Initial Steps: Forming an active region
Si3N4 is etched away using an F-plasma: Si3dN4 + 12F → 3SiF4 + 2N2
Or removed in hot phosphoric acid
After stripping photoresist, field oxide is grown. Field oxide provides insulation between adjacent junctions
Photoresist is chemically removed in acid, or stripped in an O2 plasma
N and P wells are formed Photoresist mask is applied, and active ions implanted by ion bombardment. Typically, 150-200 keV accelerating energy
After implantation, ions are diffused into substrate to form wells
After well formation, additional N and P layers are formed in respective N and P wells, then a layer of polysilicon is deposited. Polysilicon is electrically
conductive and used for gate voltage connections.
Insulating layers of SiO2 are grown around the gate, followed by N or P bombardment for form the NMOS or PMOS source and drain regions.
After forming gate, source and drain regions, Ti film is deposited by sputtering to act as electrical interconnect
Ti is reacted with Nw to form TiSi2 where it contacts silicon (black regions) or TiN elsewhere. Then, it is coated with photoresist and
etched, followed by deposit of another insulating SiO2 layer.
Another coat of photoresist followed by etching exposes gates for connections
Finally, aluminum is sputtered on wafer, masked and plasma etched. Additional interconnect layers may be added the same way.
A barrier region of TiN is applied, followed by thin-film application of W, which undergoes CMP to provide a flat surface with exposed contacts
SEM photograph of interconnects formed in an integrated circuit. Conductive metals are carefully chosen to provide right conductivity (or resistivity) and dielectric properties
K1 ~ 0.6-0.8 and
K2 ~ 0.5.
NA is the numerical aperture number, NA=n*sin()
where n=1 and is the angle formed by the point light source and the aperture width
ExampleEstimate the resolution and depth of focus of an
excimer laser stepper using KrF light source ( = 248 nm) and NA=0.6 Assume k1 = 0.75 and k2 = 0.5.
Solution:
R = k1*/NA = 0.75(0.248/0.6) = 0.31 nm
DOF = ± k2*/NA2 = ±0.5(0.248/(0.6)2) = ±0.34 m
Diffusion is not constant across cross section, and continues with every subsequent high-temperature step; hence, we use charts as below to calculate surface concentrations, Cs, from average conductivity,
Effective diffusivity is:
DAeff=Do+D-(n/ni)+D=)n/ni)2 for N-type
DeffA=Do+D+(p/ni)+D++(p/ni)2 for P-type
Values are tabulated, as in table 7.5
Effective diffusion-time, (Dt)eff, is the sum of the diffusivity and time at each step:
(Dt)eff= D1t1+D1t2(D2/D1)=D1t1+D2t2
Example
Figure 7-17 Dopant surface concentration vs. effective conductivity for various substrate concentrations, CB