1am)uage is not hoclqpenws end thet there e n distinct
verieties of eetdla language In the worda bf Crystal end
0wy (1969851, "The l a b l 'the English ~ ~ t r g e l ie in fact
only e shorthand m y bf referring to -thing which ie not,
as the name may seem to imply, a s ingle horno~snous phenomenon
a t a l l , but rather a complex of many different 'varieties'
of language i n uee i n a l l kin* of s i tuation i n meny parts
o f the meld . Naturally, a l l these veriet ies have much mare
i n common than differentiates them - they ere cLsar ly v a r i e t i e s
of me language, English. 8ut at the same tim, each variety
is definably d i s t inc t from the others ." Lyons (1981 : 26) obser-
ves that, ", ..... we shal l always f ind, if we investigete
the matter, a certain m w n t of aystenratic variation i n the
speech of those who are thereby established as speakers of
the same dialect ." He adds that the variation i s according
to the s i tuation, the relations between pert tcipants, the
person(s) to whom one is epeeking or writing, ths purpose
and nature of what w e have t o conununicate end w on. Hanever,
he maintains that the choices one makes is both aystelnatic
a d idenhfiable and making the appropriate, choices b an
importent part o f using a language correctly and ePfectlveLy.
k i r k e t a1 (1985r16) point auk that, "Any urn of llng~8g.
messar il y i n v o l v e s variation dth in a l l f tve type@. . . . (8) region, (b) -iel group, ( c ) f i e l d of d i e c o u r ~ , (d) m d i ~ ,
attitude. 'lhe f i r s t two types of variation h l a t e pr h a r i l y
to the 1ang"uage user ...... The last three types o f variation
to lanquage use. People select the varieties according
1" the si Lust ion and the purpose of the comnmical ion ."
In ths cantexL of language Leechinqt particularly
ESP, though rreeda are generally perceived in two ways namly,
with respect to the target situation and the target language,
they cannot always be kept rigidly separate. But for purposes
o f idenlif icat ion and analysis of learner needs i t is conve-
nient to describe them systemat i c a l l y and therefore a detai led
account of the language needs o f people i n administrat ion is
necessary before a pedagogy can be developed for EAdP.
As mentioned i n 1.7.3.1. the teaching of English
for specific purposes i n i t i a l l y implied the teaching of a
restricted repertoire o f words and expressions selected t o
s u i t the requi remnls of a wet L def itiad academic or vac~l l ional
cantext. thus ESP courses were concerned with the teaching
of a s ta t is t ica l ly quantified 'register' defined i n term
of formal linguistic propert ies, lexica 1 items, col locations
mid senlence sl;ructures. Struc tura 1 spproachps to 8y llabus
*sign were, adopted using restricted samples of language
taken From &Ject specific sources. The procedure used in
Qeiw of regieter-based ESP cwrses can be a*llarizeb
in Iht, mrda of Ewr m d I.nlnrrr? (1967r229), H(a) wnlynea
of Lhe E r q l i s h eckuaUy used i n tho wLarqel;w m d i t i o n s , (b)
-1ccL ion ar lha mas1 f3aquenL ly-cn:cur r i r q or useful items
in relation to the teaching time avai lable , (c) systemstic
exercising and d r i l l i n g of th is meter iel i n contexts re f lect ing
the special in teres t s of the learners; (d) the provision of
supp lementary read ings from the corresponding Li terat;ure ."
However, t h i s view of ESP as Lhe teaching of the sub-
code of a language was replaced by the view that ESP course-
design should be guided by the 'purpose' of the learners and
the uses ta which 1 enqueqe wi 11 be put in particular ci tcumstances
by them. Therefore, the ernphasis was now not on a quantitative
analysis o f word/structure counts but on a qual i ta t ive ana-
lysis of the 'comnunicative ecks' or ' rhetor ica l funcliona'
that typ i fy the variety i n question. Accordingly, analyses
of a particular variety o f language, s c i e n t i f i c writing for
inslance, fneussed mttcnt tan not m Lhe incidence of formal . .
features such as the passive, re lat ive clauees and the uni-
versal present but on the general cornmicat ive uses of language
in science such as ident i fy ing, clsasifying, generalizing
chservation, drawing m c l u s i o n s and so on. Furthar,
this 'discourse approach ' to ESP course- deaign a l s o focussed
t b way differnt corunicatiw act8 c o w h d to produce "). ] ..I . s
, mherertt end cart i n u W ~ d iecour~e . 9 .
A, Crystal end Devy (1969)
In Crystal and Davy (1969) there is an attempt to
out line a procedure for deacr ibing the Linguistic feeturea
o f any t ex t which can i n turn be used to isolate those features
which are characteristic o f a particular variety. The des-
cription can be at a nuder o f interrelated lsvels of descri-
pt ion. A t each level nentel y, phonological/gr~phologica1,
qramnaticaL,. lexical and m e n t i c , m e aspect a f the way
i n which lasrguaqe is organized is studied. In thi8 model o f
description the aim to show how sounds and letlere are used to
bui ld ip larger end nore complex units- lexicel and granet ical.
From the granrnatical point o f view, the internal structure
of sentence is analyzed to see how they function in eequmce8.
Cryatal and' Devy i so la te f ive descriptive conparwits namly r
(1 ) inter --ntence relet ionahips , (2) sentence typology,
(3) clause typology, (4) group typology, ( 5 ) word typolagy;
in terms o f subcategotie8 lib ellipis, anaphora (at the
leve 1 of inter--term ml .t imhip.) 3 #simple, collplex,
*xed m3f&m8 (at t)a ievel of sefttmce typology) 8 mun
verb grape etc. (at t level of clmw typology)
4 SO m. A t eech Isva l , ell information abwt what i e a t y l l -
& i c a l l y significant about ths variety is noted, T h y (p.43)
point out, "Such on approech men8 thet in order to obtain
a complete der~cription of m y one variety a dsscriptim he8
to be pieced tagether by working through ths gnnnar in 8ora
predetermined way, and noting points about e variety em they
arise,,.,, . I t
Huddleston states that he has two complementary eima
in preparing the book ( i ) to give a selective grennatical
description o f 8 corpue o f sonre 135,000 words of written ecien-
tific English, ( ii) to investigate certain areas of the granrner
of 'common-coreB Enqlish - the grammar that i s comm ta a l l
varieties o f t b language (except poesibl y e few highly res tr i -
cted ones) .
f he theoretical f ranrework under lying the description
of a W C ~ W ph~llll€?&et8 or l a b l l e d bracktms, which
~tructure rt different hive18 : the bracketinq
=presents t cmstitwnt hierarchy at the given level,
md the l e b l linq rqreaanks the el ass i f lcet ion of the const i-
Luerrls, T b T i r o l in the series aT phraee markcrrs is soid to
mpresnnl Ihe 'deep ~tructure ' rrf tlw, mnlencs, lhe lerrt the
'surface structure', the f i r s t is generated by phrase atructure
rules, whereas eech of the remsining phrase markers derive9
from the immediately preceding one i n the series by a trans-
formational ru le .
However, Huddleaton make9 i t clear that the work
is an exercise i n 'descript ive l i n g u i s t i c s ' and not s t y l i a t i c s .
His aim is to arrive a t an adequate linquistic descriptiori
- a "(part ia l ) qramnar for its own seken (p.2) d i k e Crystal
and Oevy who regard gramnatical descript ion as a tool for
the different Pet ion o f varieties , for the ident i f icat ion
of i inguist ic features restricted to certa in social contexts.
The entire corpus is made up OF 27 Cexts af 5,000 r.
mrds each.
The f r a m o r k for Huddleston's analysis is indicated
by the list o f cmtsnts in h i s book. (1) Mmd, (2) Transit iv i ty
T h s pracddures k d d l s s t ~ n follrmu $8 to begin with
8 general discueeion of 8 catagory/.ubategory ualng exalplea
from corrmon-are English and then apply the deercription to
sentence8 froAi the rorpulr. For exenrple, in the aection on
cxclaaativea he begins with ttm general A r v a t i m thet
"Exclemative clauses contain one or other o f the e x c l e ~ t o r y
'uh' - words ' h o w ' and 'bet I.
Lee Ualc Cheong ' 8 main purpases are 1: (1) To investigate
in as specific and re l iable a manner as possible the language
or register used in s c i en t i f i c l i terature, ( i i ) To formulate
or relate the reading comprehension s k i l l s required in the
reading md understanding of science and technology texts .
The study i s based on a corpus o f 12 .texts of 3,000 * .
*ords per t ex t tekm from four basic tert iary L v e l ecience
md engineering t e x t book8 relating to four dlsciplime,
V i z . , DyMn~cp, statics, Physics and C h m i s t ~ C I . Th . c o r w
is studied wt for its am e&e krt as repreemtcltiw of @
larger c o w * The -in i n k m e t of ths study is t o .na iy te
stat ist ical ly account for the occurrence. of qntectic
features in each t e x t in order t o obtain en -Grate picture
of the Lanquage skills (primarily reading &ills) mrsdsd
to understand ssch tex t efficiently end rapidly. .
T h e basic unit of description i n this study i s the
textual esntence. (A textual sentence has been described
as a body of material occurring between one period end another
rollowing i t . )
T h e sentence is anelysed s t two Level8 : ( i ) gramnatfcal
usage, ( i i ) rhetorical use.
The invest iget ion aims t o reveal :
( i ) r h y mm gramatical items f a l l into o k or another
of the cateqor ies
( i i ) har theas grametical items signal . commicat ive
acts such as defining, cl sssif ying ,, exemplif y i q ,
causality etc.
( i i i ) in what way and to what extent reading * k i l l s l i lcs
drawing inference, canparing, understanding relation-
hi-, recalling and mticipating ere required in
ths teed ing o f ecient i f i c text*.
1 mjor gramatice1 ceteqorier with mspect to
h i c h Lea Kdc Cheoq has conducted hie snalyais are (1) Mood,
(2) Voice, ( 3 ) Basic stcucturecl, (4) Ckdal canalructimcl,
Frequency and percentage of occurrence of each o f the feeturss
related to the nine categories have been counted and tabulated.
The findings of the analysis were wed to investigate i n t o
the kind o f relationship that exists between syntex and content
and to see h o w the reader var ies h i e reading skills according
to the character istic l ingui s t i c features o f a text .
Qn the besis of his findings, Lee Kok Chaong maintains
that although the effect ive reading of any tex t requires the
genera 1 "foundational skills o f word racogni tion, word aaeo-
ciation end collocation" (p.229), an understanding o f the
h g u i s t i c features found in rrcient ific E n q l i h would b l p
the reader reeolva enbipuity and c~mnpl~x i~8 f3 i*erent in
sophisticated writing. Ik observes that, T b s i p r i f i c ~ t
correlation established bsttmen the syntax and use of linguistic
features and the -tent materials o f t four d i s c ip l ima
mt be d w e l ~ ~ s d and -@meired in each aubjact i f conpre-
heneion of the -tent i a to be improved" (p.242). For ewanple,
~ ~ a d i n g in ths f i e l d of' ,Dynaaico basically requires the dew-
lopmnt of tb a b i l i t y to scrcr thwght - reletionship patterns
especially of ths logical-deductive type end ths reading
s k i l l s e s sent ia l in understanding Physics and Chemistry are:
a b i l i t y to aynthwize related ' facts, compare ad contrast
ideas, and recal l previously occurring informetion.
I n the f inel part o f h is work, Lee Kok Cheong discusaee
the implications of h is study for teaching and makes sugges-
tions for the possible choice of teaching techniques, teaching
materiala and approaches.
0 . Emrr and Latorre (1969)
T h e application o f register analysis in the design
of ESP p r o g r a ~ s is best exemplified in the *sll-kmwn work
Ewer end Latorre (1969). T h e purpocle of their course book
is t o teach students of Science the labaaic lahpuage of crcien-
tific English." Thsy begin w i t h the premise that this 'b.81~
language' is made up of m t e n c a patterns, vocabulary i t a8
to and characteristic of a l l ecientific writing end
th@ir mastery i s a pre-requisite for the stuchQ3 of aience.
Their nwtecisl I s bamed m tm a n e l p i s of more th&
three m i l l h'~ wrda OF cnodern acianl if ic Englieh of both 8ri t iah
md American origin in terms of the frequency end r a m of
~ccurrence of eharac ter ist ic syntactic st ruc turea and voca - bulary itma. Their sample covers ten broad ereas o f crcience
and technology naml y physics, c h i s t r y , biology, geology,
medicine, engineer inq , sociology, economics, psychaloqy
and agr icu 1 lure .
Their course book is div ided into twelve units. They
are :(I) Simple Present-active, ( 2 ) Simple Present-passive,
( 3 ) Simple psd. active and psssive(l) -ing forms, ( 5 ) Revision
o f units 7-4~(6)Present perfect; Present continuous., ( 7 ) Inf in i -
tives -inq forms, (8 ) Anomaims Finites, ( 9 ) Paat Perfect;
conditionals, (10) Revision o f units 6-9, (11) md (12) Genere1
revision units,
Each w r i t i s divided into four sections. In the f i r s t
section the chosen struc t u r d item is presented through a
reading pasage with comprehension quest ips. The second
sect ion is devoted to 'Word-study * . The exercises here focus
On ( i ) synmyma/antonyns, ( i i ) word-building b y nsms of
a f f i x e t i o n , ( i i i) changing words into their other parts of
speech, ( i v ) f i l l ing in blanks choosing epprapriate words
disc~S*d in ( 1) ( ii ) ad (iii 1. The main structure presented
in Lhe reading paaugs is d r i l l e d and reinforced i n the third
ec t ion under the caption 'Structure Study'. Here there is
8 brief note the uses of the particular structural item
md ~ubstitution d r i l l s . The final section is called Oiacuesion
md Criticism. The aim here appeers to be t o engage the learners
in some free composition using the knowledge gained by the
practice nf the vocabulary and structural d r i l l s in the earlier
sec L ions .
1.1 e 2 . 2 . Notions
Attempts to describe language variety s o l e l y on the
basis of frequency of language form cam t o be questioned
in the early 70's as ideas ebout 'functional' and ' rhetor ical ' .. dimnsions of language use were beginning to gain currency.
I t . was realized that the ~ i m nf lem~unqe d e ~ c r i p t i m wna d s o
in a particular var iety and link the categories of grammatical L
for. to the categor ies of comunicat,ive func tim . For exanple,
in the description o f the language of science the functions
that are cherackariet ic of this v a r i e t y wch a s dsscr ibinp, . . .. ,
Observing, cledsifyinq, instructing, qeneralizinp.... were
l i s ted d thr, g r ~ e t i c a l form such a8 tho * b p b pimart 1
are used b melize t b s s runctims nere noted. kaidss,
in this lode1 of language deecrlptitm t Cock w e aLw
to see how language ie used in a particular variety to express
certain 'concepte' or 'notions' about the world.
Unlike in the case of ' reg is ter malysiav, it is not
possible t o mention any work as an exclusive theoistical study
OF a particular language variety from the point of view of
notians or functions. However, t h i s -roach has often formed
the basis of language caurse-design and the prepetation
of teachinq materials. The tNucleusg wries is an example
of how the idea o f the notional syllabus was used to teech
lhe students the various ways in which language was used
l o sxpresg 3c i d ; i f ic crnnccpt 8 .
The Nucleus s e r i e s consists of an inLrductory core
course in 'General Science' end a number of spe=if ic courses
in Science and technology. Each course has the some structure
of 12 units plus 'I revision mi t s . Each writ presefite a 'not ion' a
or 'concept w h r properties, location, n s a w r a a n t ,
qumtity ra t io and proportian, frequency, p . tob~bi l i ty ,
t e n d m y etc. Eech wit can be aubdivided i n two way@ nameLy
Senera1 end 8peci-fi.~.. While the formr intradwea a concept
in general, the Zstter cant8im.a aerk88 of prductivet~wercf'sms
relat ing the concept. preeentsd in ttm general wit l o eppro-
priaLe lopicn and cnncepks nilhin FI part iczular subject. The
C K ~ ? ~ ' C ~ R R S rc!y 1111 o c~1rnc.4 <kZs11 of v i ~ u a l nqqmrt.. I h i r aim
is to e c t i v a t e the students' knowledqe af E q l i s h end to sn-
courage t h e m to comnunicete abwt scientific and factual
matters in interesting ways, From the study of graphics, the
exercises lead the students gradually on to the study of written
srrd aural Lex l , ~ .
Bates (1978:86) wys that before wbrkinq art the
framework of the course they prepared lists of language forms
which they considered important Tor scientister and techno-
logists on the grounds o f frequency and usefulnese. The f o r m
which were . l i s t e d were eventually linked with and subordinated
to func tiona 1 categories which provided the main c r i t e r i a
for the selection OF tex te and round which the unita of the
courses -re b u i l t . For example, social uses of language,
informal nuas inn, expressim nf m o t iona1 ~ t t ikudes , etc.,
h i c h are not l i k e l y to be encountered i n gcientific texts, L
academic textbooks or lectures were excluded. The concen-
tration wad ~ i n l y an the functions which cherscterize the
lanqurrge of science (posaibili t y , instruc thm, ?kc. ) and
the forms associated w i t h than (pcesent f ense, ac t ive , -6aiv8
etc.)
I t # ~ ~ t 8 b ~ ~ L e r i a ~ ~ published ware intended l o ba
taught in two stapes. T k introductory course limits itaelf
tr~ the lanquage of obsst vat ion and desc r i p t ion - eswnt ia l
for all btanches of science end technology. 'Yhe language o f
descr ipt ion is further divided into teacheble funct ion81
mi tel . Thie Is done by basing each writ on an importent scient ifLc
concept awh as s t roc ture , proport ion, causet ion etc. The
advanced Inaterials are designed to tesch the more complex
cnmnr~nical ive act. i v i t iea sucli as claesi ficnLion, hypothesie
etc,, and the ir interrelationship in the loqice 1 devalopmnt
of a tex t . Ihe basic concepts with sssocieted language forms
are so arranged ta produce a 'cycl ice1 ' course wkth a culnuletive
learning effecl . Thus uni 1 1 provides weys o f describing pro-
perties, unit 2 ways of describing properties and location
of parts of a system, unit f deals with the overall structure
of Q system including propartias snd locat ions end 80 on.
This progressive f i tt inq toget her of the conceptue 1 components
of scientific description is reinforced by revision material
after every three units and in the Consolidation Unit 12 texts
are presented showing the interp lay of the conceptual components
Presented in prev iaus uni t s .
the deaAgners of the Nuc~sue series. say that the ir
concbpt-bes%d approach had three advanma : ( i ) t t prwidsd
a fettllidr end etbwiatinq w a y of selecting end shaping ths
material, ( i f ) I t afforded a uscrful lead-in to the teaching
aT the struc tore of discourw by helping the learner t o tecogni re
the t y p of theme represented by each part o f a tex t and ( i i i ) I t
encouraged larrguage transfer and .enabled the learner t o apply
what he had learned to different contexts - linguistic, eritu-
ational and functional.
3 2 . 3 Discoutsa Analysis
Widdowson (1979) obaervea that description of a lanquege
variety in terms of register analysis cannot indicate rhe-
tor ice1 relet ionships within the vsr i e ty . According to h i m
sc i en t i f i c instruction and s c i e n t i f i c exposition, for example,
may be widely d i f ferent i n the way they manifest linguietic
propart ies end ga they becam widely different registers
with no comrac tione between them. He maintains that such en
approach to language descr iptfon cannot t e l l us anything
about the 'kind of discourse' under study. fn the wards of
Widdowean, Whgt i t does is to deecr ibe the indexical Features
of different ways in h i c h 'a language system ,is manifested,
but i t t e l l s tm nothing about hw the ianguege s y q t a i s realized
that a quad itat i v e aulysis of a text b a crude way of indexing
The othsr approach to lenquaqe description that Widdouson
comnents upm is a qualitati'vs one in .that i t indicates how
the functions art reeli zed in a language, He cites ttm workrs
of Leckstram, Selinker and'lrirnble (1970, 1972) , and %ale8
(1974) in which there i s an ettempt to describe language not
in terms of the frequency with which certain linguistic items
occur in a var iety (science) but how they aea ueed t o meks
statements and descriptions of different kinds. But in th ia
approach assumptions are made about the nature of discourse
in terms of the rhetor ica l/illocut ionary acta typical to
a variety and an ettanpt is made to isolate these acts.
However, Widdowsan p i n t s out thet description of the
discourse of e variety does mt consist only in the epecifi-
LL b s l o do with Ctw, manner in which Lhqy codlne t o form
coherent stretches o f discouree. For example, a description
of the rhetoric of science will not be with reference to what
hetotics 1 acts ere performd in the vat i e t y such .as dsclcr ibing,
ex-plifyirrl), gemretizing and so an - but elso with the m m r
in rhich. tb8e vasiwa sub-acta colabina to focn the major
*etorice t act. For example, a descciption of s c i en t i f i c
discourse should be able Lo show whether the eccepted for&
far the reporting of experimental findings would involve
the combinat ion of constiLuent acts such as atatamnt of hy-
pdhesis, descr ipt ion of procedure, stetenrent of findings,
summary and so on. The underlying assumption here ie that
every discourse is structured according to certain patterns
of rhetorical organization which impose a conformity on the
users of that part icular language var iety . I t he8 been pointed'
out that it should be the aim o f a description of discourse
Lu hrifiq nail. 1 . 1 ~ : lmrtilq ti,i!;ct~tir:;t? ~ l .~ : t ic t . \ i r~ nr fli!~i:nt~rnc.
orqani tat ion.
The wplication of discourse analysis in the design
of ESP course materials is exemplified in 'Enqlieh in Focus'
series and Trimble (1985).
The aim o f the English i n Focus series is to develop a
basic kmwledqe nf h a w Enqlish is u ~ e d for c o ~ ~ ~ ~ n l c a t l o n in
the comw English sentence patterm but who need to learn
hrm these getterns ere used t o convey in formtion , to conduct
coherent discussion. a d to develop logicel ergunnte. Tho
exercises direct the students' attention to m r t a i n feetures)
of Enqlish which ere carmanly used in the discipline for which
the book is designed. T h e aim i s to provide the atudsnts with
a strategy for reading more d i f f i cu l t texta i n the subject
area and t~ prepare them far making effective use of Enplirrh
i n Lhelr awn writing. Although the emphasis is on Engliah
as a medium of expression for comnwricating idses abwt the
socia 1 sciences/physica 1 science etc., the besic elements
of the lmnqr~aqe have not been neglected. Pattern pracbice
is provided i n the use of lenguaqe and i n tb guided writinq
sections of each unit. &It th is i s always presented i n relat ion
to a cammicat ive context and not s imply as an exercise in
making sentences for their .own sake. The ,series does not aim
a t teaching the subject matter nor does it aim a t teaching
gramat ica 1 ' structures and vwabulary ea such. I t s purpose
is t o show how language ie uwd as a mdim for the s tudy of
a particular discipline and to give the students s grounding
in me set of ronnunlcation skill8 in' English. . , *
In this series eech t e x t ia divided into eight mite.
~ a ~ h unit ks .a psasaps' for reding SM c o l l p ~ i m . TIW
e x e r c i s e ~ t m t)w, paseep hao the following pittsrnt
1. Salut ions to camprehension exereise
Exercise A : Contextual reFernme
8 : Rephraeing/meaninq assessmsnt and
sumary writing.
C t Relationship between ststsmsnta
D r Statements based on diegrens:
genere li zat ion
E : Transforming definitions into
qenera l i zat ion
11 . Informat ion transfer
111. Cramner : Eg, : Conbininq sentences with a re la t ive
clause, present participle/pest p r t iciple, etc.
I V , Paragraph writing : Stage 1, Sentence building
2. Paragraph bui l ding
3, Paragraph reaonstructim
V. Frm Reading
C - Lwrs TCMI~ (3985)
ESP course-design on the basis QT e discwcse ana- t '
lysis of a ' partiklac var'iety 18 betker exemplified in Trimblo
(1985)- fhh m9 the mrde o f f r w l e himeelf, *... 'h#
qram atr a t research into ths &areetnrbtica of written
scientific and technical English (EST) and wt of teaching
the findings of th i s research to mwr-mtive rt~denter.~ (p.29).
IM book wss originally b e e i p d for nan-natlva undergraduate
engineeriq &udmts who were advanced both in the use o f
€ngli& md i n their chosen subJect. Cetsr, t(re mope of the
curricul~m wee. broadened i n such e way that it could be uaeful
to m y interested non-native student wrkfng I n a scientific
or technical f i e l d end native students takinq advenced degrees
in teachinq E r q l i s t ~ as e sl~cond/foreigrr Inr~qusqe aleo used
the courses "as e leboratory .I' (p.2).
In this work 'EST' is used to refer t o the f i e l d
of Science and Technology and focuses mostly on written d i s -
course, althouqh oral discourse has not &en overlooked.
The word 'di.scaurse' means, . . . a callection of connected
language units - such as sentences end paragraphs - thet to-
qelher make up a cohesive, coherent tex t . " (p.2). The paragraph
is taken as the unit o f analysis of tb t e x t ,
he book can be divided into two parts. The f i ra t
Pert af the' boak exemims the 'rhetoric* of ecierttific and
technical Enpllsh, it ala , exarinse ths gr8mac lwi8
related to thla var le ly . rhe wcond p s i t of the bwk d&t.
with ths hplicatiarrs that the andyeis has foc teaching.
T h e term 'rhetoric' i a used to refer to o m importent
i art of the braad comunicative mode celled 'discauree'.
'Rhetoric' is defined as, ",. , . . . . . the prbcees a writer uses
to produce a desired piece of ten t. This process is basically
one of chooeing and organizing information for a specific
set of prpases md 8 specific set o f readers, An EST b x t
is concerned only with the presentetion of facts, hypalhsi8,
and similar types o f information. I t is not .' concerned with
the form8 of writLen English that e d i t o r i a l i a e , kxpress emotions
or emakiona l l y based ergumnt or are f r i c t ion81 or poetic
in nature ." (pa 10).
Information orqani ret ion is understood as t
(1) the sequencing o f the items' of informatian i n a piece
of written discourse
( i i ) the expression o f the kinds of re)allonships that
exist between these items
However, i n thie analysie as well a8 in the sectiof
a b o ~ t teaching the 'total dlecburcle" Wen divi(bd into
faur rhetoricst levels - A, 8, C crrd 0, Level A qivss the purpose
of the tot.? discwres eg: ( i ) Detailing m srprbent .
(iii) Presenting n e w hypothssis or theory
( f v ) Presenting other types of EST information
Level B consists of the 'general rhetorical functions'
which develop the obJec t ive of the discourtre egt stating
purpose, report ing past research, s ta t ing t h e problem, prasen-
ting inforrnat ion on apparatus used in an experiment, present inq
information on experimental proceduras etc, Leve l C has to
do with the specific rhetor i c a l Functions that ere found conmonly
in written EST discourse : description, definit ion, c l a s s i -
fication, instruct ions, and visua l-verbal relet ionships
between a visual a id end its accornpenyinq texts. Finally,
level O deels with the 'rhetorical techniques1 that provide
relationship within and between the rhet;or ical write of Level C.
The examples given ere : ( 1 ) Orders - time, space, causal i ty ,
and reeul t , ( 2 ) Patterns cause l i ty and rssul l , order of impor- 1
tance, comparison and contrast, analogy, exemplific~lt ion
arrd i l lus tra t ion .
Sam of the apecific gramatice1 elements that
have been caimidered i n r e l a t i a to ther rhetoric of science
are : (lessive - R L ~ C tve dint inclions, the we of mckls in
the ct#toric of instructions, prcrble-a w i t h tb dsfinita
srLicle and the non-temporal use of tense. Besides, the 'sub-
technical' mabu la ty of €Sf md the noun coApawrds that typi-
callycswxmr in th i s var i e t y have a lsb been caneidsred.
T rimble claims that this ' rhetar ice1 ep~,roach'
has praved itaelf useful both i n teaching reading skills and
in teachinq the types OF writing that scimt i f i c end technical
Erqlish demands . The pedeqogy rocuses ptogreseival y on the
pnracnolers used in t.he en~lyrrisj of EST diacmrae. The course
commences w i t h the teachinq of the paraqreph end proceeds
I r, !.he Lorrc.:lr i riy or 1 . t ~ rhrrlar ica I qramnat icrr 1 re1 at ianahi pa
and the lexical elements. Controlled writ ing aasiqnrr#nta
are taken up En the end. T h e tasks used are moatly of the 'recog-
nition' type end tasks of the 'production' type ere pastpaned
until the last unit m controlled writing.
Example :
(1 ) In. y w c subject mtter reeding Find exemplea of the
follwing :
e) rind a paraqrllph of descrlpt ion thet use8 roa t l y
stat i v e verb forms,
(b) Find a paragraph of description that u w s met l y
paasrive varb forms.
Production tasks
( 1 ) Submit ywr topic for approval; include a brief statement
as to the depth of coverage plenrred and the probable
length of the work. I f feasible a t this stage, you ahauld
a180 submit some passible sources.
In t k wcond prrrt. o f hi9 work, Mnhy discusses how
the prof i le of comnunication needs of a participant can be
interpreted in terms of the language skil ls required For i t e
reali zat ion. He observes that the customary division o f languege
skills into L-S-R-W are macro-cancspte. However, he uses the
term 'skill as a micro-c&cept and distinguishen i t from
the macro-rorrcepl o f an ac t iv i ty . tte lists S4 micro-acts es
a reference .source from which e selectiog could be rnede de-
pending upon the nature of the course i n question. He d i v i d e
the eki l lahicro - e m in to 14 ceteqorier . The criteria used
for the division ere as rol laws :
1 Skills 1 - 10, 17-18 : mntor-pcrrcsptwrl dti'lls, receptive
lend prMfucLive roc b t h the -en m ~ d kt* w r i t t e n amdim.
E9.r dimcrilninet ing aounds in carmected spsech, art i -
m l a t lnq a m d s in connected speech, mognlt inq
the script of a l q u e g e , manipulating the ecript
of a lanquege . 2. Skills 11-16 are concerned w i t h understanding and con-
veyinq maninq, especial ly attitudinal marring,
main1 y through intonat ion.
Eq. Underst~ndinq/producinq intonalinn petterna
interpet inq/expressing a t t itudinal meeninq through
var i d . ion nf tnr~e, nuclear shirt
3 . S k i l l s mentioned at No.19 help a non-native learner
in word formation without unnecessary use o f the dictionary.
4. Skills 20-23 &el with undetstanding and expressing
fnformtion like mak ing inferences, mde~stsndinq
fiquretive language and so cn. ,
5 . S k i l l s 24 end 25 deal with understanding and ewpeessing
conceptual meaning.
Eg, . quant i t y aml alkbunt, def i n i tanems and indef i n i ten8~ra,
ci*rp.riam-degree, tir* (eap. tenaa md .ap.ct),
6. Wit la 26-27 relate psych1 inqrrist ic pracsas to micro-
Cg. understlandinq end ewpreasing the connunicetiv~
value (functiwr) o f sentences end uttarancss with
or without e x p l i c i t indicators.
7. S k i l l e 28-33 have to do with inter-ssntentiel end stru-
ctural and inter -senkenl iil1 md ssnrant ic relet ime.
Eq. understand ing/expressing relations within the
sentence using rnadiricet ion, negatian etc., ;
mderstanding/ expressinq relet icms between patte
of a tew t through cohesive devices and so on.
8. Skill, M invalves re1eLing information in the text
to information not contained in the tex t using exo(lhoric . reference, integretinq data i n the text with ane'e
wn exper ieme or knowledge of the war ld ,
9. Skills 35-39 operate at the level of discourse coherence
€9. c e q i zing/using indicators in discourse, ident i-
fying t k w i n p i n t or imparlant inforrnalicm
in n piece of dirii:m~ras, dielinyl~lehinq the main
10. Skills 40-43 rlro m c r r t o d w i t h lln, tiiff'sront ampacts
of surrrnar 1 z irtg and note -tak ing . 11. Ski 11s 44-46 have to do with reference skills and readinp
skittrx l ike skimming and scenninq.
12. Skills 47-49 ere concerned with discourse skills.
Eq. ' i n i t i a l ing in discaurse' , 'maintaining the d i s -
course' and ' terminat inq in discourse'
I f . Skill 50 deals with planning end organizing informtian
using rheLarica1 functions especially definit ion,
classification and description.
14. Sk i 11s 57 -54 ckml wi \.!I " i n T w r m u L ion Lrot~sfer or rolnying
informal ion1' like transcoding informat ion in speech/
wrilirrq l o diaqra~mnt ic d i s p l a y , rol~yirq informet lon-
directly (comnentary) - description concurrent with
action or indi rect ly (reporting)
Reqister Anelyses as demonstrated by Huddleston d
I Kak Ctmw ore ottcmpLn l a hncr ibo o vrrrialy or English
(EST) with reepect l o iLs formal properties. ln other words,
these ~tudiaa aim at a quentiLative enalyaia in term of the
occurrence of certain l ingu i s t i c structures and item@ QQ
vocabulary which character i xa i L m a rmb-&e of the lenyuclqe.
Such err approach to the descr iptim of language variety we8
a p i m e r i n g attempt and was concurrent with the view or lanqusge
as a formal system held by linguists a t the time, Such an anelyais
of langoage var ie ty was often used in ESP course-deaign,
However, a reqister analysis o f a variety is inedequate
in that it f a i l s t o account for the camaunic'stive properties
of the variety, What characterizes language use is not merely
I.& typic0 1 1 i m ~ c ~ i s l ic rcnttrren nsml y, ttw model canr~tru-
ctions, voice, cornplenrentetian, reletiviration etc., but
also the rhetoricaL fmct ions thst typical ly occur i n 8 variety.
In other words, it is also important for an analysis t o shw
whether ane performs certain acts of cornmicat ion like defining,
classifying, obeervinq, describing, reporting, inferring
etc,, in a certain variety and h o w languege is used to perform
these fune t ions .
In t h i s mspect, the idea of using mtionr/functian8
is an improvement upon the ear l ier approach nsrnely, reqialsr
analysis. A l t h q h there seems m evidence o f any research
to describe s:pmrticulat ,. lmgmqe var iety In terns of notlonu/
C- time, lb cmcepL cou 1 d be used l o ar r kva at a t a x m a y
with reapect to a specific variety of lsnquaps use. b v e r t h e h a s ,
this spproad't too is deficient. h s p i t e the fact that i t is
a departure from register analyaie, one can recoqnize certain
cwmtan Features with the earlier approach. This i s because
instead of listing the s y n t a c t i c structures end lexicel itme
that are typicel of a variety, me lists the rhetorical functions
in this approach. Also, it does not account far tha weys in
which these functions ate reelired i n the particular typea
of diacouree . I t is d i f f i c u l t to say that a stretch of lenguaga
performs o m and only one comnmicative function. Actually,
a nuder o f ~uh-acts/r#&-fumt inns cnmbim taqtlther ta reel i ze
a ma jar camqunicalive act/func tion. A sat isCacLory approech
to the anelysis of a language veriety is one which not: anly
characterizes the typ ice 1 comnunicet i ve functions that are
performed in the variety (even though the list cannot be en-
haust ive) but elso are which aeeks t o iden t i f y the ehared
convent ions that e x i s t w i t h regard t o -discourse organization
and shw how they help to form 'coherent isc course.
A l l the courses desiqmd using register anelyais, the
notional / f m t i o n a l approach, or tho dbcouraal approach
rocus nore on antenL rather than on athadology. In this
sense they are 'product-arimtedg and not @procuss-orimted',
The ergparmlasauagllim ssecas to be that awrs .the learner has'
mastered, the constituent i b s of lmquage, be it form or
function, h8 w i l l be able to uhle the languege. there is m
ibLtempl to sdmw wt)at tha learner t i~ t r r l o drr In order to he
'1.2. Oeacription of lmqumm weriety in tho prvrasrrt study
As pointed out oerlier, need8 enalysie in terms
of description of language variety has necessarily accompanied
needs analysis in terms of jab descriptiwr. Therefore, beeides
identifyinq the needs of EAdP learners with respec1 to the
target situation, it was also necessary to ident i fy their
needs with respect t o t h e i r target lmguege.
Iht, main nim or Lhis Lho~is is Lo evolve a pedaqogy
for EAde that w i l l enable leerners not o n l y to perform the
t ~ s k s that are typicnl of Adnrinist.r~ll;im but also to use the
var iety of language that is typical of this context. Therefore, a
i t was necensary ko i h t i f y the characteristic features
of this verlety eo that the insight8 gained by such en anelysim
could be w i t a b l y t m d for . EAdP course-design with apecia1
mfeeence to the comvricative ebi l i t ies thet have to be imparted
Since the padegrJqy envisaged in thln thesis i s besud
on the caraaunicmtive ep~coach to language teaching, ths unit
of 1erquat)e use Leicen Tor arBelyeis i s primarily discourse,
allhaugh the de~cript iwr also tekes into account h o w the d i s -
cwrw is real i zed a t the m i ~ t r ) - l e v e 1 8 of lenqtjaqe use. T h s
aim of the snarysis was to invest igete r
( i ) the i1locut Ionary/rhetar ica1 acts that are performad
while using written Enqlish far adnrini~trative purposes.
( i i ) the ways in which these acts are performed in connected
discourse.
( i i i ) tha ways in h writlan discourse i s arqrrnized in
Administ r a t ion
( i v ) the sub-act8 that constitute a major rhetoricel-illo-
cutionery act and the sequence in which they occur.
Oiscoutae analysis as a discipl ine ie mainly concerned w i t h the comunicative functions perforamd in a text . The term 'cowununicative' is often used t o refer to both illactat icmery (Avst in : 9962)end interactional (Widdonawr, 1979 ) functions. T h e f i rat large1 y depends an convent im8
of lanquaga use while the second is determined lnoetly by aeqrwrrrt i m 1 re1 a t / m ~ bt?tmtm tmitn nf lerw)uacp use. I t is rnrcaaanry to rnrskc rr Lcrc~irmloqEcsl diet inction betlreen these tm types of fmticms. Hence in th i s thesis the term 'itlocutionsry/rhstariaal' ie used to refer to what Austin termed speach acts srrd the 'interactive act@' CWiddowem, 3979) are perceived as ak-acts which conetitute major ilkacut iarrery/&etocicsl gcte.
( v ) t;hb choices thek are waitable Lo the eddresssr in the
e e m l n q or sub-acts.
( v i ) t;he weys in which the sub-mcte ere Linked togathat 8a
as Lo make the discourse coherenl . ( v i i ) the relationship(s) between form and function,
( v i i i ) the lexical, syntactic and stylistic choices thet are
evailable for the linguistic rea'lixatinn o f !.IF: t i&-
acts.
Given the Fact that the English used for edminislrativa
purposes is hitjhl y formnl and cnnvent iorwl, a dsacr ipC ion
nf the language variety in these term war ersentlal i n order
to study ttle norhs aF Isnguaqe use and later incorparete t h e m
into the teaching proqramne suggested.
For t h i s purpose a large number of samples o f the actual
written tex ts that ere used in administ ra t ive orqeni zet ions
was collected and analyzed. The samples collected mte of *
different text types from various commercial, industrial,
financial and other orqenizatime.
T h e t e x t type,@ conskdered were :
1. I. st tern t Crrrreapmdence
(a) m e persan t o another by name
(b) m e person to another byderrignation
(c) circuler letters meant for more then one person
(a) one person ta anather by nsm
(b) one persan tonnolher bydeslqnalion
(c) circuler from one inst i tut ion ta a number of inet i -
tu t ions.
2. Mates on files :
( i ) marking a document to someone end indicating the
action to b8 taken
( i i ) sunminq up lhe psrLiculars
( i I. i jmt i t y inq m inmre a d ~tqcgesl. ing e 1 ine of act ion
3. Extracts t
t i ) of Iet tees
(ii) of reports
( f ) Amual reports
( l i ) Reports rwr projects
( i i i ) Progress reporls
( i v ) Impection reports
( v ) Enquiry reports
( v i ) Quali ty assessment
5 . Minutes of meetings
6. Press Statement8
7. Announcements :
(i) Notices
( i i ) Advertisements
( a ) ca 11 inq for epp 1 ical ions
(b) regard ing sa lee
8. Statutes
9. Rules and Regulations
30. ~ w a r n k n k Orders
The aim was not t o collect e fixed number of senrples
h r ~ l tn m n h the col leek inn f m i r l y rapressntstivrs both in Letme
OF the organizations covered 88 well a8 the t e x t t y p e collected.
Hamver, it ust be r s n t i m d here thet the corpus f inal ly
used for analysPs contained asamples fcaa ttm various types
o f adninist rat ive otqani zst ions mt ionrsd eet liet but did
not contain ell the tex t types originaily .intended. h i s was
because certain i t m s l ike notee on f i lea nere considered
confidential and were not mads available to the r e ~ a r c b r .
Also, the organizations contacted durinq the survey did not
use exttacts of letters and reports. Besides, subtle digt in-
ctims that were mde about the nature aT intra/intet-institu-
tional correspondence end about the various kinds of reports
were drewn on the intuit ive perception8 of en wt8ldrrrt and
did not exist in reality , o r ewempla, circulsra meant. for
mre !.bn nnr? per.son within rln inst i l u l i m m r e called Off ice
Memos or Memorandum. So in the f ine l tally the corpus contained
the followinq text-types : (1 ) Letters, ( 2 ) Reports, ( 3 1 Minutes
of meetings, ( 4 ) Press Notes, ( 5 ) Announcenente, (6) Rules
and Regulet ions, ( 7 ) Government Orders, (0 1 Memorandurn/Of f ice
Memo
the malyticel framework used in this thesis t o describe
EAdP lenguaqe variety w a s constructed dradinq on the insights
p ined by lhe various studies an di~caurw?, linguiot ic and
stylistic analysis. &t no fcalnemrk af analysis or description
was npptied in i t s entirety. ttm me used In this thesis we8
conatnrc tad k-p inq In mind the main aim of the p~assnt csaearch
pro jw t which i s padagogicel . Ideas of (Ihilasaphers like Austin end Ssarle &out
spwch ecta were used to establish the criteria for idamti-
f y i q the r~ tor l ca l / i l l ocu t ionary acts. Although the rtudba
of Sacka, Schegloff , Jefferson (Cwltbrdr1977) Sinclair
and C w 1 thard ( 1975 1 focus main1 y an spaken 'discouree , they
provided useful inaights into the idea of discourse ntructute,
However, the notian of the sub-act%, their sequence and the
interactimel functiorebetneen them draws largely m Widdoweon*e
views on 'discourse as process' and the notion of discwcee
strategies is taken from Quirk a t a l (1985). Teimble (1985)
also served as a useful point of reference.
The I inquisl ic doscr ipt ion alLempled in this thesis
is no1 knscd on reyin!.c?r ntra I ysis rmr c k w r i ~ i t Cbl low any ans
of the available qramatical descriptions o f English l ib
sca le-category gramnar , trans farmat iona 1 qrearnar etc . I t
was decided to adopt en eclectic approach cumhinirg several
u ~ f u l features from a nullber of contrithtiap particularly
Halliday end Hasan (19761, HaXlidey (9985) end Quirk s t 81. 1
(iue5).
T I p signif icent sty listic f e e t u ~ e of this vet i e t y
have been identified lamply wr the bash of a study or tha
important nbrcks on skuat i-l var jet ion in the use o i l-ags
Cryatml & Davy, ($969). E n k v i d . (1964, 1973), Turner (19751,
Fmter (1986 1.
T h e description of the € A 8 variety arrived a t in this
thesis ie with reference to the following qwstiona:
( i ) What are the typical rhetarical/illocutianary acts
perfnrmd in t h i s variety of English?
( i f ) I f each of these rhetorical acts can be conaideced as
beinq made up af R ~pecific sequcrncls of sub-ects, whet
are the patterns of sub-acts that are typ ica l l y found
in EAdP?
( i i i ) Are these sub-ects l inked LogeLhac e x p l i c i t l y , or impli-
citly? If explicitly linked, h a t are the Linguistic
devices used for this purpose end i f i m p l i c i t l y linked
h a t are the textual. and pragmatic links that cen be
identified? *
( i v ) A r e these sub-acts typical ty tee1 ired by single c l e u a e s
ar ct~use-ca~lpbexes? I f ctau~e-complexes, (a) twm can
the telatiunm httwrsrr the clwsee in e clauss-complex
be described? In other words, what interactional f u n c t i ~ ~ s
c n u identify tmt*aen tha clauses in a clmse-complex?
(b) *at are ths linguistic dauieeo typicaILy used
to Link the cleuees in e clause-complex?
( v ) W i t h i n a c l ~ a e , b w i s t h a i n t ~ r r n a L i o n ~ y p i c a i l y o r g a n i z e b
to const i tute a message?
( v i ) What era the typical discourse s trateg ies used in EAdP?
Is it possible to find carrelat ions between the types
of strategies used md the rhetoricel ect performed?
( v i i ) Whet are the stylistic Features ( l ex ica l end syntactic)
which typ ica l ly co-mcur with s p e c i f i c rhetorical acts
in EAdP?
Rhetorical acts typically perfoned in EAdP
T& theory that in normal coraunicative a c t i v i t y
people do not merely produce 'utterances1 but in doing so
perform some kind of h t o r ica1/illocutianary ect derives L
from the works o f Austin (3962) and later Sear le (1969L
Austin poir~ls aut t tml ltre i l loeut imary act can often
be identifi6.d by the presence of the performative verb/explicit
p e r f o ~ ~ t h v e . €g. I e ~ ~ h ~ i r t r , I - bid y w waicara, 1 requeat
YOU ..,. But Austin doerr ncrt offer eny cluse as to b to i h t i f y
the iilacutionary act in the absence of the expl ic i t parfor-
mat ivs. k jmt seys that the interpretat inn nf tLho locutidnary
t i s concerned w i t h 'mctaninqt. Slrawson (19641, however,
points out that maning must be seen as an amalgam of qrarnnraticel,
lexical and extra-textual Informstion and i t is the function
of the locutinnary act to transfer th is maening from addresser
to addressee. Sesrle (1965) suqqeete that the i l l o c u t i m a c y
act of utterances can also be determined by the function indi-
cating devices in the utterance like word order, stress, in-
tonat ion, cmlnr~ t , punctusL inn, the mod of the verb and,
aT course, l t w ? poeformsLivc? verbs. Further, he discusses
and distinguishee between two major typse o f rules, namely
regulative and const itut i ve which govern the linguistic rea-
Li zation of illocut ionary acts. While tegutative ruies are
concerned with conditions on the occurrence of certain forms
of behaviour, Eq. 'Tress passers will be proeecuted','Stick
bills', constitutive rules are concerned with the behaviour
itself, €9. * A batsman is leg beFors wicket if . . . . .' Cwltherd
(1977 :23 ) &serves that, "In the study of language uee both
sets of rules ere importmt. A l l interaction has regulative
r u l e s , usually not e x p l i c i t l y stated, which govern greetings,
choice of topic, i~ttsrrqptim and .D an en8 . ; . . . Constitutive rules in wech are those which cantto1 the weys in which a
qivm utterance of e given form is heard as rea l t r iq a given
I t folliwe Lhat usrims crlterle wil l heve to be taken
into account while detsrarining the i l locutlonary act perforared
by e piece of discourse, In other wards. i t La not o n l y the
explicit performative which hslpe to determine the ect but
also the other Linguistic and extra-linguist ic convent ions
T h e c r i t e r i a used for the identif ication of the i l l o -
cutionery act in the samples of EAdP texts analywd were:
(a ) the uae of t b e x p l i c i t perforlnativa in the text , (b) the
extra-linguist ic convent ions that govern ths interaction,
( c ) the structure o f the t e x t .
( e ) Ihe rhelor i ca l / i llncut ionary act can very ofLen be deter-
mined by the performative verb exp l i c i t l y uasd i n EAdP texts.
We (mold like to)infoer you tbt your order has been shipped an the ..... . and s h w l d reech you within the n e w t ten days.
We era sure you w i l l bet gleamed with the umeignmt and 1- ~orwarci to yaup next arder .
&re the swpticit use? of the verb 'int'orn9 used with
the f irst p e r m We* clearly indicates that tha act performed
by Ihe t e x t is Lhal of 'giving irrf'ocrnaCiorrl. According Lo
Austin explicit pochrlnat ives Fsre verbs in the simple present
tense md in the m=livn vr~irrn tmrl with a wbject in lhe f i r e t
pareon sinqular . In the ewenple given the subject is in f i r s t
pi3rsm plural and the verb phrase is 'would like to inform'.
But, a8 w i l l be discussed subsequently in th is chapter, in
EAdP, the subject I s very often in the plural ee the addresser
represents an institution and therefore writes on its behalf.
Further, the 'would like to ' element used in the verb phrese
is a convention characteristic of the formel nature of' €AdQ
and does rot' a l t e r the function performed. Therefore, i t can
be sa id that the utterance 'We (would l i k e to ) informm performs
the act of 'giving information'.
In another example qiven below i t can be men that
the verb used imperatively also helps us identify the i l l o -
cutimaty act: performed by I tw t .axt .
I am very much impreseed by the SANYO FX 50 CD and nalural ly w i s h to buy it a t the earlieet ~ ~ ) p e c i a i l y if it haa a. progrlrmable time. Pleaae be kind enough to wnd ms ths details regarding tb W e 1 and also the price in India.
P ~ ~ M o alsb inf'om am of COs wellable w i t h you especially foreign claesicels or semi- clessicals l i b Sa#rd of Plusie, Abbe stc.
In the extract of a latter reproduced above the expl ici t
marker 'please inform me' clearly points out thet the letter
performs the act of 'asking o r informtion' . This use is
a 1 so typ ice 1 of EAdP.
(b) thwevar, pcr rorm~l i v e verbs ure r w ~ L a lweys preaenL
in a text as exp l i c i t markers of an iilocutionery act. I n the
absence of e x p l i c i t markers one will have to take into account
the shared cmvent ions that aperate, like for example, the
relet; ionship betwoen the addresser and Ltre ddreasee. L e t
us consi der an e x tract of a Press Note to i l luatrate this point :
Text 3
BANCALORE UNIVERSITY hana €harathi, Bangalore 540 056
No : A C A / R ~ / ~ ~ - 8 8 Oatedt 12 -6.1987
PRESS NOTE
Sub: Calendar of Events for the Academic Year 1987-88 in respect of B,A,/B.Se./B.Com. courses,
I t is hereby mrtified for i ~ f o r m t i m of the Studate , Parato end the Csnral Public thet the Bangalare University has decided to start: the f i r s t term for B,A,/ B.SC./B.CUII ~ o u r s e s fram"4st OF Juty 3987. ALL achaissicms to tb first year cif ths degree rou~rc;a -11 be cmapketed a an ar fibsface 30,6.l&37 br the PttmfaaS,
kmmvar- Ihs laat date for admission w i t h pmsl fee af Ra. to/- *(Rupees ten ml y ) is f ixed upto 30-7-1987. fhs last .dste or ad~lission -11 mt be e w t d a d under any ci reurrrstanc8s. AL I the ekigibls candidates are therrerore required to gst thcsrnmlves enrolled for f i r s t year before the st ipulated date. t h s c ~ a s s s ~ Qor the I, I 1 and I11 year B.A./S.Sc./B.Cora. courses will co-rrcs f r o m 1-7-1987, k candidate ahall get admi- asian without the aligtbikity certificate when it La required far the purpose of a d m i - ssion, No Principal shalt1 admit s candidate w i t h o u t the el iqibility cert ifkcate wherever the e l i q i b i l i t y cert i r icate .is requkred for admission.
A 1 1 foreiqn nationals are required to produce the ~ 1 i q t b i l i t . y certificate issued by tho lhriversity Tor purpome of admission, Foreiqn Nationm1s w i l l not be a d m i t t e d w i t b u t (,he el iqibi1 i t y c e r t i - C i c m L e ,
Attendance i s c o m ~ ~ ~ s o r y , PrincipaLs w i l l r a t i f y the details of attendarrce in respect of each candidate f r a n t i m e to t i m e . Any ehortaqe of attendance over arrd ebove l i m i t s t ipulated wiL 1 not; be condoned.
Examinat ions w i 1 l begin f r o m 1-4-1988, Their sacredness shall h a v e to be m a i n t a i n e d . Datails of the Calendar of Events o r tha Academic Y e a r 3987 -88 have been not if ied separately at the Wiversity O f f i c e and at aJ t C o l leqes concerned -
The students and parents are requested to note this and co-operate w i t h the P r i n c i - pal& of the Callages and thg University, and adhere ta t h e Calender irrdicaCed above,
AL~MU~J~I thir, pcst~s note is a notification givlng infor-
matim tn ttm public sbwt the cor#nencecaanl of courses in
the tkriversity , it actually gives a aet o f instructions about
what mat be done in order to erlrol oneself, b r s Ltm cr i ter Sm
h i c h he1 phi us to d 8 t e r m i ~ that tb c~nmnunicat ive act p a r f o ~ e d
is that of 'g iv ing ingtruc tione' is mainly, the addresser - addressee re! a t ionmhip. T h e thivetsi t y which ha8 issued the
notification has the authority not o n l y to determine the
procedure for admissions like fixing the dete of admission
t o particular courses but also t o enforce compliance on the
part of the atudents/candidatss in this reqard. T ~ u s , though
the not if icat ion is nnt df rect \y addressed to the students,
it. is obviat~s L t~ r r t t fttncl ion t.t~zlt. i t perform is one o f
inslrurrtir~g the ~t. trd~nLs : ~ h i r l I.iw pmcredtjra l o be rollawed
for qet t ing admitled to part icular courses. In the e x q l e
cited one can not ice that while the text performs the secondary
act of 'giving informationt, the primary act is that o f 'giving
i n s l r w t ions ' ,
( c ) Somelines iL is Lhe syt~LacLic sLructhre and the structure
of the text *ich are crucial in identifying the illacutionary *
ect performd, To illustrate this a set of irrstcuctiond given
to candidates tak inq 8 carpet itive euminir#t im ir given below r
lent 4
1. Candidmte has to blacken the appropriate matebyNFIptwtct.1 only.
2. A t m sttrip ftt~nrrld t t r nn?rwr?r alwel bc folded, muL ilaCed, lorn ar spoiled, otherwise it cenrmt be accepted by the romplter Ssed mechine.
3. Do not use rubber bands/str inqs to prepare bunches of answersheets et any stege of the session.
4. Keep enswersheets in a clean plece. Avoid its contact with dust at eny st- of the session.
5. Drs mt write any remarks on the answer- sheet. Inviqilators should give the ir observat ions about any candidate an aseparate answersheet.
In the .above example there is a combinet ion of c r i t e r ia
which helps us in Ldentifyinq the illocutionary act es giving
instruct ions .
( i ) r?nrrmr~L ion nT t . 1 ~ raqr~i ramnla
( ii) the use of imperatives like 'do not .use rubber bendat, C
'& not write any remarks on the answersheet' etc.; the
u9e o f ~nodals lib shauld, has t o
(ii i )the addreesmr-addfeesee relatimahip. T h e ineti tut ion
cmducting the teat has the authority to ahfarce compliance
cm thevpsrb o f ths catrdidetear taking k b test.
Wing the thew criteria naaely t (a) t b use of ewpticit
p e c f o r r e t i v ~ , (b) -red imarledrp oC linguistic .nd extra-
linguietfc convent ions end (c) the structure or the text,
the fo l lminq chetor ice l / i l lacut i c ~ e r y actm were identif ied
as being characteristic of EAdP: (1) eskinq for informetion,
(2) giving informtion, ( 3 ) asking for c lar i f i ca t ion , (4 ) giving
clarif icat ion, ( 5 ) nrakinq m~nplaints, (6) adjusting complaints,
( 7 ) giving inatructionrr, (8) placing orders, ( 9 ) issuing
reminders, (10 1 mek ing annnurrcemer~ts , ( 1 1 1 male inq ecknow-
ledqements, (12) repart ing, (13) summarizing, (14) co*inetiana.
I I . Patterns of sub-acts typically found in EAdP
T h e rhetorical act performed by a piece of discourse
can be established either by reference to the occurrence of
certain l inguist ic elements or in Lerms of certain ewtra-
linguistic convent ions that govern the interaction. But t o
consider a piece o f discourse w i t h respect t o the major i l lo -
cut ionary ect rea l i zed mu1 d be to focus only on ' that ' conmuni - cation is achieved by the t e x t . In recent attempts a t discourse
1
malysis it has been shown Lhat i t i s inparLen1 to focus aleo
an 'but the mmuricatir~n is achieved. Attention here is
directed at the int.erclcL Imn1 ttspccta nf 1m1y~1+cp rrse. 4wordinq
to Wid&- (1979 : 147 ) , "ln t h i s approach, dif E-i-
cathe mt* are &fined intsrnoll y MI it u r s , w i t h rsCerance
to their ftnction w element8 OF disowcse stru~ture.~ Ha
nrentiw agreement, disagreement, initiation, relspmee end
elicitst; im es exmples of such ' interactive' acts.
I t fallows that evsty piece of discourse realizing e
particular illocutionary act ia made up of s series of eub-
acts which ere related to each other in a linear and hierarchicel
way. Therefore, as Coul thard (1977 : 148 ) points out, "readers
rmst contimrally work at interpreting a text and muet frequently
revise their i n i t i a l interpretation in the Light o f the occu-
rrence and value of succeeding locut ions ." In tha wards of
Widdouson, "I may, for example, interpret a particular remark
as a casual observation and then be obliged to revise th is
interpretation as the discourse proceeds and as i t becollw
apparent thet the remark was intended as, l e t u s say, an sxple-
nation." (p.146)
I t is therefore important ta study what sub-acts constitute
a major illocutionary ect and the sequence in which they occur
because 'rules o f use' lib 'rules af uaage' ere subject to
variation. Widdowsan observe8 that ".. . . . . just as there
are different kinds af uaa9e opr?ralinq in dislacta, 80 there
are different kinds of use aperating i n different universes
of discourse. Far exemple, we m y know whet i t Pa to explain
marething and h a t conrrtitutws agreement within the convent iana
accepted in our particular area of amis1 apsretiwr, but i t
&es not follow that we know whet counts es e scientific sxpla-
net ion or a legal aqceecnent . Problems arise when we attempt
to transfer rules of use Pram one m i v e r w of discourse to
mother . I take it that one of the' central concerns of formal
educatim Is to resolve this prablem and to extend the reper-
toire of such rules ." (p.143)
I t was found that each of the major illocutimary acte
ident i f ied i n EAdP discourse was made up of a speciPic sequence
o f sub-acts, Ihe sub-acts which cmst ilute the maJor illa-
cutionery acts ident if i ed , the sequence in nhich'they occur and
the c r i t e r i a used to identify t h e m w i l l now be discussed with
illustrations. 2
' 1 am very much impressed by the SANYO M CD snd naturally wish t o buy it a t ttn, ear Iiest especially i f it hes a praqradmable time. Pieass ba kind emnqh l o send me the deteile regarding the model end alwthe price in India.
The t e x t types given as examples are only those that are not ccmsideredcon~identiaL end *ich can be made public. m e , if tbce, is a predoninlsncta of a particular t e x t type in tbe illustratiana providad, this hes tam unevoitbble under the ci rcunrstems .
Pleasa alsa infaem ms af CDa available with you eapecialIy famiqn cLgaaica1~ or scmri-clesrricals like Sound of MIWic, Abba etc.
T h s ah-ects which cmstitute the major act or 'saCJry
for informet icrr ' are9 t
(a) drawing attention to a certain item by epecific
re Ts rence
(b) expressing a desire t o buy the item
( c ) requesting for more informetion a b u t the d e l
selec tad or about mother i tern
Different c t i t er im were used to identify the sub-acts. For
instance, in the sub-act (a) th nddreaser srd the addressee
have shared ktIoWledg8 of a certain item for eale. the^ letter
seems to have made some informat ion avelleble to prospective
customers about various models of e cerf ain (electronic)
item/gwd. The addresser is impressed with one of the models
md wishes Lo buy i t . The use of the e x p l i c i t performative-
'wish to buy' - helps t o determineUo wb-act a t (b). Likewise,
a t ( c ) explicit markera 1 ike 'Vlcase be kind enough to - send
ne Ua details ragerdiq the norkltag 'I~leaem - also inform
m~ about CDs available with yau" indicate the nature of the
sub-act nammLy, reguest i q for more infortnation. Haravac, a11
the sub-acts togsthsr constitute the major illocutionery act
OF 'ask.iW~ - for infotmatim'. - Furtbr, i t ust be .snL imsd
thet it m1.d be difficult to elter the wqusrrca in which
the wb-aeta occur, given the conventitma o f EAdP discourse
orqani zat ion .
We are i n receipt of your l e t t e r dated.. ..... and thank you for the interest showninwr products.
Y o u b d i n your letter expressed your desires Lo buy a SANYO model FX 50 #).We wish to c l a r i f y that we 6, n o C mmnfmture W's and am currently mabcinq m l y certain models rrom tlralr Lrm-in- one range. We ,hawever, are eervice agents for their products. We ate enclosing a leaflet for the 'products manufactured by us in collaboration w i t h . . . . . . . . .
In case y w require any more details, please contact Messrs ......... md Co, who are authorised dealelrs in .........
Sub-acts
(8) AcknowLedqinq the enquiry : - mut ine thank8 P
the criterion which helps ue identify the sub-act
is L t a ust? nT explicit markorti. fnr nrnnpla : We -- are in receipt
of your letter dated end thank y w .
I b) AccounCina Tot khe i m b i l & t y l o pive the specific i t em
of infomation eeked for
Here the addresser refers to the lette&/enquicy end
points out that they da mt mmuTacture the model eelacted
by the addressee. There are instances af explicit aerkera
indicatinq the sub-act.
For exernple : Y o u -- had i n your Letter expressed your de8ire
to buy ....... ; We wish t o that we do not menufacture.. .. -- --7
( c ) G i v ittq rc l evnt~ t . nvai \ni,le irlformnl inn
Thrr performat i ve verb is used e w p l i c i t l y b r e .
..... For example : We are enclosing a leaflet for the products
manufactured.
(d) Encouraqinq further contact
There are egain e x p l i c i t markers in the t e x t .
3. Winq for clatlflcatim
Text 6
Kindly refer to tho edvertiae~lent around the laask week of December of yous tang0 of ......... products in a leading English d e i l y 't&emirr you hed offered special prices to the buyem.
Uhen we contacked the dealer Pn o m m a m ~ . o a
Him. .......... WI ......... )he pleaded h i s in- drility ka r # 1 ~ , l y Inn d e l ~ ~ , ....... t l ~ d s a . a w r r i n whit-it wr! wnrn /~~tnrnnL~?tt JW INI? Imd rm randy sCwk aQ the asm. 1% cleilnebd L h e t the prices would be revised upwards from .......
We da not remember to heve seen in Lhe advar - tisemnt in expl ici t terms hi; the offer is v a l i d up t o ....... We do not understand why you or the dealer went8 to confuse ua,
We are still mansre oC tha exac t prices of yaur product and whether we w i l l be supplied at 014 rates OF new.
We therefare request you Lo clarify the above and also instruct yaur dealer to sopply us our tequi rement at nt d rates.
(a ) Orewinq attention to en earlier cr~mrmnicetion of the
addressee
T h e addresser rnekes s back-reference 1.0 the addressee ' e
w n announcemen1 . Mareover, \.here are expl ic L t express ions in
the text which bring out the reference.
Eg.: Kindly - ref- to the advertl8-t around last -k o f
December ....... wherein you - had offered apecia1 prices
to the buyers.
(b ) Explaining the mad for clarifiqation
Here the criterion used is the addreseer-addresees
mlat ionship. Ihe rsddeesser in raqmnse to an dvert ieaclssnt
~mmhrtcs s *rrIrrt f t . h ~ddressea) m d thinks that ha
is misled because the informat ion qiven by ths agsnt/dealec
is at vat- iance w i th thd inforllet im qivcm in the advert lesrsnt . The addressee, thatefote, apel ls out the datells 0f the iesue
which the addressee is asked to clarify.
(c ) Request for clarification
T line in the t e x t - "We, therefore, rapueet you
to c lar i fy the above" - has expl ic i t expressions (under lined)
4. Giving clarification
..... We ace in receipt of your Letter No.. dated ........ and thank you for the seare.
In your m v e lc l ler you had reqwsted us for certain clarifications on the prices of eaur ...... We are giving below the prices of al l out .....ern. ..
Model Price
the festival discount a c h w has been .......... ....... discant inued Pram Our dealer in
has quoted you the current prevalent price8 at the-tine of your enquiring with h i m .
. in cam yau require m y furthet clsri. ficatims, please get i n touch with us.
(a ) Acknowlmhincr tht request for clarification; routine
thanks
There are e x p l i c i t markers which determine this
sub-et ,
Eg.: We are i n receipt of your letter No, ., . , dated.. .. . . . and thank you For the seme.
(b ) C i v i t w ) Llrc clrrrificoLior~ requested for
the d e t a i l s which can c l a r i f y the issues raised
by the addressee heve been clearly spsl t aut by the sddrssser
i n two parts : (1) eGplicit etatsmnt Colloued by fectuel/
pertinent informat ion; ( 2 ) answering the query by the addresser.
( c ) Encoureqinq further contact
This is e x p l i c i t l y s tated in t h v t e x t w,..., please
get i n touch with us".
t t has coam to wr notiae that 4 . . e m . a*..
W e t boating S . . -lied to you ......... ........ v ide mr Invoice detsd ...... .... Itan bnan m l d by I)mr to WR, in....
VUJ w i l l madily appreciate that thiu fa a eeriaoa lap- an your pert, keeping in view the fact that the above f i r m ie not euthorised to stock and sell our consurner electronic products, Apart from precipitating aninogity among the dealers already existing in this mrket, we feel that such actlvl t ies w i l l leed to unhealthy cornpet it ion i n the net work.
Such being the case, we request yw to ref rain from trad ing our products to unauthorised sellinq agents i n Future.
Seekinq your co-operation in th i s matter, ws remain
lhe eddressee
There are e x p l i c i t tew tua1 markers here.
Eg*: " I t has come to our notice ......"; "you will readily
appreciate that this is a serious lapso on your pert ."
(b) U e s c r i b i q ---- Che act as a lapse - a l d f m i n t i f ~ Q o u t i to
(1) precipitate enimoei ty , ( i i ) load to udx?althy
c-ptitian
RequesLinq - the addressee Lo terrain Cra 8uch iwwo - I- In future - This is d e exp l i c i t in the text - "We request you
l a refrain f ram ....... *. Giving inst ructions
PRESS NOTE
Sub t Calender or events for the Acade- mic: Year 1987-88 in respect of P.C. Course9 in Arts, Science, Commerce, Educstion atc.
I t is hereby not if i e d far information of the Students, Parente md the General P t b l i c that the Bangalore U n i v e r s i t y Ma decided to s tar t the f i r s t term for courses P.G. in Arte, Science, Conmarce, Education etc., From 1st of August 1987. A l l admissions to the f i r s t year o f the P.G. Course shall be completed on or before 1.8.1987 by the Principals tiead of the Depart- nrents. Lest date for receipt of spplicationa h r t r ~ t rmwc lent w i 1 I h 15.7.1987. Entrance Lxems. w i l l be held between 16.7.87 and 20.7.87. Hawever, the last date far admissian with penal fee of Rs. lo/- (Rtqmen ten mb y ) in fixed upt.0 5.8.1987. T h e last d e b of admissim shall not bs extended mder any circumstances. A l l the eligible cand idtea ere therefore mquirsd to get themsielves enrolled for fimt year before the stipulated date. The classes for the Final P,G.Coursas will c-ce from I.?. 1987. Mo candi- dete ehall get addasion withaut ttm eligibility
cartif icate rllen I t i s required for the purpose of admission. No Prlncipals/Head of the Repact- mnt. *all whi t . . CB crwrdichle without m eligl- t ~ i l j l y ~ar1iTlcsrI.c. nlwrrrzvcrr l l rc eligibility CCCL J f'icrlln i s r ~ ~ c p l i t - 4 Tor utbni~aiorr .
A t 1 Ttarr? i q~ I - 1 rrrr? rsqui md In prnducc !.he el iqihi l i Ly ccrt Sf icnle lasued by the University for the purpose of admissrion. Foreign Net imals w i l l not be admitted without the e l i g i b i l i t y certificete.
Attendance is cmpulwry. Principale/H00 w i l l n o t i f y the deteils of attendance in respect of each candidete from time t o time. Any shortage of attendance over and above L i m i t st ipulated w i l l not be condoned,
Examinations w i l l begin from 15th April 1988. Their arrcrsdneon shal l have to be main- tained. Details nf Lhe CsLendar of Events for the Academic Veer 1987-88 have been not i f ied aeparstely eL t . k Univer3ity Office tnrd st a1 1 C n l lcyari/Dq~art mr!rlLn c:o:tcerned.
T h e students snd pnrentn are requested l a note t h i s erld co-npernte w i t h tile Principle/ HM) and the University, and adhere to the calendar indicated above.
REGISTRAR
(a ) Drawing aLtenLion Lo wlmt the i ~ l s t r u c t i m s are about
and for whom they are addressed
This sub-ect is made e x p l i c i t i n the i e x t - "It. i s hereby
notified .....,... ( i ) that the Banpalore Lhivetaity ha9
rhc.:icJF?rl 1 ) r r t t ~ r t LIE I t.erm, (hi) for inf'ornreLion of
students, parmts and Genera 1 PubLic.
Here the cr i ter ion which kelps w to Qtermlna t b
&-act is the addresaer-ersssee re le t laaehlp. Ihs hi-
vers i ty *ich has issued the notification alab instructs
the students about the conditions needed to be Fulfilled
by then, in order to get themselves admitted to particuler
cOUC988
In this case we have the instance of the indirect act
r l f instruct inq Lhe csndicbtss . for sq. "1 ant. data for roce ipt of oppl icet inns for entrance
I.csI. w i l l he 15.7.H7", "No cmwjriete d~ell get
admission without the eligibility certificate
when it is required for L h e purpose o f admlssi~n,~
Although in i so l e t ian these locutions can be a s i d to perform
the act of giving informaton, in the context of the t e x t they
certainly perform the act of giving instructions. They cen
be paraphrased as fallows:
' Y w i - q h t ~ l d s t h n i t. yn4~r innl, irnau h r i t * entrance Lest *
on or before 15.7.8.7.
A l l canclidstas stmu1 d 8ubm.it their applications for the - 2 - entrance test on or before 15 -7.87.
YOU wst produce tha eligibility cart iCicete *trenevar requimd
for the purpose oP adslission.
of' tha ir~struct i o n m end extend co-operst ion -- -- There ere axplici t markers in the t e x t Pndiceting
this eub-act .
Ep.: ' T h e students en6 parents - are requested to make o note
of thia and eel-operate w i t h the principals.
7. Placinq en Order
Text $0
........ \ l~ t t \k ymn Inr ytnw t p d ;t\ i t ~ n of' reqardinq the ....... w e wrote to you about. Enclosed you w i l l find our off ic ia l order No..... for ..........
We understand thet you w i l l allow a discount of 15% of f the cover price of Rs ......... Please send the qoods by inter-city express as we need them urgent l y .
Oelivery before ........ is a firm condition o f this order and we reserve the right to refuse the goods delivered after that time. 6
Thankim~ - end ecknowledqing - the quotet ion
T h e Tirsl line explicilly elslcg thia - !hank pu
for your quotation af ...... (b) confirrirm asreed terms of payrent, discount stc.
Ttm various terns are e x p l i c i t l y mmtiansd fn ths
~ g . We waderatsrrd C h e t yaw w i l l ellmu rrs a discount of
lSJ1;ofTtha ~ ~ ~ e ~ p r i c e o F Rs........
(4 Gfvinq specific details reqarding made of. delivery
The details ere e x p l i c i t l y spelt out in the t e x t .
( i ) Please send the goods by i n t e r - c i t y express-
mode of t ranspor t
( i i ) Delivery before ....... is a f i r m condition
of this order - dete of delivery
8. Appointment Orders
....... is appointed es ....... in ....... on a selary o f Rs.. ....
Itm shove e p p ~ i r r L l r m r 1 is ~ubject LO the approve1 of /he b c d of TcusLeea and the Director o f m........
tI~/Shtl i f t cpvarrmd by ths rulee, r e p - latimrrr :w~d dccisinrw r,T l tw b s r d or Trustees and tlm Uimclar of.. .....
He/Sb Iltrould report fat d r ~ t y ror tb i th to the ...... along 4 t h the cerrtificetes in original .
( 8 ) Speciryinq Ihe pere~n beinq appalnlad, the pomC l o
which appointment i a ~ nade end the dete of appointment
The &-act i s made expliei t in the tex t .
Eq . : ..... .... is being appointed as ..,.... from ....... (b) Ewplici t. l y stating tho conditions far appo in tmt
The mndit ions are explicitly stated in the text.
q . : ( i ) T k s b v e mpprrintmnt i s subject..lo the approval of
( i i Me/ShE? is qnverned by the rules/regulat ion* . . . . . ( c ) Instructing the appointee when t o report for duty
The use of the verb with the modal 'ehaL1' indicates
t h i s sub-act.
Eg . : He should report for duty forthwith
Two types were identified in this act i
This 1s I.0 bring tn ynur kind attenlion LttnC ne lmve mt. meivcld p y w n t rram your office for our fot lowing invoice :
Invoice M. and date Ikwunt
Clur wale8 repeeemtat ivss heve celled an you aeveca1 times in the aborts m m e c t i ~ ~ . Our auditors have rahwd wriars n b j a t i m e to long pending sutt l w n t of accaunta.
Y o u w i l l kindly agree that suppllsa on crsdlt bash are effected a, the underatending that peyrnenLs w i l l be effected within e short tins. But it is regrettable that the above invoke i e pending fram euch a lonq time. Ue request YOU to kindly look into this i-dietely end arrenge paymnt without further delay,
Thanking you d essur in) yw of wc beet service9 a1 a l l times.
( 8 ) Drawinq attention t o B certain obligqtion unfulfilled
T h e sub-act is made explicit: in the text.
€9.: 'This is to bring t o yaur kind attention ...me,m. 8
(b) Orawinq attention to previous reminders
I t has been e x p l i c i t l y mentionad that 'Our sales
representatives heve celled on you wveral times.'
(c) Explair~inq the terns of agreement to the addressee
and requastinq him to take p r a g t ' a c t i m
T h e carditirnrs are ~ x p t ici t l y sttiled in the lex l .
€9.: 'Srpplies wr credit basis are affected.'
(d) Fomal ly reassurinq the Bddtegsee about. future aarvics
€9.: '..... aswcinq you of aur best serv i ce s at ell times.'
We thank you fat the usluabie patronage extended by you to us in keeping tha deposit with us. T h e above 8ai d deposit matures' on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perhaps you have a l ready sent y w r renewal instructicns to us , but in case you have mt done sa we request you to Let us h v a t h e m eer ly . I f , on the other hend, you want us to deal with the amount in eny other manner b y adjuatnrent to your . . . . . . . . =count, w e s h a l l be qled to receive ynur ear l y instruct ions for prolnpt camp- \ ience .
Sub-acts
( a ) Thankinq for patronage i n the past
fhs pwriormative verb ',.hankg usod explicitly in
the text helps us iden t i fy th i s sub-act.
Eg.: We thank you for the valuable patronage extended
(b) Fqrmally rcmindinq the addressee about the need
to renew h i s pat ronaqe
T h e reminder about the maturity of a diq~aeit is stated
e x p l i c i t l y in the t e x t .
€9.: T h e above said deposit matures an . . . . . . 9
( c ) Pecwadlnq the addressee t o renw his patron=
This cub-st lo perforsd i n d i r e c t l y - "Perhaps you
have already sent - ywr rctwmal itratructiwm l a noM
Tho, addreessr is obliged ta the addressee for keeping
the deposit with hia/thecn md Lherefare can only persuade
the addressee t o renew the deposit without enforcing cornp-
liance. b
( d l Askinq for inslructians about what alternelive arrenqe-
nrents t o be made
There i s the use o f e x p l i c i t merker - ' I r on the other
hand . . . . . . . t
f b addresser who cannot compel the addressee to
renew the deposit has also l o await instructions from the
addressee For other ways of dealing with i t , in came he decides
not t o renew the deposit.
T h e analysis presented above is only to indicate
the interactive aspect of €Ad? discourse, that is, to ehow
b YBC~OUI) mh-act8 amstitute s major rhetorical/illo-
cutionery act, the ways in rhich they cn, be identi f ied a d
the suqwme in which they occur. But the ides hers i s mt
that illocutionary ect c m be mads up of only those sub-
w t m L h t hrrve been presented in I.- melysin. We recapits
/hat. there car1 be var ist ims . Neverlheieea , the convent ima i
:b:ttt~rcr err F.fitIP ~ ~ i - u * c ~ ~ r * r r - tbwn ~ n ~ t nl lirw rmrr i t r r i r ~ i La rtrtuja
of sub-acte nbr imumereble wquencem of their occurrence.
An averall view o f the different sub-acts that consti-
tu te different i l l o c u t i m a r y scts paints to anather feature
in €A# discourse organization. I t can be noticed that there
are qenera lly four stages in CAdP discourse and certain sub-
r ~ * l . s e i111 qrm1pet1 t ~ ~ d c r 9 pz~rl. itWul sir ~ t r l c ~ .
Staqr? 1 Lul-rib1 is l~irty 4 . 1 1 ~ cmmmr pu i r r l i1T rorerer~ce
( i ) drawing attention t o s certain item, ection, previous
comnunicat ion
( ii i ) thank inq the addressee far previaus canrnuricat ian , despatch of order, patroneqe . . . . . . . .
( i v ) rmindinq the addressee &out a certain ectim that.
he has tn t,ake.
are the &-acts lhaL can be qrcwpsd toqelhr in lh is elage.
Staw I t Preparinq the qraund for the main act
T h e eub-eta that can be included in this atage ares
( i ) expressing rp desire ta perform mn action
( l i ) explaining the need roc the action thet io perfrormd.
( i i i ) describing the sddrea~ee'a action es a lefrse end ex-
plaining the cmseqrmncaa
Stage - I11 The nein illocutionary sct i s perrormd in t h i s
slags,
The sub-acts in this stage are t
( i ) encoureqinq further contact
( i i ) ( re )assur ing ebwt best services/pronrpt a t lent ion
( i v ) forme 1 1 y request irq the addressee l a en tend co dparat ion
( v ) sumning up w i th eva luat ion
The following is an example o f stage-wise organi zetian
of EAdP discor~rse . Text 14
T k n k you far your letter nf 3 Feb in which you said you had ceceived a wrmq delivery to your order (130,1695).
I have looked into this and it epOears thet you have ordered f r o m en out-of -date cate togue .
I b v e instructed cwm ar my drivers to dsIivar the pins finiehinq dreasknq tables tomorrow a d pick rrp the carrsignmt at the seam ticms. Rathar than sendinq a credit rrnta, I w i t 1 cmwot irlvniccz &.I4451 irlcludo mother No.TOP67, with the d e l i v e r y .
There is elso a Winter 84-85 catalogue on its way to you in case yorl have mislaid the one 1 originally sent you. Nevertheless, if we find they ere sat isfactory w e w i l l contact you a t once.
T h e m n v a n t ions o f FA@ discaurcle requi re that a piece
of discourse is arqmized in these four stages far a p a r t i -
curer illocut iansry sct to be perfornsd. I t is neceasery
for an addresser to operate w i t h these convent ions because
the occurrence of Lhe sub-acts in lhe respective stages form
the ' m s t i tut ive rules' of EAdP discourse organi tat ion.
I1 I . L i n k s between sub-acts typically found in EAdP
T h e sub-scts that occur i n any piece of discourse t o
mke up a major illocutianery act are related to one another
in cerlain racqnirble ways. I t I s lh is retat ionship between
them rhich kits them together to form e cohesive whole.
Hany writers b v e discuesed the importance of cohseiw,
in language. ~ s ~ u i e h c ~ (Turner, 1973:72), "believed b a t
a l l f l m t snd affective cnrapr~aitimr dapanda on tha eonns-
ctionn, ad an rn i~~lerdepenrdernry of sarr lsnc~e.~ Hallidey
and Hesan (1976~5) -eve that, wcohasiac.r le pert af the
system o f a language ."
Cabsion, in the words of Halliday end Haaan (p.10),
"....... refers to the range of possibilities thet ewirrt
for link inq mmthinq w i t h what has qme before ." Thus, there
cnri k O(IC?R~OCI w i t t ~ i n n ~ # ? I I ~ . C ? ~ I P C , , kCmr?n m n l m c n ~ rrnd
also betweerr sub-uclu or ma j c~r i 1 ~ Q C U L ioriery HC La.
1. Cohesion wikhin a sentence
' I f you happen to met the admiral, don't tell - h i m
h i s shipt@ gone down. - The rohesive relation in this sentence lies in that ' h i m '
and 'his' in the second half of the sentence heve t o be decoded
by reference to ' the admi ra 1 ' in the f i r s t hal f .
2. Cohesion between sentences
'F i rs t , he has no experience of this kind of work.
Next he dmmd no sign of binq willing to learn.' -'
b r e , 'next ' establishes a relatian betuebn the mmterrces
by referrinq to a wccesrion in tho arwmnt.
Crhnlve ntlst. imrr twLnr?cnr ~rh-ml.n w i l l be d i n c t ~ ~ s e d
in detail in this section with part iculer rererencs to €Ad?
discourse,
Notable atudies on the crmcepl of mheaion and ways
in which i t is achieved i n English ere Halliday and Hseen (1976)
snd Quirk e l sl (1985).
Hu 1 1 i chy w ~ d Ilrrgtl~r di rtct~~ifl five k it~cln or cohert ion,
They am : ' reference ' , 'subst i tr~t ion', 'el 1 ipsis' , 'con-
junct ion1 and ' lawical cnhcsion' .
A, 'RcTcrctwa' (y , 3 1 4 7 ) i ~ s cfczl'irtr?r.l rlrr, ". . . . . . l l w rcl tr l iatl
between an element of the text and something else by reference
to which i t ie interpreted in the given in~tance.~' (p.308-M9).
For example, in the nursery rhyme 'Doctor Foster went to Clouceater
in a shower of rain. He stepped in a puddle right upto h i s L
middle and never went there q e i n ' , the items 'he' d 'his'
in the second. sentence are interpreLeble o n l y by reference
Lo 'Dnctor Faster ' in the f i r s t .
oReferanceg in qeneral may be aT trro kincla - * E w ~ a t i c a
rrrl 't h i , Ilm li~rnr~r i r r rcrrararmt-r* r w ~ l s l r k , ltnr C.ow1
trr ttm niCtmtim rwwl t . 1% mfcrrczwc, Ln itema w i t h i n
the text, Endophor ic reference can again be or two t y p e
- catapharic end anaphcic. Cataphoric reference$ ere forward
pointinq references in the t e x t (eq. - 'This i s how he seid
i t ' ; ' - the rules of the c o e p y ' ) *reas anephoric references
are backward paint i q . (eq. nursery rhyme quoted above).
Only endophor ic reference is s a i d to be cohesive.
Cohesive reference may be of three different kinda-
peraorre 1, demmnCrtrCive and camparat iva
1. Personal reference i s by means of the peraonal pronouns,
possessive pronouns and passessive determiners. The th i rd
persor$ronoune are nearly nlways endnphoric but the f l r e t
wlrrcl mct)rw! pc? rsrrrr prof w)a rrisr mriy :I l m hnvn cuqrhor i c referonce . Personals referring to the addresser or the eddressee are
t y p i c a l l y exophoric. This occurs i n letter writing, in f i r s t
person narrative, in advertising, in of f ic ia l dacu~lents
addressed to the public, and in not ices. fa give m example:
' T h e tkdical Director thanks you for your atten- dance at the X-Ray Unit and is happy to inform that your f i l s is satisfacltary. Ycnr dmuid keep this letter and take it with you therevet youhave en k-cay in future . I
(paw)
Ptwearrclle referrinp to persons or objects a thr than the edd-
ressat or addresass are rmdophor ic and maat often enegharic.
Scmtiaea s pronoun, aspscially ' i tg can refer back not to
a single ncoun or noun phraee, but to e longer stretch, Exewls:
'Curtsey h i l a you @ re think ing whet to say . I t save8 the . A 1 ice wondered e 1 it t le at this, Gt she was ta, much in me oc ttw m e n to m e ~ i e v e i t . *
Here the f i rs t *it ' lafers to the whole of t+ f i r e t sentence
and the second ' i t ' to the whole of the f i r a t two sentences,
2. Oefnonstrative reference knvaIves tha' dmmetretives
(this, that, these, those), the definite ar t ic le 'tho' and
the adverbs 'here', 'there1, 'now' and 'then', A l l theae
are a form of verbal pointing and indicate proximity i n text
to the sentence i n which they occur. Ihe demonstratives 'this'
and 'that ' may also be used l ike ' i t ' to refer to e lanq atretch
of language. The item 'this' in the example given et (1 ) ebove
has th is function,
3 Canperat ive reference nay be el the; general, expressing
Lhe Identity, similarity ar difference between things, or
part iculor , expreasirrg a qua lf tat ive or quantitative comperimn
Example r ( 6 ) t t 's the - atme report err the one we saw yest n r h y
0. tSubst i tut in~~' (pp 88-14 1) is dcrined ns a qraanret ical
relatian, where o m l inqr~istic item substikulea foe e langrrrr
one. The substitute item is therefore inter~retable only
by reference to the original longer item. There are three
kindaof subelitution : nominal, verbal end clsosel.
1. Ndmina1 subetitution involves tb m b s t i t u t i m or
8 noun as head of a noun phrase by 'om' or 'onest,
rrc ttm ! r i d r ~ t i tut. inti or a dm10 I ~ I J I I pl~rnso b y '!.I=
8888'. Eq.2
0 ) My ktlif'c is Lao blunt. I must get e sharper - one.
b) Give m s i x currant buns, 1 '11 have -- the senre,
2. Verbal aubst itut ion is by means of Ida', as d i e t inguished
Crom LIw nuxi 1 iory c , r~rld i 1 ar~bst. i lu los Tor the
lexica 1 verb.
Eq.: Did ynr~ see Jim lest week? - Yes 1 - did. *
3 . Clausal substitution is b y mans of 'so', for apositive
clause and 'not ' for a nagat i v e one.
Eg.: Am you qoitrg t o the conference? I f - so, we could
travel totjether.
C. 'Ellipeie' (pp 142-2251 la rrinritnr La wbatitut.lcm,
~rccpt. 1 . in t.tw c:lna nt al l lpnls the ~ ~ m l i t u t icm i s by
nothing. Here an obvioua structural gap occurs, which can
m l y be f i l l e d by 9 praviaua rareranca, As w i t h erubst i tu t ian ,
e l l i p i s may be nominal, verbal or clausel .
1 . t4omim1 ellipsis fnvalves the aniesim ar the head
o f a noun phrase, somet iws together with sow modifiers.
Eq. : Four other oysters follcmed them. And yet another four.
2 . Verbal e l l i p s i s involves the m i s s i o n of the l ex i ca l
verb f ram e verb phrase. For example :
I f anr, were t o hear t-ha snippet o f a mnverssLion-
' I t may or i t may not' ana could know Lhet i t war
elfipt.icsl, since ttwre is rm l ex i ca l verb. This would
be recnvnrahlr! rrom R previnns ultornma swlt as,
' Is it going to rain today?'
3 . Clausal ellipsis, unlike clausal substitution is
not concerned with the ellipsis of -1s clauses
but with ttw ellipsis of large arts of clauses.
Eq.: ' W h o was playing the piano? - i ? e t e ~ was' .
0 . 'Conjunction' (pp 226-273) refers to qmcific devices
for link inq one sentence to another. There ere a mmber of
wtds - cmjmcticms and adverbs - which fuLFII this fmct'im.
lhey clay be divided in10 rour groups t additive, advatsative,
causa I m n d tempera I.
Additive ccltljurctims simply add m e aentance as
if i t were additional Infotnmtion or an efterlhouqht.
Eg.: 'and', ' furthermre', 'besides', ' incidentelly' ,
' for instance', 'by contrast' etc.
Adversative conjunctions draw a contrast batnsen
the sentence they introduce/contained in and the
precedinq mntanca with which Lhey form n coteaive
relat ionship.
€9. : ' ye t ' , 'however', 'nevertheless', 'on the other
hand', 'on the contrary' , ' i n any case', etc.
Cnr~ne 1 ccwi,jrnw:l imrs makc n cause l 1 ink between tm,
NMI LI?IW'OS . Eq. : 'hence9, ' therefore' , 'consequent l y e , 'as e
resul t' , ' thet being so', 'otherwise' , " in this respectg
etc. +
Tempera 1 can jmt ions make a time l ink, usual1 y a
ssquential nature, between orre sentence and anolhcr.
Eg.: ' then', 'after thatP, 'previously', 'thereupocr' , mmanwhite', ' f ina l l y ' , 'from mu me, ' q ~ t o nm' etc.
E . 'lexical cabsirno (274-292) refers t:n the use nF the
earn, similar, or rslated wards in r#rccassius srtcrlmces,
so tbt the latar occurrences of such words rsfer back to
and link up wilh previous occurrences. here ere two brood
types of lex ical cohesion: 'mi tsrat ion' anb 'collocetion' .
1. 'Rei terat ion' may be of four kinde.
(a ) the sam word may be repeated in successive
though not conk iquous sentences . Fq. : There was a large mushroom growing mar hare . . . . .
She stretched herself up an tiptoe, end peeped over ttre edge o f the mushroom. -
(b) e synonym ar near synonym af e ward m y appear
in e following sentence.
Eq.: I turned t o the ascent of tho peak. T h e climb is perfectly easy.
( c ) s word may he? replaced in a ~allowinqsantence
by another which is secnanticslly euperordinete
to i t ,
Eq.8 Henry's bought himelf a new jaquar. He pract ical ly l ives in the - car.
Here 'Jaquar' i s e term that is ineluded in
C h e t-era r , i.e., car i s a wperordinate
term toJagusr .
(d) a mrd may be replaced in e fol lwinq sentence
clam of objects*
Eq-t ' W h a t ah91I I da with a l l this cmckery?'- 'Leave the - stuff thece.
2. 'Collocation* refers to Lhe hebitual canparry which
etc. Cohesion can resul t f r o the occurrence of a
word's collocates.
Quirk e t a1 (1985t1437) state that, "the relation
between parts of a text is achieved by connective features
that f a l l into four categories : (a) praqmatic and semantic
implicat ibn (b) lexical linkage ( c ) prosody and punctuation.
(d) qramnat ica 1 devices,
The focus here is main1 y orr gremnat ice1 devices of cohesion
nhich have been discussed under the follwing main headst
( i ) Plece snd tinre relators C
( i i ) Tense, aspect, and narrat ive structure
( i i i 1 DeLerminers, profar-, atld e l l i p l a
( i v ) Oiscdurae reference
(v) Tbtextual roleofadverbiele
( v i ) Cmrdiml im nnd subordinat Om
( v i i ) tla lmrL plnryMJ by cprrrql. i n ~ s
( v i i i 1 Part icipmt Involvement
( i n ) Infocmt ion ptocesslng
The description of cohesive dcrvicsa in EAdP presented
In thia sect ion draws large1 y on Hallidey and Hasan.
In €Ad? sub-acts i n FI piece o f diecourse are linked
ueiny expl ic i t mnactinr) dcvicea. Wtz d1011, d i ~ c u n ~ L)W(II
rmder lhe heeds namely, Reference, Substilution, Ell ipsis,
Conjunction #rd Lexical Cohesion as in Hellidey end Hasen.
A. Reference :
There are instances o f Lhe use o f Personal reference,
Dernonstrat i v e reference and Cornparat i v e reference.
T h e pronouns i n the f i r s t person and the pronoun in
the 8~cond person are quite often used eraphoricalXy in the
t e x t . This is when the reference is to the addreseer and the
addresses. For example in Text 5 the sub-mct 'accowrtinq
far ths inabi l i ty t o give the specific itern o f information
asked for ' is linked to the earl ier sub-act 'ackmmlsdging
the enquiryQ using personel references l i k e Y a u )rad in your
let ter expressed your denire to buy ....... Wo - wish Lo c l e r i f y
that s d o not n d a c t u t s .....
f t mmt be nentioned hers that when the uss o f the
personal pronouns is exqhoric the link i s implicit and there
is a pragmatic irnplicet im i n the cohesive re1 a t ion.
Instances of the &eaive/anaphoric use of third
person pronouns, possessive pronouns and' dernanstrativee
can be found in the following :
........ ...... ( i ) *When we cnr~tacted the dealer in M/s ........ an - he, pleaded - h i s inabi l i ty to supply two ........ ........ model s, and i n which w e were interested as - he had no ready stock af the same.' ( T e x t 6 )
Here the sub-act 'explaining the need for clar i f icat ion'
i s linked to tb sub-act 'drewing attention Lo the ear list
commieat ion of the addressee ' .
( i i ) ' I t hss came to our notice that ....... rnodsl beering S 1 . b . ........ supplied t o you vide our Iwaice Na ..... deted ......... has beon sold to you by w s . . ...........
I m I....... 1
' Y o u w i l l readi ly appreciate that - t h i s is a serious l-se on your part, ......... Apart from precipitating anilnosity ammq the dealers already existing i n - this market ......' ( T e x t 8)
The darmatrative ' th is* , is a anapkric refereme
*ich helw ta link the --act 'describing ths action as
a Lqae and point iq out i ta carrsequemree* with ths eerl ter
sub-act of. 'drawinq attention to a cartein action an the
port af t.M mh4renmc1 .
( i i i ) In the sari# t e x t , in the l ine, 'we fsel'thet such acti- vities will lead to h e a l t h y mmpetitim-n the network ' the under l i m d i tecn is an ewqle of cornperat i v e reference. It is again srraphor ic and helps to explain the consequences of the 1 epse descr ibed.
Substitution
As for aubst;itut;ion the use of two specific merkers
....... namely 'the same' and 'the above is frequent in f A d P
and seems to be characteristic of this type af discourse.
Far exemple :
( i ) 'We are in receipt of your l e t t e r No.. .... dated ........ and thank you far thesame(1ext 7 ) --
( i i ) ' In your above letter you had requested us fat certain clerifica- ......... (Text 7)
( i i i ) ' T h e - nhnvn n~pointmnl. i?r nrrbjsct 4 . tb npprava1 or the UaardoF IrusLeos.' ( l e n t 11)
( i v ) *Our sales representatives have called on you in the ebave -- ccmpqctian { T e x t 12)
......... (4 ' T h r _.- ~ b n v e - aaid deposit netures on ( T e x t 13)
However, there a no noticeable instances of verbal and
clausa 1 subst itut ion in EAdP probably . because these tend
to occur mom in cairn1 conversation then in a form1 variety
As has been painted cut, apeciCLcity of mCermce
and reetatemmt of the eddcesseegs utterencas is an implicit
convention in €Ad?. Am a result, *ellimisg ,rhich mounts
to omirslon or 'aubst ltut im by zero' ia approprietsly absent
in EAdP var iaty .
0. Conjunctions
O f the different types of conjunctions diecussed
ear l i er , additive conjunctions l i k e 'end' are uaed to link
clauses within a sentence and not so much t o link sub-acts.
Adversative conjunctiam ere used more often as connecting
devices than even cauaa 1 or tempora l, conjunct iona.
Eq.(i) Y o u had in your letter expressed your desire to buy a SANYO Rlndsl FX W1 CD. We wish to c l a r i f y that we dr, nclL n#lmlfacI.trrc 3's mwj are ct~rrent ly making only certain d e l s from the ir two-in-ane range. We, however, ere service agents for their praducts.
(Tent 5 ) (advecsat i v e )
( i i ) We are enclosing a leaflet for the pmducte manufectured by us incol1abretianwith . . . . . . .
Incase you require any mre deteils, plaaw contact E s . ........... a d Co., crho are uthorieed dealers in m . r n a * . * o . r n o m
( Text 5 ) ( sdvureat ive)
( i i i We Q not c-r to M v e men in ths advsrtiearnsnt in explicit terms thmt the offer Im validupto .........
. & do nol understand why you or the dselar wrnta to ~xwlfuZ3e UB . W e am a t i l l uurwere of the @ w e t prima of your prduct - rwrd whether we will be supplied a t old rate@ or new.
(Text 6 ) (temporal)
( i v ) We are st ill, unaware of the exact pticss'of your product and wbt)rer we will be supplied at old ratse or new.
We therefore request you to c l a r i f y . the above and also instruct your dealer to aupp ly ue .our requiraent at o ld rates.
( v ) Apart f ram prec i p i t a t inq animasi t y among the deelers aI.rr?rldy nxint inq in thin market., m fee1 that such mLiv iL iss w i l l lead to urthealtl~y mqatition in the net work.
Such beinq the cast, we requcs~t yau to ref rain frnm -, -- Lradinq our products to wisuthoriftcd aellfnq agents in future.
(Text 8) (csusa1)
( v i ) You will kindly agree that tha supplies on credit baeis are effected on the understanding that paymnta will be effected within a short ti-. - But i t is regre- Ltable that the s b v e invoice i s pending from such alonq ti-.
(Text 12) (advecmativv)
( v i i ) T h e above aaid deposit matures on . . . . . . . . Psrhapa you have already sent; your renewal instructions to tm, but in case y o u heve not dnne m ws request you to 1st us have them early. If, on the other hand, you w a n t us to deal w i t h the a ~ l a u n ~ i ~ a r t ~ ~ h e ~ a n n e r by id justment to your . . . . . . account, we reha11 be glad to receive your e a r l y imtructims for prompt camp1 ience .
(Text 13) ' ( edusrset ive )
Lexical cohesion
Reitsration i n u pcednmintrnl rcseturc in thia variety
because, em atready mentioned, the addresser restates what
the addressee night have said in an ear l ier carrnunication
for purposes af certainty and ecnpheaie .
( i ) 1 mveryrnuchiapressedbytt~eSANYOFX%endnsturel ly wiah to buy it . . . . . . . Please be kind enough to sand me de ta i l s reqarding - the model.
( t e x t 2)
( i i ) We srs in receipt of ymlr let.tar &Led .. . . . and L t ~ n k yau far the in leree t ~ h w n it1 our products.
Yrvll t v ~ d in yt: l e l t e r cxpcesaad your desire to b r ~ y a Swtyo model FAX 50. We wish to ctertry that m! do r~nt mnufacture Sanyo Model -- FX 50 and are current l y meking
(Text 5)
f b descsription in this thesis of how the sob-acts,
diacusacd i t r 1 . 1 ~ prcv ~CIIJR mcl i(n113, are lil19uLal ico 11 y tea-
lited in EAde discourse ls based an Lhe &t ion o f the 'cleuee~
complex* in H a l l i d y (1985).
According to Halliday, ".... 8 asnteke can be inter-
pteted aa a CLAUSE. COMPLEX : a Head clause together w i t h the
o t b r clauaaa that modify i t ." (p.192)
Example r
I t won't be surgrisinq~ if paa~le cmplaln) iF ttrey &n9L puttiah him
Head modifier M
I if he's quil t y l
M
lie adds that, " ....... .. the notion of 8clauee-cornplex1
enables us to account in full for the functional organizetian
of sentences ," and that, ".. . . . . in the enelysia of 8 written
t e x t each sentence can be treated 8s ane clause-complex,
with the 'simplei (one-clause) sentence as the limiting
case." (p.193)
Ha1 li day ex tends the concept of a clause-complex
"along two separate vectors, by introducing two d i s t inct
sets of a1 ternat ives :
( 1 ) the type o f inter-dependency, or ' taxis' , (2 ) the loqico-
~ m l . ic re l nL ion .
( 1 ) He points out that where one element in a clause-
complex modifies another there can be two typee af
mlationshipa between them. Eithec both the elements
in the clause cornpl8x can be of the sane rankletatus,
with one ' initiated' and the ottwr 'cca~timrinq' or
elscasnt being dependent an the mdif i sd . The formr
kind af relatiemhip i s known as Qsretanilr and the
latter Hypotewis. Thua, t b r e can be two types of
clauses in a clauss-rolrplex, nensly priaery and
m m d s r y . T h e primary i n the in i t ia t ing claune in
a peratact ic struclute, md the dominant independent
clause in a hypotactic; dreraas ltm sacondery i s
the continuing clause in a paratactic structure end
the dependent c 1 euse in a hypot ac t ic .
( 2 ) Hal i icky says thet the lagico-senrant ic relations
between e primary m d secandery member of e clause
complex can be qrouped into a small number of general
types, based on U.la two fundamental reletiml~hips
of (1) Ex~ens ion and (2 ) Projection. 1" the came of
expansion, the secondary clame sx&nds the primary
clause, by (a) elaborating it, (b) extending it at
( c ) m a m i n q i t . In the case of projection, the
~condary clauae is projected thrwqh rn the primary
clsrrm, which inntrrlan i t . nn ( r r ) a locution or (b) m
idea,
defines each of these cetega~ies with exemplea
as fol Lawe t
I(.) €laborbtian : One clause e x p & nathet by s l a b -
rating rn it (or 80- paction of i t ) ;
reetat inq it in other wotde, specifying
in greater detai l , coaunenting or
exmplif ying . Eg.: Jahn didn't wait, he rdn awey (pclratactic)
John rrm nwny, which nurpr ised everyone (hypntmcl.ic)
I( b) FwI.mrninrr z lltwr r l :nrw rxprrndn nnr~l.lmr by crxt.r?nd iry
beyond it. : addinq aome m elenrent,
giving en exception to i t , or offering
an a l ternat: ive . Eg.: Jahn ran away, and Fred stayed behind (P)
John ran away, whereaa Fred stayed behind (H)
I(c) Enhancement : One clause expands another by embel-
lishing around it: qualifying i t
w i L h same circmetantial feaLutt
of time, place, cause or condition.
Eg. a Jchn w s s scared, so he ram away (P)
John can away, because he woa scared (HI
2(8) tacut tan r One clause is projcscted thtouqh ernather,
uhich present8 i t as a lacutlon, s
construction of wrdinp.
Eg. : John saidt "I'm runninq away 2' (P)
Jahn aa i d he was running away (HI
2(b) t&e : One clause is pro jacted through another,
*ich presents it es an idea, a canstru-
ct ion of meaning.
Eq.: Jdn thought to himwlf' 1 run sway" (P)
.hhr~ tburjht. h? wnr~\d run away (H)
I t was found that the sub-acts are reelizsd v e r i o u ~ l y
using i t 1 e cl ntJRna :IS wl 1 0s ~ \ n u g ~ - t ~ ~ m p l e x e s in t At#"
diacourse. Some of the examples of single claosee used in
EAdP discourse ere :
( i ) We are giving b e l w the prices of e l l our products.
( i i ) The fest i v e l diecount schm hes been digcantimed
( i i i ) Our-deaLec in ........ has w t e d y w thm correct a.
prevalent prices at thrs time of your enquiring with h im.
( i v ) The ags of retirement in the Univereity is 60 yaere.
( v ) Ha shall handle a t least 28 units of class per week.
hi) Hs -11 have no claim or preferem28 for regular
appoint mt .
L A 8 diecourse ere :
( i ) We are i n rmaipl of y w r letter NO... .. .. dated ... .... end thenk you for the ssrne.
( i i ) We Chertifore request you to clarify the above and
also instruct your dealer to supply us'our requitsrent
at o l d rates.
( i i i ) I n case you require any further clarif icetion, pleese
c p l in touch w i t h rrs.
( i v ) You will readily appreciete that thi8 is e serious
lapse on your part .
I t was noticed that both types of relationships namely
'expension' and @pro jec t imB occur between the primary clause
and secondary cl ause of cl ause -camp lexss in €Ad? discourse.
or 'enhancementB. Since b r e v i t y , conciseness and precision
are scmre of the chief cbracterist ica of EAdP diecourse, a
there is very l i t t l e scope in auch a variety to resteta the
' t b a i s q of the primary clause or exsmplifytclarify it with
an lexa~ple or explanatory comment. Tbrefors, there i s the
m&ed absence of 'eieboretion' w u type a? srpmeim in
€ A 8 dfacourae. A few examples of the usa of 'extension*
( i ) We are in receipt of your letter &ted . . . . . . end
thank you for the aam.
( i i ) He have al l the items in stock and w i l l be advisinp
you in mar future.
( i i i ) We ere in receipt of your letter dated ... ... end
thank you for tb interest shown in wr products.
( i v ) Thank you very much for your order end ws look forward
to hear inq f corn you aga in .
( v ) We have accepted the draft, end the benk Bhould be
sending you an advice short l y .
( i ) Pleaae send the cpods by inter-cily .ewprees es we
need them urgently.
( I i ) I f you mad references, we w i l l be glad to upp ply
them.
( i i i ) Should you require any other c lar i fhat im, please
domt hesitate tocontectus,
( i v ) We w i l l ello* you to csrel your cmtrrt i f it w i l l
hslp ycnr tn met ynur mm camritnentb with ovareems
customers.
(4 But i f we ate prepered l o force out way beck Into Chle
market, 1 would suggest the following:
€Ad? also uses cLause complexes which heve
instances of both extension and anhencement within
them. For example :
( i l This fell in dennand continued until two yeers
ago when we found aur share of tha market had
fal len tr, u i x per cent, end from that lime
has shrunk t o three per cent.
( Li) We are sorry about the inconvenience you heve
experienced and will tell your Alan to repair
the damage es soon as rs have your confirmation
that they can begin work.
There are also instances af 'projection* i n thia \r
var iety of diaourse. T h a projecting verbs which tend to
recur in this variety ate those Like, tclalm*, @requeatP,
' T e e l ' , 'think*, t d a r s t m d p , @appreciate8, 'regret*,
*point out I, * tell , 'went iont , infornt , 'augg~st ' , 'agree* ,
( i ) Hs claimed that the prices would be raviaed upwarde
( ii) We regret that we have to turn down your order,
(ii i) We feel that euch activit ies will lead t o unheelthy
cornpgti tim in the market,
( i v ) We think that sufficient time hes elapaed for us t o
be a1 lowed t b terms we have asked for.
(4 We can tell you that the dispute h a been ae t t led
and we are back to normal production.
( v i ) I think 1 wqht to point out that th i s is the fourth
Cime you have claimed on a shipment.
( v i i i ) I slrrjuld also mntim that further claim6 nay affect
your premium when the pol i c y is renewed.
(iw) I agree that the clairns have bean small.
( x ) We w u l d like to inform you that a nu*sr of pieces
of crockery nere damaged in shipcrrsnt ,
I t can be aclen that, in EAdP, dngle cleue~s are used
for atetirig factwl AnfocmaLirn end epecifying inekructims
rdwtrne~ 'uta~m-tnmpIexml nra rmd while perfarrinq m t e
1 i ke uukriw ledqitrq md L l ~ ~ t t k iq, ewplalning, persuading,
clarifying and so on. in other words, single cleusss are
generally i m d u b n Lhs h e t i o n is 'ideetiorrel', whsraae
clause-complexes are used Tor both the 'idea1lmale and
' interpersona 1 ' purposes.
The analysis of the samples also reveals tha t a clause-
complex is frequently expanded using 'extension' e t steqes
I and I V of the discourse that is, while eatablihirrq a conmoo r.
point of reference or while cl~~inq/conc~uding the piece
of writing. (3.2.2 11) This also points to the f a c t that
the rout ine and cmventiana 1 acts of 'thatking', 'acknow-
ledging ' , 'encouraging further contact ' , 'courteous leave- takinge which ere interpersonel in nature are realized using
'extension' in a clause-complex. In the other stages o f the
discourse, where the function of language ie more ideational
' enhancement ' 'is used.
Instances of the use of 'projection' i n EAdP discwres 4
can ha seen whern the writer nxplmins hls p n l t i o n ar rotates
a point of view firmly and clearly. Also, the projecting
verbs in such instances of lampage use function em the e x p l i c i t
performtives which enable ane to identify the rhetorical/
illocutionary act petf'ocaed either by the dillurourw e9 a
tholearat the level af'thesub-act.
*11iday says thet there ace awpliclt mcrrkars of
Table 7(4) Principal markers of extending c l w a a --- - - -I -I -LdaLI- - - - - - - - - - " - - -C Iw Io . I I -----~------~m-m--.-m
Paretactic Hyeotact ic - 1 - - 1 1 L 1 - 1 - - - - 1 - ~ - ~ ~ - ~ I L 1 - I O . . m----------------
F ini trs Non-fini te
( i ) addition 'and', pnsiLiv@ bolt^... )
end o n l y while, but elso where88
besi dm, apart from, ea wtl 8s
'nor ' , regat i v e (rleilhc~lr) mr
'but', edversa- (snd) yet, t i v e but While
whereas without o ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - - - - - o ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ - ~ " I I I I r r ~ * ~ . . ~ - I . . o ~ I . ~ o - a . - ~ ~ . . - ~ m ~ * ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a
( i i ) variation but not ,not.. . but. - instead o f , insteed; rep la- rather than
cive
'except', sub- only, but, except except for, t rec . except that rather than
t i v e
( i i i ) 'alter- net ion' *o r t , ctt I.r?rrrnlivo (rril.!mr.. . . ) or (elm) i F ,.. . ran1
Cthen)
( i ) temporal
mars the (and) meanwhile, (when)
different time later (and) then, and + afternarb
different time earlier and/but + before that/ i irst
( t i ) Spatial
Sam place
k r m e md + in thet wey,(and) thus
cornpar ism pos i t ive and + similarly, (and) so, thus
(Ov) r n r r n r r l - w ~ ~ d i ~ i m ~ ~ t l t:rrr~r;c ttrfoc L (nnd)so, HI^ + thererare
effect cause for : (beceuse)
conditian:poei tive ( a d ) then; md + in that case
condit iontmgative or else, (or) otherwise
concessionconsequence but, (and) yet, still, but + nevert bless
consequence cwlcsssicm ( though) - C I I I - - - - - - ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - - * . , ~ . . ~ * * * ~ ~ I . . o o ~ I ~ . . " . . - - ~ ~ . . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -
F ini te Non-rini te --*- ~~~*~I - - -o-~-amI) - - - - . .m- . .L - - - - - I . . . I , - I - . -~ - .m-~-"~
eonjurtim mjmctia, p e m i t ion C I I ~ - - - - M I I U . L ~ I w - - ~ - r - m - I----rr-rrrrrr-r- rrrrrlrrrrr-rr- I ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
same time; extant es ,whi le
serw tiam; then, as soon eer , point the rnornent
in I the course/ process of)
same t ime ; thenever ,every spread time different time: later after ,since since after
different time : before ,unt i l/ until before eer 1 ier t i l l
*"-----I)-------..-"-I-IIIIIIIII----"I--.II*..--..~-.--.-.L~*rL.c-.LI-.LI**.---I--
saw place; ex tent as far as
same place; paint *re
same plece: wherever, every-
by (mans of)
m p e r ison as,asif , l i k e , like the way
----~~l~--lI.--~l-L---~~-l-----I~-IIII.~.LLIoII~ll"".III---C-ann~--I---LLI
CmJRe t W!FISOtI BUBO, flB, B ~ ~ K ? O , in case, aeeirrg that, conaidering
cause : purpose in order that, ao that
wi th, through ,by, st, as a resul t of, bclcause of, in ease of ( in orderleo as) to, for (the seke of), with the aim of, TOP fear o f
dit icm t if, provided tbt, it In th event of p6eiti~ W 1- 88
mlaw but for , w i ttmrt
d l t i m r wen if,eithaugh man If, *wits, Ln rorrcsss ive elthouqh wits of,withmrt
I n the ssmpkce anelyzed it w a e noticbd hat en extending
clause in EAdP is generally ewqerrded ming bnd@. Anather
marker which wae identified but nhich c m be said to be in-
Frequent is 'apart from'.
Cy.: ( i ) We crre it1 recaipl of ywr Lelter - end llwrrk you
for the same.
( i i ) Apart - Crnn precipitating animosity emong the
dealers alresdy exiatirq in this markel, wm
feel that .....,. 1 principal markera of an enhancing cleuse in EAdP
were f w d to be ' i f ' , 'as', ' in case*, 'dmn', 'ee e m es8.. . . . V. I b orcmizatim of the memem~ in m c l y ~ r #n €.kp
1
Hatlidey (1985:38) observes t t ' . . . . . in e l l
lwages the cl- has the character of a ~ 8 a g 8 ; it hee some
form of organinttion qivlnq i t t h stetua o f e rxnnuricetive
trvarrl ." 4ki rarrt.inr ( w ~ l @ r l * r rnrl 1 tart t Imm ncrr r l i f h r m d wnyn
in *id thia may be d i c r v e d . ~e dmmrvis tbt, "in tqlish,
a9 in reny other lanquaqes , the cl wae i s organized ee e mesags
by having e special stetus assigned to one pact OF it , the
element in the clause is enunciated a8 the flume; this than
combines with tb remainder aa that tha tm, parte together
constitute a message." (p.38) The latter part of the cleuse
is called the Rhwns. In other words, the! rr#86sge~ in e claurrs
c of' r, 1lum- mmhimwi wit.tr rt R-. tbmvr?r , ttw
Theme is the more important part of the clause as i t is this
pnrt which eiqns 1s wticlt the c l mrna is cpinq ta ho ebaut .
T h e Theme OF a clause can consist of aP ther are nominal
group, an edverbial group, prepositional phrew, or a group
complex, phraae eomplex or ' themst ic equat iv8 ' . Examples
of these cetegor ies are t
(nom,cp) the duke hprs given my awrt that teapat
(adv,qp) very carefully sha put h i m back m his feet -in
(prep. w i t h sobs and he sorted out t b a e of the phre-) tears largsmt uire.
(9rp. theWa1msard werewalkiryclaaeelhmd -lex the Carpenter ,
(phrase cam- Tom, T a m , t h a stole a pig actd awey did run plex ) piper's ~ m r
Whst w a a thmt teapot Qgve to my
thl \ i dny d m e r v m t h t t,ln?tc? m be tun k LW M lHRnwarr
in a cbcLeretive clause. ?hay ace *Unmarked' end 'Harked*.
In the mrrd~r of Hallidey, Wrr ahall mfer to tha mappinq Theme
onto Subject as the WWtKEO T H M L ~Tadsclatat ivec lauw. . . .
A Thene that is something other then the Subjet, in a dscla-
ret ive clause, we shal l refer to a, ei MEO THWE~. (p.49)
The exanoples of unmarked and marked theme given b y
Halliday are r (p.46)
Unmarked Them WRKED THEHE
1) 1 twd a IilLle nut-tree 1) Merrily, we r o l l elom)
2) A w i r ~ e o l d o w l l i v e d i n 2) On Saturday night f Lost m OR^ my wife
is fallen 3) ;fti,"Lyddinq the King
4) Whet I want is s proper c q o f coffee
In €A@ discourse the Theme of the clauees are most
often *Urnnsrked* as the Subject is chosen aa the Theme. The
category of items gemre l l y chosen es the Subject are t . #
(1) minal group w i t h pronoun am He;d, (2). m i n d group
withcommnowr es b a d . €9.: - ~ ~ I ~ - o - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I - * . , ~ ~ ~ ~ . L ~ L . I ~ - I . . ~ I I w o ~ * I ~ ~ - ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ - - - -
( i ) we . ' ' . . are in .recei&.of your lettst
(ii) the f e e t i v e l . .
discomt scheme hs8 been .diacmt inusd
( i v ) Wa hsve completed a t c mmF((et mmecch cm I.antim) cmmtmr mr#r t. Im
- - ~ ~ - o e ~ C - m I - - - v - - I - - - - n I , . L . L 1 1 L - - - - - - C - - C m ~ - - * - ~ m " - . L ~ ~ - - " ~ ~ - ~
Helliday also discussea the not ion of Mu1 t iple lhsrne Ln
a clauee complex *re the part of the clause functioning
es Theme has e further internel structure of its own, This
internal structure of a mu\ t i p l e Theme ia based on the idea-
tional, interpersona1 and taxturrl fmct inne of lanquags
use.
Hallidey maintains that, "there is always en ideationel
element in the Them. There may be, but ere not necessarily,
interpersonal and/or textual elenrents as well." (0.53)
He also points out that the typical sequence of thaw
elements is textual, interpersonal and ideatianal end that
whetever follows the f i r s t ideational ejement o f the cluss
hc?ms n pnrL nf (.he fthrwm,.
The ideetimal ela#l#nk within the lhae fe referred
to as the TOPICAL. THFHE end k b r e i s r# fucthsr tharadic
st ruc tu t~ wikhln lb t.r lp i r?ml timum. Hmevef, lhsre i s khe,
possibility of further structure ulthfn t textual and
interpacsrursl compmentm af the Theme,
The tux tual element within the Thane may have m y conbi-
nat im of cant iwat i v e , struc turaf and cnn junct i v e themem
in Lhal order (1 ) cont lnualives ate items l i k e ' y e s ' , @mi,
'well ' , 'ah', ' n o w ' , (2) sttuctural t b s car, bw either
c o n j m t i m ~ or relat ives .
(8) m j u n c t i m s l i k e 'end', ' o r ' , 'nor' , ' e i t h e r ' , 'neither*, but, y e t , when, rrhi le, before, after because, if, although, in case, in spite of the fact that, in the event that
(b) r e l a t i v e s l i k e which, who, thet, when, where, whetever, whichever, whoever, whenever, wherever, honevet
( 3 ) conjunctive themes can be conjunct ive Adjuncts l i k e
that is, in other rmrda, for instance, in any case, anyway, actually, in fact, as a matter o f fact, also, moreover, besides, on the other hand, however, mvsrtheless.
The interpersonal element within the Thsm amy have
(a) A modal thane Like probably, possibly, perheper, frankly, hometly, &rmtnd.bly, *ibthwt any doubt, broadly epeaking, in general term, by chance
(b) Cha finite verb la the V, in a yes/m intermqat ivo
cleuee
finite topical Rhme
(c) the vacat ive element - terms of address
An analysis of a clauseamplax havinq a multiple Them
would then be a3 r o l l w e t
we1 1 but then Am surely would'nt the best be t o idea oin the t ...--* "--I-----.--------"----"----------------- --.---o-----w--------J-------w
cwlt i - 8t . r~- ccln jurl- vtlcri- mrldnl h i l a lapicel mral iva ct.r~rn 1 ct ive I. i vt? .- 0--------~-9-----~---c----------------o-o---*n---*-o-oa----*m*--o
Tex tun l f nterparsona 1 f dent im I
There am instences of multiple Theme in clauses
in €A#, But the internal structure within t b Tharne fre-
quent l y hss textual and ideational cornparrsnt8, but not
general1 y any interpersonal component, The textual element
comprises only the structural or conjunctive themes. fhie
occurs in sonlerrces begifmitry with a tcaheaive' element.
I t ie elm noticed tbt these cohesive device6 @cur mra
often than nat in the i n l t i e l poritim in EAdP. €9.1
In CS- Wr rcrpri ce my further clariflcal.imr, - l - - *o - - -w* - - - - - -L I - I . r IC1 -*LI"C C I I I I I I I I I I I I I I D I I C I I I I
strucLura I toe ico l ~ ~ - ~ - ~ w I - I I I I - ---I-
However, the last date for admission is fixed up to .. . with a panel fee of k.10
- -CI - - - - - - -~V-- I - - - --------u--a---*----
tex tua 1 ideat iana l - - - C I - I - I I " ~ ~ C I ~ I I I L " - - L C I r - I " - - . c ' I ) I - ~ . , - . c I C -
rtfm
Such b i n % the case W& ~qUQ8ty0u b . * . . m o m ---*e--o- - - -"---"--- . - - - - -""-3.IoC.c--I~C -00- - C 1 I I I I I I I I u I
conjunct ive Loe ica l *-no-.* --e--.---*-n-.--U. -------
V I . Discourse atretegiea typically faund an EAdP
Quirk et el (1985t' l435) observe thet, "ReIstiona1
st.ructures can be realized by e nuder of dia4coursm desiqns
or strategies that have Men w e l l described within the the-
tocica1 tradition since am?ient tima. S a e af the nast
artatandimj may be seen in brme of the following rnstaphorsr
( l ) d.r?p, ( t i ) dubirr, ( i t # ) aback, ( f v ) bn4rwu-n."
T h e strategy of 'stape i s aften fwd in inrrtcucticmal
material and is also employed in description, narrative
or arqument. Quirk et el use the follawlng exmple to i l lu -
strate thie form of discourse orgaarizat ion:
"The 100-metre race was run i m d i a t e l y after I W I C I ~ . his was followad by the w-nrstre mlrry . After a brief interlude with en acrobetic d i ~ p Isy , qmctetors sp,read around the track to watch the f i rat cycling event ."
I h s ' I i liirni 1ar t o the 'strrpi pcocedure in
moving from point t o point . But in e stepped text the course
i s "unidirectionaIw whereas in chain "the direction may
curve, the course double beck, and the ultimete paint be
unpredictable ." The chain strategy is sa id to be used -re
often i n ref lactive or exploratory discourse. .The eranple : given is :
")lamlet poignant i y represents the indeciaione that plague us a Not that indecision is the worst of nut i l l s . In some ways decisivsness can be nroce dRnrmjing. M m y peapie lmve decided on l h i r caurses of action too repidry, with disaet roue resu1 ts . U E t d 10 i 8 a cvp~~)umntat i v e of this tendmy, though here uv have other fectom to c~naidbr such as jeelausy errd the wt l influence of e supposed Criend. Friendship In itsslf', of course . d . . . . . .. 11
I C t.hR 'slw' prrmttktrc i~ merknd by m j r m C R
l ike 8Lhrm', 'next ' , 'ad than', LhmM in chain are expreftsiona
Like ~ u t ot c ~ l r a e ' , 'BY ttm way* etc.
T h e steck procedure is one in which ths otg~nizat ion
of discourse is well planned and, therefore has unity. But
the prtlqreaaim is rnt mcessar i l y litwet as in the case
of step. In the words of Quirk et 81, " .... .. ue heve e o ~ t h i n q
more like a vert ica l structure, with a sound foundation (often
cal led the ' topic' sentence 1, an accumulation of leyers' ,
the fwndat ions. For example t
"There i s something very unsatisfactory about the max im 'Honesty is the best policy8. I t seems to equate virtue with profi t , y'et out* common experience denies this. We could e l l cite instances of where an hanest and virtuous act ion has brouqht diseppointmnt and even ruin. We could equelly point t o people who have beheved with qross dishonesty and have become successful, powerful, malkhy. In m y caee it is surely rather immoral to incite people to honourable blehavfour by 8eeming to praise reward. Honesty, if it requires a motive, must be valued far reason8 other than *policy' ." (p.1436)
Because o f the neat ntqenitatim involved in stack
procedure, i t dcrea not mcur in informal carverisatim or
writing.
The 'balance' strategy resembles tk 'stack' in
effort orr the perk of the edbrsstmr to ueiQh both slds8 of
the point, alacmt as i f he wsa enticipeting objections errd
cros~curtanle in the mind of the eddressed. t b markers qene- * r a l l y f w d i n belancing are expmsrriona l i k e 'on tho one
hand ... ... .. but an the other hend'. The rollowing piece
has been c i t e d as an itlustretion of the balance technique
used with 8 dominant stack procedure.
"For a spring break, Cumbria te herd to beat, fhere is or course e strong risk of bad mather durinq the early mmths of the year. Un l tw crklwrr lrmnd, ttw arrr l y tourist is rewarded by m p t y roads and ttw! reeling that he has the rtamt.rysirh t.0 hirn~lr. Not a l l the hate18 are n , i t is true, rrnd yau rnny he obl igcd to drive on to the n e x t v i l l q e . But this is wel l affeet by the welcome that awaits you in a quest house *re you rnsy turn out t o be the only resident. E a r l y visitors to Curnbria rarely regret their in i t ia t he." (p.1436-1437 )
'Ihb 'stack' procedure i e the dominant discwrss
strateqy used in EAdP. This is nhvicwsly because this var iety
of language is hiphl y rormel and the discourse we1 l-planrrad.
T b 'chain* d vbai aca ' procedJres - roul d ' take away the
cherac tar is1 ics of clar i l y , yreciaPon cpnd conciamess very
essent ial to € A 8 dlscrourno . An exmple of the stack procedure
uasd in this variety is :
T h s boxes in hich the sweaters were packed were d e m d and looked as if they hed ben broksn open in trensit. From yaur invoice No*....D. we est imete that t h i r t y gernanta have been etolsn to the value of Rs. 1, S0,000. And beceuee of tho rurnnaging in the box-, quite a few other garnsnta were c ~ s h a d or stained and cannot be aold ee n e w art icles Ln our a).raps.
As the sa le w s s an a c.i.f. basis end the far- warding cotnpeny your sgents, we sugqael yau contact t h e m with regard to cornpenmat ion.
Y w w i l l Find a list of the demeged a d missing art ic les etteched, d the consignment will be put to one s i d e until we receive y w r instructrlms.
I t can be noticed that t h i s piece of writing is a unif ied
whale. It. i s a cnmplnir~l. M t r l t lm shipmnt of demmqmd swatare
diicti is clear l y 51-rrtcd irr l l l c t~ayinninq. T h e detcllle per-
taining t o the damaqe are explained in the &sequent pere-
graph, the suqqest ions Tor ~ l ~ t ion ere spell out in the n e x t
and the t e x t ends wi th sn eppropr iate conclueion. a
Beaidea 'staclc' t b other procedure found in €A# . '
i s the * step * procedure. 1t1Ss i s wed rhen ths pime af die-
course pewfarrn the act of ' g i v i n g imtructiorrs', particulerly
3. lmrt ruct ATA/CIU\ Lo take 'nut enswatsherats, count them carefu1ty and make bunches aa per ina twct ims .
Emure that a l l autsidmrs leave the premisas before the teat -sassion begins.
Direct the candidates to their respective bloc kn . Keep the blockwise bundle8 of booklets ready.
Have around and see that the prescribed a c t i v i t i e s are carried out.
II. t I t i t 1 l r t ~ C Llrcrt? i s a ccrrrelaliorr b c l ~ c n
Iha discourse st rrjtsqy rwod end t.he i t locutionary act perfornwd.
The step procedure is used Jien the major illocutianary act
is that of giving instructima, especial1 y when the instru-
ctions are enumerated. T h e stack procedure is uaed in the
case of the other illocut ianary acts, where diecourse orga-
nization is unif ied but mt necessarily lineer .
V I I , linquistic a d etyliatic features typically f w d in
Cryeta1 and Oavy (1969). furnsr (1973) . Enkvfat (1964,
1973) end f oular (1986) d i s c u ~ ~ s verious 1 lnq~isk ic features
with ace & y l i s t ice11 y signiflaent, But tb akylist ic
.tiqnif icmm of I f twyt is l ic ceteqoriem dqmda rrpon the varlaty
af lmguaqe and the situation in which it i a r mad.
W i t h met to CAdP, the foitowing linguistic features
w r e found to be s t y list icall y siqnif icant .
A Persme 1 promme
0 Noon phresam
C Verb phrese~ with psrt icular reTerence to the wsr?
o f moda 1s , voice, tense and aspect.
0 Adverbia I s
E St.ructure rrf rlstjseri rind the type nf processen they
M ? I ~ C R C ~ L
A. Personal pronour~s
Leech and S v s r t v i k ( 1 9 7 5 ~ 5 7 ) point out that the fitst
end second person pronoun8 heve reference to the eituation
as fol lows :
We (m, our, cCr:.) qrmrp of pecsple inrlr#dinq the apaaker '
You lyaur, etc. ' tbIresrer ' (rringular)
'a group of -pis, Including
Lha hearer bat excluding
A djstinction le lrrnde bctwban 81nclusive &', where
'We' includea the eddressee and ganclusive - Wem, r e it
excludes the addressee. Inclusive *we8 (us) Is often wed
by writete o f baolcs :
Eg. : - We not iced ear lier on page 200, that
I et - us mw turn t o another tctpic . . . .
Puirk eL a1 (1985 ) refar l o th i s use of 'Weo as the 'Aul.horieI
WeD. The inqlusive *Wet is a l s o used in formal writing,
*re the writer de l ibera te ly avoids the use of ' I ' , which
may be fe l t to be somewhat egotistical. For example, the
writer of a piece of scholarly writing may prefer 'As - we showed
in Chapter 2 ' , to 'As - I showed in Chapter 2. *
In € A M , the f i r s t persan (p lura l ) namely, 'Weo/'Our'/
'Us' is uaed predominantly. &at 'We' here does not include
the addressed. The addresser uses the plural beceuse (8) he
represents an inst it.ut ion, end (b) the casmmicat im ia
formal and pub1 ic. However, the fi ret person:*I ie sbnret ims
mad vlhctcl lhe ~~drlrcrtmr writes in his individual enpncity,
although he m i q h t he w r i t i n q on behalf of tb organization.
this i a found when ttwz nrMrnsser is a sole-trader or when
he can take declsians or accept c e ~ a i b i l % t y independently.
€9.: ( 1 ) - We wrote to you m 10 August end enclosed
mpy invoices..... Qfsass sand - us e reply.
( l i ) - Inmcwrrrytn1.ellyau'thrtt - I w i l l r m t b t ? ~ b l e
to met my b i l l . . . due on .,.,.,, >
The sacond person ' Y o u ' ia a lso used in the plural
senee as EAdP is here used for public comunicetian,
0. Noun phrases
A r m phrslra is a phrase which can function es subject,
object or complement of a clause ar 8s prepouitionsl comple-
ment . I t is called e noun phrase because the word which is
its HEAO(i.e., main per t ) is a noun.
In the sentence
John found the new secretery in.his office a vary attractive women - NP1 NP2 * '"5
*jmL cc~mp lrmnl. . Alrtcr, ' t r i 9 of T ice ' dii dl in n pnrt t ~ f l,tw
abject is a prepoai t tma l complement end constitutes yet
anather noun phrase.
In a narn phrase, the b e d iwn oen be accoqnanfsd
by o t b r it-ma namly, *lerminsra (the, his, 8, st=.)
or modifier(.). M i f i e r e which precede the heed ere celled
pre-modifibts (69. nem, , very aLtractive) and those which
follow thrr b a d are called p o s t - d i f i e r s (ego in his office),
T h e structure of the English Nowr phreee can be repre-
sented as t
Noun Phrase I
t I Determiner( s) PremodiTer(e) Heed Pant cnadifier(e)
The noun phrases which repeetedly occur in EAdP are of
the pattern Determiner + Prmodifier + Head + Poatmbdifier
there the determiner is noat often an artic le (def ini te) ,
the prernodifier a w n and the postmodifier a prepositionel
phrase.
€9 ( i ) the admiss ion t ickets of candidates
( i i the prices of a l l our models
( iii ) the camnencemnt of the test
( i v , Ule diecrelinl of t h e m m a g e m m t
(v) the rules or the company
( v i ) . atokenofyauracceptence
{viP) ths cmtfnuolnce of servic=a w i t h the company
( v i f i ) A l l thrs blank. b o x - in the respome abet ,
Ihe definite artlcke 'tb* i s wrad in the positian of' the
dste~cnlner raost often because the idemt i t y Ls establiahrrd
by the p s l d i f ' i c e t i m Llmt rollwe the r ~ w r (tsed). llere
it is the forward-point ing or cataphoric use of 'the' ,
The modificat. lan of the Heed in a Nowr phrere is generally
' restrictive ' in EAdP, probably becaulre spacificity and I)
precis ian are esaent ial in a1 1 comunicstion used for admf ni - s t r a t i v e purposes. The d i f i c e t i m given to tha heed aT
s mun Wrsss does not provide eddikional informt.lm but
is essential far identifying the head. This cen tw o noticed
in a l l the examples of Noun phrases (€AdP) given above.
the other noticeable features which characterize
noun phrases in EAdP are : L
(8) the use of abstract nouns a s thg head of B noun phrase
Eg.: ( i ) the comrencelnent of the 'feet
(b) the absence of adjective cts premodif iere
(c) the predominant use of nominal prsmodifisra
EQ.: ( i ) the admi~sian tickets of csndidrrtss
Since nomine 1 ptemodifieers have a classifying function,
their frequent use alm contribute8 to the mpecificity of
reference that is charsc ter ist ic of EAdP.
(d) the frequent use af prepositionel phrases for past-
nrodificet ion
fq.: ( i ) the: admission t i c k e t s - of candidates
( i i i ) the camnencernent o f the lest --- ( i v ) thediscretionof -- ttw,raanaqem nt I )
( v ) the rules of the company -- a token oF y w t acceptance
( v i i ) the continuance - of service -- with thecompany
( v i i i ) a l l the blank boxes i n the rsswnse sheet --
f t can be seen thst these features ate chsracteti@tic
of formal written la(lguage and often go with an impereonel
s t y l e .
C. Verb phrases
Verb phrases eorrsiat eittmr of o 'main verb' or o f
one or mre *auxiliery verbs* togethar wkth a 'meln verb*.
Eq.: !hay ut i l e aeuerel 1eLtaro in their orrice everyday w
They have been w r i t f let tare e l l morning ART=+
Auxiliary verbs helps thn mein verb to make up the
verb ghraes. There ate two typss o f wwilieeiest primary
auxi l iary verbs and mdel auxiliary wrb. T h a primary auxi -
liary verbs ere 'do', 'havet and 'bet. Modal auxiliaries
are those like 'cant, 'neyt, 'shalt'. w i 1 1 c o 1 d , 'night',
'hid', 'would', 'nntst ' , 'ought to ' , *need4, '&re',
Modal auxiliaries help to express a variety o f moods,
emotions d a t t it.udes. h n q the different uses af the mbdsl~,
those that are relevant to interpersonal aspects of language
use have been considered here as they are more relevant in
a description of EAdP.
1. M a l a cen be used to exprees (a) an obligation or
(b) a request .
Leech md SvarLvik (1973 rl43-145) umntion 'must',
'tmve to', 'dmII0, I . d 'ebuld' 1138 Chnae modale
rrhich are p n e r e l l y used to express obligation especially
in the formal use of language.
(8) ' h a t ' and have (gat) to + infinitive both express
abliqat im, bm~t thare could be e diffecmce between
them. 'Must8 involves the speaker's eutharity, eq.:
You must be back by 2 O'clock, while 'hmve (got) to'
involves a u t h r i l y other than ttwt of tho speaker,
eg.: 'Yrxrhave tosiqnynurnallp,here*.
(b) 'Ought to ' end 'should' express an obligation which
may not be f u l f i l l e d .
Eq.: 1 ouqhL - t.a p l ~ m ~ ? my parents taniqht (but I prabably
won't have l i m e ) . - A l l students should submit the ir work b y e given date
(...... but some of them don't!)
( c ) 'Shall ' in Lhe sense of 'obligation' or 'insistence'
is normally limited to of f i c ia l regulations and other
formal documents :
Eq.: rtlr? mt- ica4.y ' 3 tmmirrat ing carnnitl.ne ahs l l cmminatt?
me person far the arfica af President.
(dl T h e auxilier ies n i l l/nould, can/cwl@ rhieh are used
to indicate 'wilLinqness' end 'ability' Elre also
often used to make pol i t e requesta.
€9.: - W i l l y w pass the salt? Can yoo poss iblygive am a lift? _.
~crmrsrtly lhn pnrjt. Lmwm t'orm of lnadals indicate greater
pal f teness . Eg. 2 - Would you p lease pas8 t b se l t?
Could y w lend m y w c pen? - I t was noticed that in EAdP d e l e were u8ed restr i -
c t ive ly . Only certain modals l ib '&eL1*, 'should', *willt
and 'nwld' occurred more than the others end -re used &tile
performing certain i l locut i m a r y acts like 'gi.ving instructions'
or rhen the addresser wished t o enforce en obligation an
Eg. : ( i ) A t no stage - should the anawemheete be folded,
mutilated, torn or spo i l ed
( ii ) Invigi 1 ators should give their obsarvat ims
about any candidate on a geparete sheet.
( i i i )No cend idate she11 get edmiss im without the
al iq ihi l i l y rerl ificata.
( i v ) PrincipnIs - w i l l r m l i f y deteila or attendance
in respect of each candidete from ti- to time.
T h e past tenae farms 'would' and 'could' at8 used
to sake paLi te requests.
tq.: (i) We wwld - mrociaLe your prompt nctim.
( i i ) We would - like to make a dsciaicm on th is
wan, so we would eppreciats an early reply.
( i i i) Could you please send us c k t a i b o f ywr m e s s Lyres which are being advertimd
( i v ) - Could you tell u, if t h caeeettea ace leading brand narrres?
( v ) Could you send us your la tes t cetelogw and price- l i s t , quot Lng your met co-t i t i ve prices?
( v i ) the provisione 1 order Na.. . . . . which you enclosed will- be sufficient, but - wwld you -return any pert of the c m s i q n m t you have not s o l d within
2. 'Tense' and 'aspect' are s a i d to relate the happening
described by the verb t o time in the paet , present, or future . English hes two simple tenses: the present tense end the
past tense md two merked sspects t the progressive aspect
end the perfect i ve aspect .
(a) As hes bean pointedout the illocutionary act performd
by a l e x t . i t 1 CAdP c m very often be identified by
rm oF ttw pertortnative verb. P e r f o r ~ t i v e m
ace chnrnctarirt?d by lhe use of ttw simple present
tense in the active voice and a subject in the f i r s t
petson singular.
(b) The preaent perfect tense is wed mainly in reports
and to indicate e state leadlng \~p t o the present
ticrre.
Eg. r ( i ) Arees of accounting end adslnlstratlm - have been mademi zed -
( i i ) lhe v i t a l area of storing end retrievinq infar- mat ion hes been over looked. -- md to lrldicntc past event w i t h results in
the present time . fg.: ( 1 ) Over the past. Few years the f i r m - has expanded.
( i i ) I t -- hascome taour rmtfce that ....... ( c ) The simple past tense is uaed to record/report abwt
events that happened i n the pest, This is the chsra-
cteristic tame used in EAdP hila performing the
act aT srlaunar ir irq.
....... ( i i ) T h e tion.Secretary Shri proposed the aplprwa I of the proceedirqe .
(iii T h e Hon.Sectetery preeerrtsd the nsw list of &ere.
( i v9 The Hon, Treasurer premqted the eccounts.
(dl Tha pest perfect Is usad to indicate dbbecshift
iwd.0 t 14, i*~rt: nrml n hut lh lo l l nl l l l Inn t-atr r ~ ~ l
ml'evance . Eq.: ( i ) Y o u - had in your letter e-xpreclsed your desire
to buy
( i i ) I n your atmm letter YOU - had requested For certain clarificatims.
3. , Ihbutleaf t lw passive
L.eech md Svartvik (p.25) point, out. that 1 . k use
o f the passive voice and the 'introductory i t ' in sentences
md the nvoi &we of paraan8 1 pronouns l i ka ' I ' , 'Youo , and
' W i ? ' a r c '~t!rtl.t~rr?s ~f I'ornrr~l w r i tLen l q u q q e and oTt.nn qn
with an impersonal style. h e y illustrate t h e e f'eatures
with ttw f o l l w i n q example :
Announcement fcm ths Librarian
1 1 has been mted with cancscn that the stock nf bmks i n \.he I lbrary has bean declining alarming 1 y. student.^ are asked to remind them- selves of the rules for the borrowing and return or b o d s , w d to bear in mind the needs of the s t u h t s . Qensltiea far avacdw books w i l l in the future be s tr ic t ly enforced.
EAdP end in CAdP there is a preference for the use o f the
passive voice bmetlse r)r the impcsmal, sty le of wri t inq. Ae the
speaker dwa mCwieh to reler d i ' m t l y to hinsslf. personel
pronow8 l i k e @ 1 @ , ' Y a r ' , . 'We* ate avoided, gensr ic subjects
m~bjats t i h 'applicantss, 'naclbera* md 'certificates@
are preferred md alsa the passive voice is wed. Sometime
the sentences begin with an ' introdoctaty it ' .'
Eg. : ( i Applicants are required to aand copies of . . . . . . . . ( i i ) Hsrnbers should be prepared to appear before
the camni ttee.
(iii ) Certificates w l l l be given to a l l the part iciperrte.
( i v ) 11. is twrchy rnrt i f i sd that l.tre' h r m t Ccwwra1 Iwdy m ~ c t i r q or ....... w i l l be treIc) ......,
( v ) I t is hereby not i f l ed for information of students, parents end the genere1 public thet .......
I t was m t i c i e d that the paasive voice i s generally
used while performing comnunicat ive functions l i ke 'giving
instruct inns' ar whi Le ' iasuinq pub1 ic/orficial mtif ' ical lon' . T h e pasaivq voice is not used so much when the piece of discourse
perform F ~ ~ J C ~ I ftrtwl. irnm l ikrr 'mk inq far iriiarmat ian' , 'ptn-
cinq an order' rld sn on heclnr~~e these functians <Ir, nat have
Hasevec , the active voice is used trhen
(4 the addresser refers to h i m a e l f
€9.: t i ) Wlm*econtect&UwdeaLer
( i i ) 5 give belar tb prices of a l l wr ..... ( i t i ) !I& raqwat you to reCreln ftar .
thrr agent of the ectiwr mads t o be highlighted
Eg.t [i) Shri 'X ' resided wee the meting in *Y@. the absence a Shri
( i i ) T h e Hon. Secretary propoaed the approval of the proceedings,
The use of sdverbials
Atr ruiwrb&nt rr.r $1 clmlnr? r?lemt?nl rrrri f i ~ n c t i m nn rrn
adjunct, disjunct or c ~ n j m t . Syntactica'lly adjuncts are
integrated within the structure o f the clause to a t least
some extent whereas disjuncts and cmjurcts ere not inte-
grated within the clause.
Adjuncts ere general1 y used to indlcete t ime, place,
€9.: (a) Ihe naeLinq a t ~ r t s Lomorta - a t eimt -- om clock
( c ) They began arguing Loudly
Dis junc t8 expmsa the addmswr *o evalmtion/conent
of what is beinq said.
m a (a). - Fcadc&, m mr, rppeaeed to be #ti- eL the
(b) Peremally, t Qn@tapptoveof this.
( c ) There a r e twelve pwp fe pre-nt , t o be precise.
Con j m t s have e coc~mctitm fmtlarr. b y indicmte 8
the cmnection between h a t is being eaid end nhet wae said
before.
Eq. t (a) I sent h i m e persona1 inv i ta t ion , Me will therefo: be there tomorrow.
(b) A l l aur friends ace going to KodaikaFwal. ---* ~ w e v s t ne are qoirrq t o Ksslwni c .
In €A# edjuncts are generally used to indiceta
time and rare ly place,
Eg.: (1) - Tim
( i) 1 ha rest i v a l discount scbme has been d i ~ o n t inue . I , - .I..... I..
L . i i 1 T f r z s ~ h u r r nr i r m n irncrr ma# inkn d r a m t f r
( i i i ) We request y r ~ u to refrein Qrm ttadinq a prnckel.cr t n trrtrn~tlnr imd sm l l lng egents --- I rr f uLu1
( i v ) Hs shaul d report for duty forthwith
(2) Place - (i.) .We feel that wchg~tfvtt iC) l )wif l &uadtocarheeL~
-,,L a L 1 U e , LL- -,La Y - t
is wry Little that i% attitudinal. hers and the addceeersr
dess not afier any cement an *st i s being said,
Hcmavar, cwrjtncts ere ueed quite frequently in €Ad?
because thiq variety iar exp l i c i t l y coheclive. A feu examples
of the use of cmi juncts in EAllP are r
(1) We, honevcr, arn service eqsntrr for their producte.
( i i ) We, - therefore, requast you to c la r i f y the ebovs.
it is convent imal. I t is used t o maintain the tune of polite-
ness in the discourse.
Eg.: ( i) We reqast you t o kindly look into this immediate! y
( ii ) Kindly refer to the advert iwmunt,
E. - The w e of clau8es
He11idsy (1985) crhserves that ctauaes can tepreuent
tl~rae rneirr I-ypcn or prncreanns. t b y ate (3 ) meter ial pmcos~es,
(2) mmtal processes end ( 5 ) relat imal promsaw.
(1 "!kterisI pracsasea ace procaesar, aQ 'doing', fhcy
ewpmss the ml im that cxuo entity dDIa wmkhing + lhich
uy be dme ' toa $om o t b r etnt l ty ." (p.103)
Eg. t
- - - - . -- - - - - -- - -- - - -- - -. - --
Actor Process
dissolved PJ ~opnAbk!!%!---.- =====$k!=) l (g@~S=f = = = = = 5 S Z Z = Z = 3 = 3 ~ t = = b S = Z = = r Z = .----------
Actor Process Gas1 - - - - ~ ~ - - * - - ~ ~ o ~ - - - - - - - - - z - - r . ~ ) - ~ ~ o ~ - - - . ~ - ~ ) a - - ~ - ~ a - - o ~ - ~ - - - ~ o - ~
( 2 ) Mental processes are processes of 'sensing' end include
cl ouses or feel inq, think inq and perceiving.
Eq.:
Cm Yw fee 1 that throbbing ~ - - ~ - - ~ - ~ ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - - - ~ - ~ - . ~ - ~ - - . ~ r - . ~ ~ - - I l r o . c m o . L w - ~ ~ o ~ ~ - ~ - ~ ~ o o - ~ ~ - ~ ~ - - - - - I I - ~ ~ - " . ~ ~ . * - " - - " ~ - - ~ L I C - - Z I - - L - - . L * - - - - n D - a - - - - - ~ m L I - * - - ~ -
Pro- Smser - m ~ s Phcmofflenon Per - -cept ion
( 3 ) Relational prcnceea are prt~esser, of i , the
centre1 mming of clauses of this type being thet somthing
i ' Further, relational processes an be (a) intanelve,
(b) cimmatant iel, ( c ) prmcrasniva.
Eg. t (8) Sarah is w i s e (intensive)
(b) Itm met inq is m e tussday (circumstmtial)
( c ) We tlever a p i e m Ipaseesive)
In clauses which reprerant nrate~iel pracessa8
were found to be used prechminantly. This is becauee, here
ane ie mainly concerned with 'rrhat s o m m *dose9 or 'whet
is dam' rather t.han with hmm fealAngs/ar emotions ar a
's tate ' .
I t is significant that the material proceases repre-
sented by the clauses in CAdP ere most often abstract proceswa
l i k e tdissalvel, 'convene1, 'resign', 'mtLfyt , *claim',
' request ' , ' inform', 'crlar i f y * , 'complain' and so on rather
than concrete processes 1 i ke 'catcht , *kickm, *oBke4 , 'bake9 , 'ki11' , etc. F r r r t h r we natice that khs verbs cbate-
cteristic of EAdQ are 91m verbs of canrnrwrication and are
often used performtivet y.
~ ~ " - - - - - - - " " - - - - * - - - m - - * - - " - - - " ~ ~ * o ~ ~ - o ~ " - - - * w o -
He claimed thet the price8 would @ revised rlpmrds 3 ~ ~ ~ = t 3 ~ ~ z t ~ ~ t = t ~ = ~ = = ~ t 3 ~ f t 1 P ~ C ~ f t s t ~ t ~ Z s ~ ~ x ~ ~ : ~ ~
I h s rest i v a l diecount schtnre has been
discont inusd
The &script ion of the target slituetion in t e r m of
(1 ) the typical wri t ing a c t i v i t i s a that are perfarmsd in edmfni-
strat ion, (2) the conmnunicat i v e functions thet are reeL5zed
while performinq these ac t iv i t i es and ( 3 ) the perceptions
of the target Leerrrers about the exist ing EAdQ teechinq pro-
qrnmrws and U=ir 'WFYI~FI ' (13hnpt.er 11) logether with the des-
cr ipt ion of the target lmquage in terms or ( 1 ) the typical
rt~etor icel/i 1 locut ionary act9 performed by the tents w e d
for dminis trat ive plrpclses, ( 2 ) the patterns of discourse
orqenization with particular reference to the intecectionel
functions thet character ize a piece of EAdP discourse, ( 3 ) the
cohesive devices and the discourse strateqias thet era used,
end (4) the linguistic and stylistic feetutqs that ere chars-
cteristic of the variety (Ctmpter I l l ) farm the basis on which
a pedegoqy for teaching €A@ b s been developed.
been possible to decide (a) w h m t iterne ehautd tie taught in an
EAde teechinq program, (b) what mthodotogy uauld ensure
developmt of the mqui red ctoclnwcicat Sve ebi t Ities, and
( c ) &at rneter la18 mnrl d e i d FWrd ~t~emgthen tb te.chinp/leaming.