GENDER IDENTITY, GENDER ROLES, AND SEX DIFFERENCES
Chapter 6
Learning Objectives• Prenatal Sexual Differentiation• Gender Identity• Gender Roles and Stereotypes• Gender Differences• Gender Typing• Psychological Androgony
Prenatal Sexual DifferentiationSexual Differentiation The process by which males and females
develop distinct reproductive anatomy
Sperm fertilizes ovum resulting in zygote
Each parent contributes 23 chromosomes
23rd pair determine sex
Females contribute X
Males contribute X or Y• XX = Female• XY = Male
Prenatal Sexual DifferentiationEmbryo The stage of prenatal development that begins with
implantation of a fertilized ovum in the uterus and concludes with development of the major organ systems at about two months after fertilization
After seven weeks of prenatal development, the genetic code (XX or XY) results in changes in the gonads, genital ducts, and external genitalia.
Ovaries begin to develop at 11 or 12 weeks.
Prenatal Sexual DifferentiationGenetic Factors in Sexual Differentiation
Genetic influences do exist
SRY (sex-determining region on Y gene)
Leads to the formation of the testes
Prenatal Sexual DifferentiationThe Role of Sex Hormones
Androgens Male sex hormones
Without androgens all infants would develop female external reproductive organs
Presence results in the development of male external reproductive organs at about 8 weeks
Small amounts found in female fetuses
Absence in female fetuses prompts development of female sexual organs
Female sex hormones are crucial in puberty, not for sex differentiation
Prenatal Sexual DifferentiationDescent of the Testes and Ovaries
Testes and ovaries develop from structures in the abdominal cavity
The ovaries complete their descent after the prenatal period
Testes descend via inguinal canal
CryptorchidismThe condition defined by testes that fail to descend
Sex Chromosomal AbnormalitiesKlinefelter syndrome Caused by an extra X
chromosome (XXY) in a male
Fail to develop appropriate secondary sex characteristics
May be mildly retarded
Turner syndrome Caused by only one X
chromosome (XO) in a female
At risk for medical complications
Spatial and math difficulties
Infertility
Prenatal Sexual Differentiation
Development of the internal sex organs from an undifferentiated stage at about five or six weeks after conception
Critical Thinking
Critical thinkers do not oversimplify or
overgeneralize. Consider this statement: In the absence of prenatal male sex hormones,
we would all develop as females.
Would we all develop as fertile females?
In what way would we all develop as females?
Gender Identity
Gender Identity
• Psychological awareness or sense of being male or female
Sex Assignment
• Reflects anatomic sex at birth
Children• First aware of anatomical sex by 18 months• Firmly acquire sense of gender identity at 36 months
Gender Identity
Nature and
Nurture
• Gender identity is almost always consistent with one’s chromosomal sex• Does not certify that gender
identity is biologically determined• People are usually reared as
males or females in accordance with their sexual anatomy.
Gender Identity
Hermaphrodite• A person who possesses both ovarian and
testicular tissue• Is extremely rare
Intersexual• A person who possesses gonads of one sex
but external genitalia that are ambiguous or typical of the other sex
The experiences of intersexual individuals have helped uncover the relative importance of nature and nurture.
Gender Identity
Intersexualism
• True hermaphroditism is rare• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is
most common form of female intersexualism• Genetic female has female internal
sexual structures but masculinized external genitals
• Due to exposure to excess levels of androgens
• Girls with CAH exhibit more interest in masculine-typed behaviors
• Results may support a hormonal contribution to gender identity
Gender Identity
Intersexualism
• Androgen-insensitivity syndrome• Genetic male is prenatally insensitive to
androgens such that his genitals are not normally masculinized
• Genetic female with partial or complete insensitivity develops typical external organs, but internal organs don’t develop or function normally
Gender Identity
Intersexualism
• Dominican Republic syndrome• A genetic enzyme disorder prevents
testosterone from masculinizing the external genitalia
• Raised as females• At puberty, testosterone levels become
normal• Voices deepened, musculature filled
out, “clitorises” expanded into penises• Most shift to male gender identity
Gender Identity
Research suggests that
gender identity is
influenced by complex
interaction of biological
and psychosocial
factors
• Dominican Republic boys suggest importance of biology to gender
• Studies of girls with partial or complete androgen insensitivity suggest that two X sex chromosomes are not essential to develop feminine-typed behavior
Gender Identity
Transgenderism
• Individual strongly desires to be of the other sex and live as the other sex
• Many undergo hormone treatments and surgery so body matches sense of self
The term transsexualism was used previously
Gender Identity
Sex Reassignmen
t
• Health professionals conduct evaluations• Hormone treatments• Live openly as member of the other sex
for extended period of time• Surgery• Most postoperative reports are positive
Gender Roles and Stereotypes
Stereotype
• A fixed, conventional idea about a group of people
• Often a distorted generalization
Gender roles
• Complex clusters of expectations for how males and females should behave
Critical Thinking
Why would a researcher bother to study whether traditional gender-role stereotypes are found
around the world?
Gender Roles and Stereotypes
Sexism
• The prejudgment that because of her or his sex, a person will possess certain negative traits
• Psychologically damaging • Can influence career choice• Education can change traditional
sexist attitudes
Gender Roles and Stereotypes
Gender Roles and Sexual Behavior
• Men as initiators, women as gatekeepers• Men make the choices regarding sexual
positions and techniques• Men as overaroused, women as
underaroused• Men more interested in sex than women
Gender DifferencesDifferences
in Cognitive Abilities
No overall differences in intellectual functioning
Some gender differences appear for certain cognitive abilities
Females better at verbal tasks
Males better at visual/spatial tasks
These are in group differences
Variability is larger within the sexes than between the sexes
Differences may largely reflect environmental influences and cultural expectations
No difference in math abilities despite stereotype
Gender DifferencesDifferences in Personality
Females are more extraverted, anxious, trusting, and nurturing
Males are more assertive, tough-minded, and have higher self-esteem
Differences tend to be small
Relative lower self-esteem for girls
Parents prefer boys
Unlevelled playing field in society
Sex DifferencesDifferences in Social Behavior
Communication Styles Males dominate discussions
Females express their feelings more than males do
Sexuality Men show more interest in sex
Women combine sex with romance
Aggressiveness Males engage in more overt aggression compared to females
Willingness to seek health care
Men let symptoms go
Women live an average of seven years longer than men do
Gender Typing
The process by which children acquire behavior that is
deemed appropriate to their sex
Gender Typing
• Hormones• Most studies find no relationships• One study showed fetal testosterone level
linked to sex-typed behavior in infants
Biological Perspectives
Gender Typing
• Evolutionary perspective• Genes that contribute to survival are passed
on• Genetic heritage influences social and
sexual behavior• Traditional roles are passed on through
genes• Controversial perspective
Biological Perspectives
Critical Thinkin
g
Why do you think many feminists and
queer theorists argue that
evolutionary theory is little more than a
sophisticated excuse for
maintaining the status quo in the
centers of power in society?
Gender Typing
• Prenatal brain organization• May explain men’s overall superiority at
visual/spatial tasks and women’s overall superiority at verbal tasks
• Prenatal sex hormones may create a greater or reduced tendency to act physically aggressive
Biological Perspectives
Gender Typing
• Psychoanalytic Theory• Gender typing occurs through identification
with the same-sex parent • A resolution to the Oedipus complex (or
Electra complex in girls)
Psychological Perspectives
Gender Typing
• Social-cognitive theory• Gender typing occurs through the
processes of observational learning, identification, and socialization
• Guiding people into socially acceptable behavior patterns by using information, rewards, and punishments
Psychological Perspectives
Gender Typing
• Cognitive-developmental theory• Gender typing occurs through cognitive development
• Schema• A concept or way of interpreting experience or
processing information• Gender stability
• Concept that people retain their genders for a lifetime
• Gender constancy• Concept that people’s genders do not change,
even if they alter their dress or behavior
Psychological Perspectives
Gender Typing
• Gender schema theory• Gender schema
• Cluster of mental representations about male and female physical qualities, behaviors, and personality traits• Once learned, children evaluate themselves in
terms that are appropriate to their sex • Higher self-esteem is associated with self-
concepts that are congruent with the prominent gender schema of one’s culture
• A gender schema can lead to gender-appropriate behaviors and affects mental processes, e.g., memory
Psychological Perspectives
Psychological Androgyny
A state characterized
by possession
of both stereotypical
masculine traits and
stereotypical feminine
traits
• May be more able to summon wide range of traits to act on the demands of the situation
• Associated with psychological well-being and higher self-esteem
Critical Thinking
Explain why feminists have criticized the concept of
psychological androgyny.