dce w e h
two products at a time. For the success of an
agroforestry system following points need most
csde:
Selection of trees: Right choice of tree with
ecs s ecess s s ee
component and initial mistake done will be difficult
to be rectified at a later stage. The tree should be
eco-friendly (at no stage cause any damage to
the environment). It should not compare for the
esces wh he ssced ded
ce. ohe ce e h shd he
a deep-rooted system, plant canopy should not be
dese, shd w sh, he ess bch
and should be fast in growth. The major trees fall
hs ce e j, ccs, cs,
ss, ee, ec.
Management of trees: oce seces s
identified, it is essential to manage the tree. It is
esse decde he be d he de
of arrangement (row direction, spacing etc.). The
ex se s kw hw he ee ehe
b seed, s b cs. as he ee s
he ee ce, ses ke w
ultimately decide the success of the syse. f
raising trees we must decide the size of the pit,
c of good s d fym xe
e=with fertilizers ad escdes. oce he ees
e esbshed he ex se s e
the tree canopy from time to time (as and when
the need is felt) to such an extent that the tree
growth is not affected as well as the inner-sowncrop gets all the benefits like light, etc. Even if
it is felt at a later stage that the tree density
c be edced (hs w s eee ex
esces).
Thus, to manage trees in agroforestry
systems, farmers should have an idea about:
i) The choice of species and provenance, to get
desed dce,
ii) Proper manipulation of canopy and stands in
order to facilitate maximum penetration of
sun-rays,
) ne cc,
) Sbe hes ehds whch e
ees eeee hh s, d
v) Protection before and after harvesting.
Nitren-fixin tree species: a he
mpts s ws desbe esc chce
nitrogen-fixing tree species (NFTs). Whee ss e
low in their fertility levels raising any exhaustiveee seces w cse exese des, e..
ee seces ke Eucalyptus. thee e
numerous choice for the selection of an ideal NFT
for the success of the agroforestry system. The
es e j, cc, shsh, ss,
casuriana, leucaena, khejri etc. Further, inclusion of
nft he sse s des s
in view of the fact that whatever nitrogen fixed by
NFTs besides building the soil fertility can also be
zed b he ssced c, d n ec
can be done. The NFTs foliage is also a rich sourceof protein.
Arfrestry systems as carbn sinks
Land-management actions that enhance
the uptake of CO2
edce s esss he
the potential to remove a significant amount
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of CO2
from the atmosphere if the trees are
hesed, cced by regeneration of the
area, and sequestered carbon is locked through
non-destructive (non-CO2
emitting) use of such
wood. Carbon management through afforestation
and reforestation in degraded natural forests is
an useful option, but agroforestry is attractive
because: (i) it sequesters carbon in vegetation and
ssb ss deed he eces
soil C; (ii) the more intensive use of land for
agricultural production reduces the need for slash-
and burn or shifting cultivation, which contributes
to deforestation; (iii) the wood products produced
under agroforestry serve as a substitute for
similar products unsustainably harvested from
the natural forest and (iv) to the extent that
agroforestry increases the income of farmers,
it reduces the incentive for further extraction
from the natural forestfor income augmentation.
Edece s w ee
that agroforestry systems
e s ee
cces cese
bed d s
C scks e
eehse s esss.
Ftre stratey
ahh es sses e edwh ehd eet, agroforestry
systems are one option with multifunctional
e. i id d he dee ces,
he h ssbe deee cd be
a decentralized planning and implementation of
sees h e c bss dc
in agroforestry systems. Such decentralized
sses id c de cc s
for livelihood improvement and sustainabledeee. a wh he ce
change, agroforestry systems can at least
partially meet the energy needs of one billion
ee id hh bee s, b
prudent use of agricultural residues and biomass
generated in agroforestry systems. Biomass
ee bsed s s c cee
wealth and employment necessary for livelihood
improvement and sequester large amount of
cb decezed e. Sch se
wd s ese ecc, ecc d
social well-being. Thus, an
energy and food self-
sufficient taluka (a small
dse ) c
be a new model of rural
deee id.
Although agroforestry
options for carbon
sequestration are attractive,
they present critical challenges for carbon and
cost accounting due to dispersed nature of
farmlands and dependence of people on themultiple benef its from agroforestry. Additionally,
cces ed ,
verification, leakae and the establishment of
Carbon management
through afforestation
and reforestation in degraded
natural forests is an
sefl ptin,
FoRTHCoMINg
ISSuES
Rural Demography - July 2012
Rural Health - August 2012
Rural Education - September 2012
Rural Infrastructure (Special Issue)- October 2012
Focus on North-East - November 2012
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cedbe bsees s eed be ddessed.
ahe chee s he cees h e
ee w b ee. n eee s
willing to adopt agroforestry. We shall need
effective communication strategy to extend
s ee d d
agroforestry t supply fuelwood and other
products. The likelihood of adoption depends
on the availability of lands, progressive attitude
of farmers, supportive village institutions, theirweh ss d he eceed sk cce
c dc.
(t s f S Vllbbi
Pl uivsiy f agil & tlgy,
m 250110 , -il: s.svbp@gil.
)
Table 2. Reinal examples f sil-fertility enhancement in
mltifnctinal arfrestry systems in India
Region Challenge Chanes bserved de t arfrestry
Hs
(Kkshe)
Improvement of sodic soils icese cb bss, ee bss d s
carbon; enhanced nitrogen availability
Hs Restoration of abandoned
c ses
Bss cc (3.9 h1 in agroforests compared
1.1 h1 in degraded forests); improvement in soil
physico-chemical characteristics; carbon sequestration
Wese
Hs
redc s d we ss
ecsses see ses
Contour tree-rows (hedgerows), reduced run-off and soil
loss by 40 and 48% respectively (in comparison to 347
mm run-off, 39 Mg ha1 s ss e e de 1000
rainfall conditions)
Skk
H
Ehc e dc d
s e dcs
Nitrogen-fixing trees increase N and P cycling through
increased production of litter and influence greater release
of N and P; nitrogen-fixing species help in maintenance
of soil organic matter, with higher N mineralization rates
in agroforestry systemsIndo-Gangetic
ps
(up)
Bss dc d e
dynamics in nutrient-deficient
d xc ss
Bss dc (49 h1/decade)
Hs
(meh)
Ehc ee s d c
ed
C ed dd decese x Albizz ia ees
Wese id
(K)
Improvement of soil fertility of
dee ke ss
Microbial biomass C which was low in riceberseem crop
(96.14 1 s) cesed ss de ee
(109.12 1 soil); soil carbon increased by 1152% due to
integration of trees and crops
Wese id
(rjsh)
Compatibility of trees and crops Density of 417 trees per ha was found ideal for cropping
wh ses
Ce id
(r)
Bss dc n d
P-stressed soils
Azadirachta indica trees were found to produce biomass
deeed ss
Ce id S ee Decline in proportion of soil sand particles; increase in
s c C, n, p d e n
She id
(Hdebd)
Optimality of fertilizer use
She id
(Ke)
gw cec cs d
ees
Ginger in interspaces ofAilanthus triphysa (2500 ees
ha1) helps in getting better rhizome development of the
former compared to solo cropping
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agriculture provides signicant support for
ecc growth and social transformaon
of the country. As one of the worlds largest
eccs, ce s cc e
in ensuring food security while also accounng
for a signicant share of Indias Gross Domesc
Product (GDP). It engages almost two-thirds of the
workforce in gainful employment. Several industries
such as sugar, texles, jute, food and milk processing
etc. depend on agricultural producon for their
requirement of raw materials. On account of its close
kes wh he ecc secs, c
growth has a mulplier eect on the enre economy.
i de ss cultural growth for meeng
food requirements of growing populaon, policies
EnvironmEntal ChallEngES & iSSuESof inDian agriCulturE
Shivkumar L. Biradar
and strategies need re-orientaon with appropriate
response mechanisms to meet not only food grain
and buer stock requirements, but also, to ensure
livelihood security in mes of calamitous incidents
bh d h de.
Deceleran in Aricltral grwth:
The share of agriculture in Gross State Domesc
Product (GSDP) has declined signicantly during the
s w decdes. the ce sec id
accounted for 17.57 percent of the GDP (at constant
2004-05 prices) in 2010-11compared to 18.9 percent
in 2004-05. Likewise agriculture sector witnessed a
growth of 2.1 percent during the Tenth Plan. The
sector registered a growth of 5.8 percent in 2005-
There would be adverse impacts on yield and producvity of wheat and rice. 15-17 % decrease in the
yils f i f 2c is i p. w, i is glly g i i, is
predicted to be aected more than rice.
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06, 4.0 percent in 2006-07 and 4.5 percent in 2007-
08. However, there was a slowdown in agriculture
growth in 2008-09 to 1.6 percent. Plan-wise growth
rate of GDP and Agri. GDP is given in table 01.
Table N. 01
Pl-is G r f GdP 7 agi. GdP
(at 1993-94 prices)
Sr.
No.
Perid
Compound Growth
Rate (% per annum)
gDP Ari. gDP
1 Fifth Plan (1974-79) 4.8 3.4
2 Sixth Plan (1980-85) 5.6 5.6
3 Seventh Plan (1985-90) 5.9 3.0
4 tw a p s
(1990-92)
3.4 1.2
5 Eighth Plan (1992-97) 7.0 4.7
6 Ninth Plan (1997-2002) 5.5 2.0
7 Tenth Plan (2002-2007) 7.6 2.1
Envirnmental Challenes fr Indian
Aricltre: Isses and Implicans
The challenges for Indian agriculture are, to
increase producon, while minimizing environmental
impact. This includes conserving and protecngthe quality of the resources that determine the
performance of agriculture like land, water and air.
Reducons in yield, although determined by many
factors, may be parally a consequence of land
and water exploitaon. Below are the observaons
based on limited informaon available on land
degradaon and the relaonship between quality
and producvity of soil.
a) Degradaon of Land:
It is observed that land degradaon is more or
ess es hee sed css hestates. By the early 1980s approximately 53 percent
of Indias geographical area had been considered
degraded. Water logging aected about 6 percent
of the culvated area, while alkali and acidic soils
both aected about 3 percent. The major process of
land degradaon is soil erosion contribung to over
71 percent of the land degradaon. One third of this
land was degraded by human acvies, while nearly
one half was degraded by a combinaon of human
and natural causes. Recent research found a negave
and signicant negave relaonship between land
degradaon and food grain producvity in both the
1980s and 1990s.
(b) Depleon of Ground water:
Water is another major constraint for Indian
agriculture. During the green revoluon period
water consumpon in agriculture has risen sharply
as the net irrigated area increased from 31.1 to
54.68 million hectares between 1970-71 and 2000-
01, while the area under irrigaon increased from
7.09 20.46 heces d he
same period. Groundwater, one of the Indias major
sources for irrigaon, is being rapidly depleted.
The problem of groundwater depleon has beenreported from rainfed states like Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Rajastan, Madhya Pradesh, Chasgarh
d gj.
(c) Imbalanced use f Chemical Ferlizer:
The use of chemical ferlizers is concentrated
in the two major crops namely; rice and wheat,
together they constute nearly two third of the total
chemical ferlizers use in the country. Similarly, the
se s cceed ses ke pjb, H,
adh pdesh d t nd, whee he e
of NPK use has already gone beyond 100 kgs. perhectare. Ferlizer applicaon rose more than ve-fold
between 1970 and 2002. Imbalanced proporoning
of chemical nutrients is a major problem associated
with ferlizer applicaon in India. It has been
observed that heavy use of NPK has negave impact
ee.
(d) Qality f Pescides used:
Pescide consumpon increased from 24.32
million tonnes in 1970-71 to 46.2 million tonnes
in 1999-00. It may be noted that about half of the
pescides registered with the Indian PescidesRegistraon Commiee are banned. Of course, this
des e h he bed dcs he he
same eect on Indian soils. However, India accounts
for one third of the cases led with WTO on pescide
poisoning. Evidence suggests the need for proper
planning in order to promote and regulate pescides
use in the country. This nding has been supported
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by the fact that the farmers have only limited
awareness of the hazardous eects of pescides
and at the same me have lile informaon on the
environment-friendly alternaves.
(e) Impact of Climate Change on Indian
Agriculture:
Climate change refers to the stascal
variaons in the properes of the climate system
sch s ches b eees de
natural or human drivers over a long period of
me. Climate change could drascally alter the
distribuon and quality of natural resources thereby
adversely aecng the livelihood security of the
people. Some of the major impacts are discussed
bew.
Ip cps:
thee wd be dese cs ed d
producvity of wheat and rice. 15-17 % decrease
in the yields of wheat and rice for a 2C rise in
eee. Whe, whch s ee w
the winter, is predicted to be aected more than
ce. i whe, be d weh s edced
de ed hh eees d dh
condions. Ce che s s ke he
signicant eect on the quality of plantaon and
cash crops such as coon, fruits, vegetables, tea,
coee, aromac & medicinal plants, etc.
Ip Sil w rss:
Availability and quality of both surface and
ground water would have eect on quality and
quanty of grain. Reducon in ground water
recharge will aect irrigaon potenals. Possibilies
of salineon of land due to sea water ingress and salt
accumulaon result in to degradaon of soil quality
d se ce.
Ip Iss disss:
Insects have very high degree of adaptability
ce che. Che ce s ke bring about a change in the populaon dynamics,
growth and distribuon of insects and pests
thereby, upseng crop-pest balance.these ches
cd ed es c sses eed
ee. Ce che wd decese
defense mechanism and creates more favourable
environment for pests and insects.
Impact n Livestck and Fisheries:
Impacts of climate change on livestock will
be felt in the form of elevated body temperatures,
increased respiraon rates, decrease in feed intake,
etc. Indirect impacts would be observed in the form
of reducon in grazing land and water availability,decline in available cale feed, emergence of new
dseses, ec. the he sess wd c
animal producon and protability in dairying
due to lower feed intake, milk producon and
reproducon.
Ip Livlis, F Siy ey:
The impact of climate change on agriculture
has large detrimental eects on availability of
food, livelihoods and the overall economy. Lack
of sucient income to purchase food is a major
factor contribung to food insecurity; hunger itselfcontributes to poverty by lowering labor producvity,
edc essce dsese d deess
educaonal achievements.
Ky isks Ii gil f li
g:
the ce d ed sec id s
exposed to potenal risks arising from climate
b d ce che whch e execed
excebe he sess id ce. mj
risks are such as, decline in yields, increased farm
expenditure, reduced farm incomes and increased
threat of food insecurity and malnutrion. Signicant
negave impacts are being projected in the medium-
term (2010-2039) such as reducon of agriculture
yields up to 4.5 - 9%, fall in GDP growth up to 2%
per annum and reducon of agriculture yield in long
e.
id ce hs j chees
ensure food security for growing populaon, which is
esmated 310 million tonnes of food grains in 2050,
stagnaon of net-sown area. As a result, agricultural
producvity has been witnessing stagnaon in recent
es.
Plicy Measres t Sstainable
Agriculture Development:
Fostering rapid, sustainable and broad-based
wh ce s ke kee
mind the overall socio-economic development path
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of the country, especially in the light of exisng
vulnerabilies that ree shk d
esce bse, d sses ee de ce
che. t ece hs be we eed sec
ches whch bce ee heh
and economic protability in agriculture to promote
social and economic equity.
Sustainable Agriculture is a special kind of
agriculture along with farming technique which
makes maximum ulizaon of the environment
without causing any form of harm to it. The outputs
from this Sustainable Agriculture are devoid of any
types of inorganic chemicals such as pescides
and inseccides. This farming technique uses the
organic way of farming through the conservaon of
natural resources and maintenance of ecosystem
funcons. All these factors produce the products in
a more environment friendly manner and are thus
healthier for the consumers to consume. Following
are the iniaves taken by the government.
Imprved Crp Seeds, Livestck and Fish
Culture
Biotechnology is an important tool for
the development of genec resources with
greater adapve capacity to cope with changing
environments. It has huge potenal for combang
vulnerabilies in crops, livestock and sheries. The
rich indigenous genec resources in the crops,livestock and sheries sectors should be conserved,
ced d des sed whe s
conserving the agricultural heritage of the country.
Relevant technologies should be used for rapid
bulking of improved variees of crops, livestock
and shes. Public private partnerships should
be ed deee, ee d
disseminaon of the improved variees.
Water Eciency:
Two-thirds of the culvated land in India israinfed and suers from water scarcity. Eecve
management of available water, increasing water
use eciency and establishment of addional
sustainable sources of water emerge as the primary
sses h eed be ddessed. Sees
d eches de hs des s be
ced wh ded d s sde ee
soluons to enhance water use eciency for
irrigaon. The role of local instuons in managing
water allocaon and ulizaon will also be crucial
for promong eciency. Policy instruments will
have to be leveraged to encourage adopon of
technologies for enhancing water use eciency
and to promote public-private partnerships.
Ps mg:
Pescide consumpon in India has increased
over me and its injudicious use has created
problems like development of resistant strains in
insects and plant pathogens, resurgence of pest
species, direct exposure to the applicator. Pescide
residues in feed and water aect livestock health due
to direct and indirect exposure in the course of pest
c eses. Sees sesed de hs
intervenon have to primarily focus on establishment
of decision and informaon support systems for pest
and disease surveillance, demonstraon of best
pracces and quick response mechanism that are at
wh he s de wh he dsses
natural calamies.
Improved Farm Pracces:
The most effective way to address climate
che s d ssbe deee
pathway by shifting to environmentally
sustainable technologies and adaptation ofenergy efficient equipments, renewable energy,
and conservation of natural resources. ied
c cces he he e he
reduce farm level losses through improved
soil treatment, increased water use efficiency,
judicious use of chemicals.
ni mg:
p e ee cese s
nutrients and thus enhance crop producvity, it is
a major technological challenge for ensuring food
sec d ss deee. S heh
can be improved through several site and soil-specic
management opons. Applicaon of integrated
nutrient management techniques has been found
to increase nutrient use eciency by integrang and
bc he e dose in relaon to nutrient
status and crop requirement.
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agill Is:
ac sce s
echs b whch sks c
d ce c be ddessed. C sce
incenvizes farmers to adopt innovave opons
by spread