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1 INTRODUCTION
Human creative imagination combined with knowledge,experience and skills provides for continuous change inliving conditions. Mankinds survival on our globe isdependent on how we handle the challenges of everincreasing global population and ecological threat.
New means for knowledge processing, communicationand transport have lead different regions of earth together
to a global village overcoming the burdens of languageand understanding, time and place. Ever increasingmodelling capabilities by modern information technologyhave given access to virtual systems and components outof which the most promising for human goals and pur-poses have to be selected. The framework of market con-ditions provides for competition as an essential criterium ofselection. Division of labour enables for concentration onmost efficient processes thus forming competitive corecompetencies. Effective products meeting complexrequirements of integrating markets are designed in coop-eration of partners with complementary competencies.
The industrial approach of innovation employs the driving
mechanism of market and competition addressing bothsources of technical invention and means for economicexploitation. The potentials of arts, sciences, engineeringand management are analysed with respect to their contri-butions to innovation. Methods and tools of our manufac-turing science community are presented in their characteras instruments to avoid misjudgement and shortcoming inindustrial manufacturing innovation.
2 TERMS OF REFERENCE
2.1 Definitions
Invention is derived from Latin invenire meaning arrive
find, experience, meet, learn, discover, but also manage.There is an accidental aspect indicating that invention isnot planned or scheduled. Innovation comes from Latininnovare standing for renew. So innovation etymolo-
gically is not something totally new but rather a new modeof something already existing. In 1912 the economistSchumpeter defined innovation as establishing new com-binations [61]. He distinguished between product andprocess innovation. Modern management literaturedefines innovation as combining technological inventionand economic exploitation [59]. CIRP unified terminologyon design defines innovation as the process of taking aninvention forward into the first marketable product [10].
Invention covers all efforts aimed at creating new ideasand getting them to work. Exploitation includes all stagesof commercial development, application, and transfer,including the focussing of ideas or inventions towardsspecific objectives, evaluating those objectives, down-stream transfer of research and development results, andthe eventual broad-based utilization, dissemination, anddiffusion of the technology-based outcomes.
The famous economist Adam Smith once stated that thedivision of labour is limited by the size of the market [67].Due to ever increasing market sizes by international tra-ding and globalisation the division of labour has beendeveloped continuously. But not only economic marketexploitation also exponential knowledge increase andresulting technological inventions have stimulated thedivision of labour in arts and sciences. On the other handreintegration of arts, sciences and engineering by modernknowledge processing and communication can enhanceinnovation potentials in cross disciplinary cooperation.
2.2 Disciplinary View
Arts
Arts and sciences in their respective paradigms areessential sources of innovation. Consequently disciplinaryviews are presented in their developing specific patterns of
nurturing innovation in market oriented societies.Music and mathematics represent a specific category ofhuman imagination and invention in that they are createdpurely out of human abilities of intuition and intelligence
Product Innovation Industrial Approach
1Department of Assembly Technology and Factory Management,
Institute for Machine Tools and Factory Management, Technical University Berlin, Germany.
Abstract
Innovation consists of technological invention and economic exploitation. Arts and natural sciences considera-bly contribute to invention whereas economics and management deal with the exploitation aspect of inno-vation. In creating artifacts for useful purposes engineering covers both invention and exploitation. Differenttypes of innovation are considered with respect to design rules and business cases. The challenge of findingreasonable paths of innovation is illustrated by industrial shortcomings. Scientific approaches in manufacturingin general and especially in design to avoid these shortcomings are denominated and analysed.
Keywords: Design, Management, Innovation
G. Seliger1 (2) A. Buchholz, F. Szimmat, M. Turowski
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independent of environmental objects. Our obviousunability to understand the nature of our thinking is in astimulating manner amusingly illustrated in DouglasR. Hofstadter's connecting perspectives of Gdel's mathe-matics all axiomatic formulations free of contradiction innumerical theory contain undecidable statements Escher's paintings and Bach's music all touching the phe-nomenon of strange loops [21]. Dealing with abstract arti-facts can considerably contribute to creative imaginationand resulting inventions.
Although the motives are varying the persistent search fornew ideas to create a work of art has always been thedriving force for artists.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was educated as an artist.His special interest for details and his genius and spirit ofuneasiness drove him persistently from one field of activityto another. It is impossible to categorize him: Artist,painter, sculptor, architect, poet, musician, geologist, anat-omist, mapper, city planner, mathematician, physicist, sci-entist, philosopher, physician, pedagogue or inventor,Leonardo da Vinci was always on research for new know-ledge far beyond the known. Figure 1 e. g. shows a grav-ity-driven machine for precise file manufacturing [11].
Figure 1: A machine for file manufacturing fromCodex Atlanticus f. 6r.-b.
A Leonardo universal type of artist including sciences andengineering can hardly exist in modern industrial societieswhere division of labour is required to be competitive inachieving professional careers. Consequently nowadaysactors, composers, musicians, poets and essayists,painters and sculptors represent professions in arts edu-
cated at respective schools. Arts are not only source forhuman creativity but also areas of application for innova-tive technology. Computer graphics and electro-guitars are
examples of how innovative technology can penetratepictorial art and music respectively.
Natural Sciences
Pure natural scientists are directed to analyzing naturalobjects and phenomena. They are concerned rather withhow things are than with how they should be according togoals and purposes. With respect to innovation natural sci-
ences provide powerful sources for invention. Figure 2describes examples of how natural science phenomenaare exploited for useful products and processes.
Figure 2: Inventions of natural science applied inproducts and processes.
The lotus-flower and a magnification of its surface struc-ture is shown in Figure 2 (a). This structure causes theso-called lotus-effect where soiled surfaces can be easilycleaned just by flowing water. The lotus-effect is used forspecial paints or self-cleaning surfaces as shown in Figure2 (b) [52].
Figure 2 (c) shows the set-up for generating a CO2-laser-
beam. Figure 2 (d) displays the utilization of laser in theindustrial application laser cutting for a broad scope ofmaterials [5].
CO2
Beam
Electrodes
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
Ni
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The discovery of the electromagnetic effects e.g. creationof magnetic fields by currents, induction permits theconstruction of a rotator that is driven by magnetic forces.Figure 2 (e) illustrates this rotator [20]. A commercialdc-motor by Maxon Motor GmbH is shown in Figure 2 (f) togive an example for a state-of-the-art application of thiseffect [46]. Maxon Motors have ironless rotors causing avery low mass moment of inertia leading to very highaccelerations. These motors have been used in spaceapplications like the mars-robot Soujourner.
The development of new plastics can be given as anexample from the field of process engineering. Figure 2 (g)shows the chemical structure of polytetrafluorethylene,widely kown as Teflon [12]. Teflon is used in many fieldslike high temperature non-stick coatings for pans or ashigh-performance lubricant for bicycle gears (Figure 2 (h)).
Economics and Management
While natural sciences and arts are addressing invention,economics deal with the exploitation aspect of innovation.Figure 3 shows the Schumpeterian long waves of technicaland economic development [2].
Figure 3: Schumpeterian long waves of technical andeconomic development.
On the level of business administration case studyanalysis contributes to identify successful paths to profit-able business. It is in this framework, where Christensendid research on the Innovator s Dilemma [9]. He drawspatterns of innovation in a variety of industries demonstra-ting why outstanding companies, listening astutely tocustomers and investing aggressively in new technologies,still lost their market leadership being confronted withdisruptive changes in technology and market structure.Keeping close to customers is critical for current success,but long-term growth and profit often depend on not tolisten to traditional customers but to create new markets byfinding new customers for the products of the future.
IBM once dominated the mainframe market but missed byyears the emergence of minicomputers, which were tech-nologically much simpler than mainframes. Minicomputercompanies like Digital Equipment, Data General, Prime,Wang, Hewlett-Packard and Nixdorf in turn missed thedesktop personal computer-market coined by Apple Com-puter, Commodore, Tandy and IBMs stand-alone PC divi-sion. Apple and IBM lagged years behind in bringingportable computers to market. Apollo, Sun and SiliconGraphics were all newcomers to the engineering worksta-tion industry. For a long time Xerox dominated the market
for plain paper photocopiers used in large, high volumecopying centres. Yet it missed huge growth and profitopportunities in the market for small tabletop photocopiers.Steel minimills had captured 40 percent of the North Amer-
ican steel market by the end of the 20th century includingnearly all bars, rods and structural steel. But not a singleintegrated steel company in Asia, America or Europe hadby 1995 built a plant using minimill technology. The power-ful over-the-road cycles made by Harley-Davidson andBMW had lost market share due to the small off-roadmotorcycles introduced by Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha.Some traditional European machine tool companies beingproud of their machining accuracy (CIP, Hauser andLindner) could not compete with numerically controlledless accurate machining centres.
Christensen derives the scheme of sustaining versusdisruptive technologies [9]. Disruptive technologies under-perform established products in mainstream markets. Butproducts based on disruptive technologies are typicallycheaper, simpler, smaller and frequently more convenientto use. Disruptive technologies emerge in the beginning inworse product performance than achieved by establishedsustaining technologies. Sustaining technologies continu-ously improve product performance along the dimensionswhich mainstream customers in major markets have his-torically valued. However, progress in performance by
technologies can be faster than market demands. Suppli-ers give customers more than they need or ultimately arewilling to pay for. Emerging disruptive technologies whichmay underperform today, relative to what users in the mar-ket demand, may be fully performance-competitive in thatsame market tomorrow (Figure 4[9]).
Figure 4: Impact of sustaining anddisruptive technological change.
Christensen has analysed in detail the fast history of diskdrive industry where in just a few years market segments,companies and technologies have emerged, matured anddeclined (Figure 5[9]).
Planning better, working harder, becoming more customer-driven, taking longer term perspective, reducing time tomarket, total quality management, process reengineeringall these proven methods of manufacturing optimisationcan not help companies facing the challenge of emergingdisruptive technologies. Christensen denominates fourprinciples helping to harness disruptive innovation:
Companies depend on customers and investors forresources.
Small markets do not solve the growth needs of largecompanies.
Markets which do not exist cannot be analysed.
Technology supply may not equal market demand.
18001750 1850 1900 1950 2000
Frequency of Innovations
Steam EngineCoal and Iron
Technology
RailwayTelegraphyCementPhotography
Electric bulbElectrificationTelephoneTransformerAutomobile
RadarRadio/TVRocketsElectronicsNuclearTechnology
Microelectr.LaserGlass FibreGene Techn.
Business Cycles
Time
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rformance
PerformanceDemands at the HighEnd of the Market
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ssDu
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DisruptiveTechnologicalInnovation
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Figure 5: Example for the introduction ofdisruptive technologies.
Although predominantly concerned with the continuouscompetitiveness of companies pursuing sustaining andbeing confronted with disruptive technologies and thuswith the exploitation aspect, the invention aspect of inno-vation is at least addressed in how management cansupport the emergence of disruptive technologies for theircompanies continuous competitiveness.
The invention aspect is also addressed in von Hippelsdefining lead users as sources of novel product concepts.Lead users present strong needs will become general inthe future. Trying to fill the need they experience they canprovide new product design concepts. Driving for success-ful exploitation of inventions to be initiated marketingresearch analyses emerging needs for new products, pro-cesses and services [82].
Strategic decisions on where out of a manifold of techno-logical alternatives to invest the limited amounts ofresources to achieve a sustainable development of a com-pany are often oriented by technology portfolios. Figure 6shows how areas of investment are classified with respectto chances of the technology in the market and to theinvestor's on competitive competencies [55].
Figure 6: Technology portfolio withdecision options.
Engineering and Social SciencesAs Herbert Simon describes in his book on the Sciences ofthe Artificial [66] engineering sciences are concerned notonly with how things are but also with how they might be.
Engineering is concerned with synthesis, while naturalscience is concerned with analysis. Synthetic or artificialobjects are the central objective of engineering activity andskill. Design is concerned with how things ought to be inorder to attain goals and to function.
Our world of today is much more a man-made or artificialthan it is a natural world. For most of us our environmentand communication consists of strings of artifacts, with the
determinants of their contents all being consequences ofour collective artifice. Artifacts are not apart from nature,have no dispensation to ignore or violate natural law. Theyare at the same time adapted to mans goals andpurposes. As mans aims change, so do his artifacts.
Simon outlines a science of the artificial encompassingobjects and phenomena in which human purpose as wellas natural laws are embodied, having means for relatingthese two disparate components. These means for designin particular can considerably inspire invention and exploi-tation as constituent elements of innovation.
An artifact can be described as an interface between aninner environment of goal, function and organisation and
an outer environment representing the surroundings inwhich it operates (Figure 7). If inner and outer environmentare appropriate to each other the artifact will serve its pur-pose. The outer environment sets the conditions for artifactoperations whereas goals, function and organisation canbe shaped by entrepreneurial activities in design and engi-neering for generating artifacts.
The description of an artifact in terms of organisation andfunctioning is a major objective of invention and designactivity. Engineering management can well analyze howan intelligent adjustment of a system to its outer environ-ment its substantive rationality is conditioned by itsprocedural rationality to discover appropriate adaptivebehaviour.
Figure 7: Artifact molded by outer and inner environment.
Engineering sciences are more and more interrelated withsocial sciences in applying social analysis for deciding ongoals. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a helpful guide fordeciding on reasonable goals in engineering (Figure 8)
[45].
1
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FUNCTION ORGANI-
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Figure 8: Maslows hierarchy of needs.
The guideline for technology valuation of German VDIaddresses design criteria for useful technological products(Figure 9) [80].
Figure 9: Design criteria for usefultechnological products.
2.3 Types
To further enlighten the term innovation, the types of inno-
vation are given in Figure 10 and are illustrated by specificconsiderations and cases.
Product and Process
Porter defines three strategic approaches for keeping acompany competitive in markets comprehensive costleadership, product differentiation and concentration onmarket niches. Cost leadership implies continuous innova-tion in efficient processes with the risk of being imitated bycompetitors. Product innovation enables for differentiationand concentration on market niches with the risk of criticalcustomers not accepting higher prices for differentiatedproduct features, often for brands [56][57].
Fundamental and Incremental
Fundamental innovations are based on new scientific andtechnological principles whereas incremental innovationsadapt already existing functionality [47]. High costs forchanging established procedures hinder the successfulimplementation of fundamental inventions, unlessincreased performance justifies the marketable exploita-tion.
In the field of electronic parts the development of the sur-face mounted technology (SMT) is an example for a newfundamental technology. Figure 11 (a) opposes the olderthrough-hole technology and the newer SMT. Holesbecome unnecessary for part assembly on printed circuitboards (PCBs). Due to the smaller part dimensions and toassembly on both sides the part density can be increased.
Once present the further development of SMT-cases can
be called an incremental innovation. Figure 11 (b) gives anexample for the continuously decreasing dimensions nowreaching part sizes below 1 mm. This continuous miniaturi-zation enabled highly integrated products like cell-phonesor portable computers [14].
Figure 11: Fundamental (SMT) andincremental innovation (package dimensions).
Short and Long Range
Short range innovations are characterized by their narrowapplication area and their relatively short impact on the rel-evant state of the art. Special machinery in manufacturing
engineering like the automated bottle filling machineshown Figure 12 (a) is a good example for a short rangeinnovation.
Figure 12: Short range (automated bottle filling machine)and long range innovation (DNA-double helix).
Long range innovations generally cover a long timespanfrom the invention to the first exploitation. As an examplethe field of human genetics can be quoted where it tookalmost 50 years from the discovery of the DNA-structure
Self-
actualisation
Needs
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs food, sleep
acknowledgement,self-respectlong-time satisfaction
of the fundamentalneeds: materialexistence,minimum wages,
social status
love, affection andbelongingness needs
Often Instrumental RelationsOften Competing Relations
EnvironmentalQuality
Effectivityand
Efficiency
Standardof Living
Functionality Security
Health
Self-ActualizationPersonality Development
Social Quality
ProductProcess
SingleCooperative
FundamentalIncremental
Short RangeLong Range
DisciplinaryCross-Disciplinary
SimpleComplex
Innovation
Elementary TechnicalBusiness System
InternalExternal
Figure 10: Types of innovation.
(b)(a)
PCB
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Through-Hole Technology:
3mm
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(Figure 12 (b)) by Watson and Crick to the first stepstowards the understanding of the function through func-tional genomics in the human genome project in the recenttime.
Single and Cooperative
The differentiation between single and cooperative relatesto the degree of cooperation in the process of innovation
generation. Single innovations are done by one person orone organisation alone while cooperative innovations aredone by multiple organisations. Bundling the restrictedknowledge of different companies combines complemen-tary core competencies for splitting high developmentcosts, increasing product performance and reachingshorter time-to-market.
Figure 13: Former single innovation (telephone)and modern cooperative innovation (communicator).
The telephone can be stated as an example for a singleinnovation. In 1852 the german teacher Johann Philip Reis(18341874) as a preceding inventor constructed the firstworking communication device. Later in 1876 it was furtherdeveloped into the telephone we know today (Figure13 (a)) by Alexander Graham Bell (18471922) as anentrepreneurial innovator.
The Nokia Communicator 9210 (Figure 13 (b)) as anexample for a cooperative innovation is one of the first andmost famous products of the Symbian Group. Symbianwas established by leaders in the computing and wirelessindustry like Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, Psion and Matsu-shita (Panasonic) to enable the mass market of Smart-phones and Communicators next generation mobilephones, or Wireless Information Devices (WIDs).
Simple and Complex
Simple innovations often stem from highly creative per-sons generating inventive ideas for huge areas of easily
understandable applications. Complex innovations requireassigning many different elements of technology for a use-ful function.
With the invention of the first bottles it became necessaryfind ways to seal them. Today numerous different sealingmethods exist and the cork is most popular. At the end ofthe 18th century the whole cork was pushed into the bottle-neck to open a bottle. Better ways for removal of the corkwere needed and the corkscrew shown in Figure 14 (a) isbasically the instrument we still use today. The bottle, thecork and the corkscrew are examples for simple innova-tions. Further examples are paper-clips, pins, hole-punch-ers.
Figure 14 (b) shows the Power Jets W.1, the first turbojetengine ever built. It was invented by Frank Whittle and runfor the first time in 1937. The first design for a jet aircraftwas patented in 1930. The engine can be considered a
complex innovation since it consists of a great amount ofparts and functional relations.
Figure 14: Simple innovation (corkscrew)and complex innovation (first jet engine).
Whittle could achieve the complex invention up to proto-
type by his access to the big resources of the statefounded Royal Air Force in war time similar to GermanHans von Ohains jet engine implementation in LuftwaffeMesserschmitt Me262. Both could prove functionality inservice. However, the real market exploitation of the Euro-pean jet engine invention was gained years later by theAmerican General Electric Company.
Elementary Technical and Business System Innovation
An example for an elementary technical innovation is agripper designed to handle components with heavy weightin recycling like tumble systems of washing machines. It isshown in Figure 15 and can handle a weight of about
50 kg without any problems [65].
Figure 15: Disassembly gripper with tumble system.
For business system innovations scenario techniques(Figure 16) can be used to identify new business opportu-nities like selling use instead of selling products in cycleeconomy [15][51].
(a) (b)
A. G. Bell, 1876 Symbian Group, 2001
(a) (b)
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Figure 16: Scenario projections for businessopportunities in cycle economy.
One of these business opportunities is the adaptation ofused products and components (Figure 17) [63][64]. Thiscovers the processes of disassembly, cleaning, inspection,treatment and re-assembly. Selling use instead of sellingproducts is competitive once the cost of the idle capacity ofa sold product is higher than the respective additional
efforts in communication and logistics for providing func-tionality in time and place as required. Thus, the total costsof ownership can be optimised [63][64].
Figure 17: Business opportunities incycle economy.
Internal and External
Internal innovations are based on development work bythe innovating company [44]. External innovations are
based on ideas and developments in another organisation.The innovation process is completed in the company offer-ing the new product in the market [2]. External innovationsoften suffer from psychological not-invented-here syn-droms or from economical legislative local content regula-tions. Internal innovations are often limited by the thinkinghabits of established staff.
A typical internal innovation is the first mechanical pencilinvented in 1915 by Hayakawa and thus named The EverSharp Pencil. This pencil was the main reason to renamehis company from Hayakawa Inc. to Sharp Corp.
An example for an external innovation is the distribution ofthe Apple Macintosh with the first computer mouse in 1984
by Apple Computer Inc. The mouse-concept was originallyinvented by Douglas Engelbart in 1964.
Disciplinary and Cross-Disciplinary
In 1866/67 the chemist Alfred Nobel invented solid dyna-mite. Before only liquid Nitroglycerin had been used forblasting. The problem was the great danger involved withnitoglycerin because it is very shock sensitive with respectto explosion. Nobel discovered that diatomaceous earth, amealy substance, absorbed nitroglycerin and thus defusedthe risks of unintentional explosion without an intolerable
reduction of blast-power.Substantial experience and continuous involvement inwell-defined knowledge domains are a reliable pledge fordisciplinary innovation.
However, synergetic effects tend to be obtained in cross-disciplinary cooperation. Modern manufacturing is basedon Mechatronics. Biotechnology requires the integration ofbiology, information and communication technology. Inte-grated natural, management and engineering sciencesenhance scope and scale in innovation.
Technical products can be derived from natural models.The sharkskin (Figure 18 (a)) served as a model for sur-faces with low drag. Due to the slightly furrowed surface
structure the micro-turbulence engendered by flow frictionis decreased. It is used for modern high tech swim suites(Figure 18 (b)) or for air planes.
Figure 18: Cross-disciplinary innovation (sharkskin).
3 CHALLENGE / TASK
Business and jobs in our societies are more and moredependent on reasonable paths of innovation. Technolo-gical potentials are exploited for useful applications. Tasksdrive for solutions and developments seek for applicationin deductive respectively inductive paths of innovation ascan be seen in Figure 19. Competition in markets finallydecides on whether inventions in engineering will createprofitable business and sustainable jobs.
Figure 19: Inductive and deductive innovation path.
Selling Mobility Instead of CarsSelling Mobility Instead of Cars
Selling Global Communication Instead of ComputersSelling Global Communication Instead of Computers
Selling Production Capacity Instead of Machine ToolsSelling Production Capacity Instead of Machine Tools
Selling Safe Transport Instead of PackagesSelling Safe Transport Instead of Packages
Information-management
Sale of ProductUse
Adaptation
Logisticnetwork
Facility Management
Product dataprovision
Design for Service
Product dataprovision
Process-planning
ProcessControl
FlexibleTools
CleaningProcesses
Productassessment
Design Production Distribution
Dis-
assembly
CleaningInspection
etc.
Re-
assembly
Usage Takeback Repro-cessing
Disposal
(b)(a)
Application:Technology
SolvesTask
Application
BusinessBusiness JobsJobs
DevelopmentSeeks Application
InductivePath
CompetitionCompetition
Solution
WhichTask?
Task Drivesfor Solution
DeductivePath
WhichDevelopment?
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It is not at all trivial to invest in research and development(R&D) and thus create business and jobs. Figure 20 andFigure 21 show the limited success which global players inelectronic industry could achieve by their R&D investmentsover a period from 1978 to 1990 [81].
Figure 20: R&D and turnover for 30 bigelectronic companies 1990.
Figure 21: Cumulative profits minus cumulative R&Defforts for 30 big electronic companies 19781990.
Out of 30 companies only two could increase their profitsand turnover to a higher percentage than they hadenhanced their R&D budget. Obviously rather concentra-tion on defined corporate goals is required than in fear ofmissing a chance spilling the R&D budget on a wide rangeof activities [81].
Obviously industrial innovation is a complex process withmany risks of misjudgement. Our scientific community'swork in manufacturing in general and especially in designhas provided approaches in methods, tools and exemplaryimplementation to avoid shortcomings in industrial manu-facturing innovation.
4 METHODS
4.1 Trial and Error
One method for solving inventive problems in engineering,as well as in all other areas of human activity, is Trial andError. This method requires a consecutive generation ofideas as solutions to problems. No rules for idea genera-tion exist, and the process of seeking a solution is rathersporadic as can be seen in Figure 22 [13]. If an idea is
considered weak it is discarded and a new idea is gener-ated. This flow of ideas is not submitted to any control, withas many repeated attempts as necessary to discover asolution. A typical exchange when working on a difficultproblem becomes Let's try this approach Have wefailed? Let's try another one.
Figure 22: Trial and error:Sporadic process of seeking solutions.
For instance, while working on a design of light bulb, Tho-mas Edison performed over six thousand experiments ona huge variety of materials before he found a satisfactoryone for a filament.
Although seemingly random, most attempts to solve a
problem have a common attribute: the trials lie along avector of psychological inertia. The inertia are determinedby cultural and educational background, previous experi-ences, and common sense. Psychological inertia urgesthe problem solver to try additional directions, confines theimagination, and is the main hurdle on a road to the bestsolution, which usually lies in unexplored territories.
The construction of a light bulb for a lunar probe can bestated as another example for psychological inertia. Exist-ing light bulbs would not survive the impact of the landingon the moon surface because they would crack at the jointbetween the glass and the screw base. The leader of theresearch programm asked whether a glass bulb was
needed to seal the vacuum around the filament. Since themoon's atmosphere presents a perfect vacuum no glassbulb was needed at all.
4.2 Theory of Inventive Problem Solving TRIZ
TRIZ is the Russian abbreviation for Theory of InventiveProblem Solving, and has been developed by GenrikhAltshuller in the former Soviet Union in the fifties [13][60].The main focus of TRIZ lies in the elimination of systemconflicts. A system conflict is present when attempts toimprove some attributes of a system lead to deteriorationof other attributes, e.g. increase in strength versusincrease of weight in the construction of a crane. Duringhis research Altshuller analysed some thousand inventions
and patents from different fields of engineering and formu-lated several Laws of Evolution of Technological Systems.These laws are very helpful for designers since they give ageneral direction for creative thinking. They are most fre-
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quently applied for solving practical problems by usingthree principal subsystems of TRIZ as can be seen in Fig-ure 23 [13].
Figure 23: Structure of the TRIZ-system.
One subsystem, the Algorithm for Inventive Problem Solv-ing, is a set of sequential logical procedures, aimed atelimination of the engineering contradiction causing theproblem. The second subsystem, the Standard Solutionsto Inventive Problems, is a set of rules for problem solving,based on the laws and on the established fact that manydifferent areas of technology can be solved by the sameconceptual approaches. Finally the third subsystem, theKnowledge-Database of Physical, Chemical, and Geomet-rical Effects, greatly facilitates the problem solving proc-ess. While the average engineer usually knows 50100physical effects and phenomena, this database containsmore than 6,000 effects described in scientific literature.
4.3 General Design and Development Methods
General design and development methods are phase ori-ented procedures according to rules with access to knowl-edge and experience. They help to avoid forgettingpotential solutions and to structure the sequence of opera-tions.
Figure 24: Design process by Pahl/Beitz.
Pahl and Beitz design method puts main focus on theabstraction of the customers needs into functions and tobuild subfunctions thereafter. An overview is given in Fig-ure 24[53]. The correlation between the functions is repre-sented in so called functionflows. Principles will be foundfor the subfunctions and a solution will be systematicallyselected among these principles.
All steps are supported by various creative tools, evalua-
tion methods, basic rules and design guidelines. A specialfocus is on the interactions in complex systems. Tools forthe consideration of the interdependencies of tasks, like aninteraction graph or a interaction matrix are proposed.
Another phase oriented approach for product design anddevelopment is presented by Ulrich and Eppinger in. Theproduct development process is divided into five phases(Figure 25) [78].
Figure 25: Product development process byUlrich/Eppinger.
Concept development consists of four phases and startswith the identification of the customer needs. The next stepdeals with the development of product specifications. Inthe following concept generation process the decomposi-
tion of the problem takes place. The later phases are deal-ing with the refinement and detailing of selected concepts,which leads to the testing and the production rampup asthe final phases of the product development process. Eco-nomical and management aspects are also considered invarious methods and tools like design for manufacturing organtt charts.
Tnshoff describes an approach, which supports custo-mers and suppliers in the early phase of product develop-ment. Every customer can establish a company-specificdelineation structure, describing the product-requirementson the basis of constraints (Figure 26) [74]. In course ofdevelopment the supplier follows the requirements of
delineation. Thus the supplier can secure that he hasobserved all requirements of the customer.
Figure 26: Variable description of product requirementsby constraints.
Database ofPhysical,Chemical,
Geometrical
Effects
StandardSolutions
to InventiveProblems
Algorithmfor
InventiveProblem
Solving
Laws of Evolution ofTechnological Systems
improvements,correctiveinteraction
task
information:
solution
requirement list
release for concentual design
develop principle solution
concept
release for embodyment design
clarification of the task
provisional embodyment design
release for final design
final design of product structure
production documents
release for production
develop production documents
final system level design
release for detail design
clarification of the task
Phase 1
ConceptDevelopment
Phase 2
System-LevelDesign
Phase 3
DetailDesign
Phase 4
Testing andRefinement
Phase 5
ProductionRamp-Up
CAD-System A Enveloping Surfaces Fitting dimensions
Description of theproduct requirementsby constraints: geometrical, technological, functional, commercial and administrative.
Delineation
CAD-System B Detail Design
Transportation of therequirements into acustomer specificsolution.
Specification
Cooperation
Customer Supplier
Requirements
Solution
- Bid,- CAD-geometry,- Calculation,
-
- Target price < x DM- Fitting dimensions: CAD-File XY-
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When the customer changes requirements, he addressesthe existing delineation structure with agreement of thesupplier. Alterations are saved and the developmenthistory is documented. The prototype-software is linkedwith the CAD-model.
4.4 Axiomatic Design
Suh has formulated principles of axiomatic design [69].
The independence axiom states, that the indepen-dence of functional requirements must always be main-tained.
The information axiom demands to minimize the infor-mation content.
As shown in Figure 27, the design process is an interactionbetween four different domains: the customer, the func-tional, the physical and the process domain [69].
The customer domain is characterized by customer needs(CN). In the functional domain, these needs are specifiedin terms of functional requirements (FR). To satisfy thespecified functional requirements, design parameters (DP)must be identified in the physical domain. So the product ischaracterized in terms of design parameters. To finally pro-duce this product the process needs to be specified by
process variables (PV) in the process domain.The relation between functional requirements and designparameters is represented in a matrix, which allows toevaluate the structure of the product. A good design ischaracterized by few or no interdependencies and by asimple description. In other words: Good products arethose, which fulfill the two axioms best. Suh describes thedesign process as an iterative approach towards the pro-duct. This zigzagging takes place between the functionaland the physical domain.
A variety of software tools based on axiomatic design hasbeen developed. Examples for implementations, includingthe background information are given in [18][25][70][71].
Axiomatic Design is helpful in enlightening the interrela-tions between development and application thus findingthe paths of inductive and deductive innovation.
4.5 Design for Specific Goals DFX
A cluster of design methods known as design for easeof. DFX is directed to specific goals in product develop-ment. With respect to innovation these methods of productdesign contribute to save efforts in different phases of theproduct life cycle e.g. manufacturing and assembly, disas-sembly and recycling.
Design for Assembly and Disassembly
In their 1992 keynote paper on design for assembly (DFA)and dissassembly [8] Boothroyd and Alting state, thatdesign for assembly aims to reduce the amount of partsleading to fewer handling and assembly operations. Alsoshould the assembly of the residual parts be eased by
modification of the design. Boothroyd and Dewhurst devel-oped a formalized step-by-step process to achieve thesegoals [7]. As shown in Figure 28, the three main steps arethe selection of an assembly method, the analysis of theassembly as well as the improvement and re-analysis ofthe design [8].
Figure 28: Stages in design for assembly analysis.
DFA helps in simplifying products by reducing costs. Man-ufacturing and assembly as a basis for teamwork andsimultaneous engineering offer potentials towards lifecycle design and design for disassembly.
In a 1993 keynote paper [23] disassembly is addressed asa key issue in product life cycle. Disassembly of usedproducts is needed in order to make recycling economi-cally viable in the current state of the art of reprocessingtechnology, thus avoiding the future high disposal cost.The emerging life cycle concept can be fully exploited todevelop suitable ways of dealing with information relatedto environmental protection and resource optimisation.
Current products are designed for easy assembly andcost-effective use of construction materials with focus onlyon manufacture. In order to meet the new demand forrecyclable products, current products have to be designedfor easy disassembly. Table 1 gives an overview of rules
suited for the design of such products [23].
Design for Ecological Environment
In [3] the life cycle concept is presented as the backbonefor a new industrial culture named sustainable production.Sustainability means design for the whole life cycle: pro-duction, distribution, usage and disposal with minimizedinfluence on the environment, occupational health and useof resources.
With respect to different life cycle phases general environ-mentally beneficial strategies not directly involving specificproducts are listed in Table 2[4].
Customer
NeedsFunctional
Requirements
Design
Parameters
Process
Variables
Customer Domain Functional Domain Physical Domain Process Domain
mapping mapping mapping
Figure 27: Design problems may be represented as mapping between four design domains.
Select theAssembly Method
Analyse forManual Assembly
Analyse for High-Speed Automatic
Assembly
Analyse forRobot Assembly
Improve theDesign andReanalysis
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Table 1: Generally accepted DfD design rules.
Table 2: Prevailing design strategies.
[19] describes the integration of life cycle oriented environ-mental considerations in procedures of product design and[28] addresses a simulation of the behaviour of used prod-ucts modelling critical functions for product quality withrespect to deterioration or upgrading.
To technically identify and economically assess reasona-ble combinations of disassembly and recycling it is usefulto build a recovery graph describing possible end-of-lifeoptions for each product or component by attaching a deci-sion between using component, utilising materials ordumping (Figure 29) [85]. Efforts in disassembly are justi-fied by profits in selling used components or materials andby saving dumping fees.
Figure 29: Recovery graph.
Modular Design
Modularization of components can considerably improvethe life-cycle characteristics of the product. Gu, Rivin andothers present an integrated modular design methodologyfor rapid product development, ease of assembly, service,reuse and recycling [17]. Different ways of the modulariza-tion have different impacts on the life-cycle characteristicsof the product. Goals of modularization are rapid productdevelopment, ease of assembly, service, reuse, recycling.
Design for Mass Customization
An approach combining comprehensive cost leadershipand product differentiation is design for mass customiza-tions. Figure 30 illustrates the economics of mass customi-zation [76]. In high volume production, the volume issufficient to defray the cost of investment in equipment,tooling, engineering. However, in low to medium volumeproduction, where production quantity can hardly justifythe investment, customers are willing to pay more becausetheir special needs are satisfied. This is the area wheremass customization has a tremendous advantage.
Figure 30: Economics of mass customization.
Effective definition of customer requirements is a prerequisite for mass customization. Design by customer is anapproach to communicate the offerings of a company, to
Benefits
Less DisassemblyWork
Predictable ProductConfiguration
Easy Disassembly
Easy Handling
Easy Separation
Variability Reduction
Design Rules
- Combine elements- Limit material variability- Use compatible materials- Group harmful materials into subassemblies- Provide easy access to harmful, valuable or
reusable parts
- Avoid ageing and corrosive materialcombination
- Protect subassemblies against soiling andcorrosion
- Accessible drainage points- Use fasteners easy to remove or destroy- Minimize number of fasteners- Use the same fasteners for many parts- Provide easy access to disjoining, fracture or
cutting points- Avoid multiple directions and complex
movements for disassembly- Set center-elemtents on a base part- Avoid metal inserts in plastic par ts
- Leave surface available for grasping- Avoid non-rigid parts- Enclose poisonous substances in sealed units
- Avoid secondary finishing (painting, coating,plating etc.)
- Provide marking or different colors for materialsto separate- Avoid parts and materials likely to damage
machinery (shredder)
- Use standart subassemblies and parts- Minimize number of fasteners types
Life Cycle Phase
Pre Manufacture
Relevance
Resource Depletion,Environmental Burdens
Environmental Burdens
Supplier performance,Environmental Burdens
Resource Depletion
Strategy
Use of Recycled Materials
Resource Depletion,Environmental Burdens
Low Energy Consumption
Resource Depletion,Environmental Burdens
Material Quality Preservation
Environmental Burdens,Working Environment
Use High-Throughput Processes
Resource Depletion,Environmental Burdens
Use Material Saving Processes
Use of Less Energy
Intensive Materials
Resource DepletionDesign for Maintenance/Long Life
Environmentally ConsciousComponent Selection
Resource Depletion,Environmental Burdens
Use Recycled Materials forPackaging
Use of Renewable Materials
Environmental BurdensOverhead Reduction
Resource EnvironmentalUse of Renewable Materials
Environmental BurdensImproved Logistics
Environmental BurdensLow Volume/Weight
Manufacture
Transportation/distribution
Use
Disposal
{B1,B2,B3}
{B2,B3}
{B1,B2}
Process Techn.
?
DumpingUtilisingUsingProcess Techn.
?
DumpingUtilisingUsing Process Techn.
?
DumpingUtilisingUsing
{B3}
{B2}
{B1}
$/Unit
Economics of Scope
Price that Customers Are Willing to Pay
Mass Production Cost Curve
Mass Customization Cost Curve
Mass Production Net Value-added
Mass Customization Net Value-added
Economics of Scale
Production Volume
Low Medium High
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find the customers needs, to assist the customer by choos-ing and to negotiate for agreement. Product family archi-tecture represents the design and manufacturingcapabilities. Adaptive conjoint analysis is applied to assertthe customers needs, define variants, to visualize optionsand assess alternatives [77].
Design for Costing
Achieving the goal of being competitive on markets is to alarge extent dependent from costs. The issue of costingcriteria for decisions in design is addressed in [38]. Activitybased costing is used as a source of cost data for the finalproduct during the design phase. Functional architecturefor costing data support during product design, as well ascorresponding data structure are presented.
The potential of neural networks for the calculation tasks indesign is dealt with in [37]. Tremendous speed in informa-tion processing and good approximation capabilities canhelp assess available product knowledge for tasks in dif-ferent stages of product design.
4.6 Utilization of Design Methods
The use of formal design methods within productionmachinery companies has been investigated in [16].Figure 31 identifies the percentage of designers, out of awhole of 72 companies having been asked by question-naires, who claimed practical relevance for designmethods.
Figure 31: Comparison between the knowledge plan andutilization of formal design methods.
The sobering little percentages are explained by
methods too laborious and time consuming,
lack of training,
inefficiency of extensive paperwork,
only development of feasible not of optimal solutionsand
resistance from designers.
5 MODELLING TOOLS
The powerful push of information and communication tech-nology has meant a heavy impact on modelling tools for
design purposes in our scientific community. Integrateddigital product modelling has proved to be a firm funda-ment of documenting and processing product knowledgefor a multitude of useful applications in product design.Modelling tools are considered in the context of integratedproduct modelling, concurrent engineering, cooperativedesign, learning and organisational aspects.
5.1 Integrated Product Modelling
In their 1990 keynote paper Peters, Krause and Agerman[54] address customers, functional, product and processdomain and distinguish the two phases of creation andanalysis in design. CAD/CAM integration, different ways ofrepresentation in geometric modelling, data exchangestandards, feature based modelling, finite element meth-ods and overall integration by open system architecture,parallel processing and networking are dealt with. Figure32 describes different auxiliary models and data used inproduct modelling [54].
Figure 32: Different auxiliary models and data used inproduct modelling.
In 1991 Krause presented a language for efficient feature-
based product Gestaltung. Product features enable theuser to work in his semantical environment but not onlywith geometric primitives thus speeding the design proc-ess [34].
Figure 33: Complete product life-cycle concerns.
In their 1993 keynote paper Krause, Kimura, T. Kjellbergand Lu gave a general overview on product modelling [35].Although strategies like CIM, lean production, simultane-ous engineering or product life-cycle engineering havesomewhat different focuses and approaches, they all
Brainst
DFA
FMEA
Taguchi
VA/VE
DFM
DFC
Checklist
QFD
FTA
Fish Bone
Pugh
ABC
Combinex
0 10 20 30 40 50 60Percentage of Respondents (%)
DesignMethods
70 80 90100
AwarenessGeneral UtilisationInformal Utilisation
Productstructure
Productorientedprocess
know-Product
ledge
Productgestalt
Processmodel
Applicationmodel
Factorymodel
Product Planning
Abstraction Level
Conception
Design
Specification
Production
Use
Remove
Cost
Accounting D
esign/
Development
Simultaneous EngineeringProject Management
Supplier/
Procurement
Qua
lityAss
uran
ce
Proc
ess-Plan
ning
/
Engine
ering
Marketing/
Distribution
Manufacturing/
Assembly
IntegratedInformation
Models
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share one fundamental requirement: The need foradvanced information technologies to integrate and coordi-nate various life-cycle considerations during product devel-opment activities. A central issue is generating aninformation reservior of complete product data to supportvarious activities at different product development phases.Therefore product modelling is a key factor in determiningthe success of various development strategies and indus-trial competitiveness in the future (Figure 33[35]).
Product modelling in the evolution of product developmentis described in Figure 34[35].
Figure 34: Product modelling in the evolution of productdevelopment.
Because of the central importance of product models acomplete digital representation of all product and processrelated infomation can be seen as an ideal situation. It isnecessary to segment the product and process informationbasis into logical related smaller components for easiermanagement and higher efficiency. The segmented totalproduct model (Figure 35 [35]) is one approach to step-wise adapt the development and implementation of the
complete description of products and their components. Ittherefore is divided in an internal view of the user companyitself and an external view built by gathering informationfrom outside the company.
Figure 35: Segmented total product model.
CAD traditionally deals with geometry and not with func-tions, which are difficult to represent. FBS (function-behaviour-state) modelling is a methodology to representfunction during functional design. Tomiyama, Umeda andYoshikawa presented an implementaion in 1993 [73].
Petri nets are a formal graph model for the description andanalysis of systems that exhibit both asynchronous andconcurrent properties. Flexible manufacturing systems
(FMS) are systems with such properties and petri netshave been developed over three decades into a powerfultool for representing and analysing these systems. Tomodel the FMS extended petri nets are used as given inFigure 36[79].
Figure 36: Generating a FMS-schedule plan withpetri-nets.
Figure 37 shows how the information generated and used
in design processes can be categorized in two classes:foreground and background information [26].
Figure 37: Background and foreground information.
The foreground information represents mainly what aproduct is, while background information involves howand why. Background information covers design require-ments, design specifications, design history, designmethods, design standards etc. It is collected or generatedduring the design process but often disappears after theprocess is finished. From the background information ofprevious products, a designer can learn the experience ofthe designers engaged in the development of those pro-ducts. Using this information design mistakes can bereduced. Since the background information seems sovaluable for the design of new products, it should be stored
for later access. Kimura and Suzuki propose a method andcomputer supported tools to properly handle und utilizebackground information [26]. It covers methodologies foracquiring/maintaining information, a knowledge/data baseand the integration with existing design support tools.
Currently the modelling of surfaces is rather difficultbecause of the pure mathematical approaches taken. Asone step to a more natural and intuitive technique the useof B-Splines is proposed. This physically based intuitivesystem is aimed at providing intuitive tools for effectivelydesigning curves and surfaces with a large degree of free-dom. The system is based on simulating the behaviour ofelastic beams and plates under forces. The tool can be
used to improve and shorten the development process[24].
Kimura identifies new roles and technology of stylingdesign to cope with emergent markets and environmental
workpiece drawing
geometric
model
product
model
usage
evaluation
economic
evaluation
design ofproduct
modellingprocesses
knowledgeprocessing
organization
simulationalgorithms
general methodsfor teaching
Development
Steps
Year2000195019001850
tryout
prototyping
marketresearch
developmentplanning
Machine
Building
Technical
Design
Methological
Design
Computer
Aided Design
Computer Aided
Product Modelling
Computer Aided Product Development
SegmentedTotal
Product Model
MarketModel
Environ-mentModel
BranchModel
SupplierModel
UsageModel
QualityModel
ProcessModelDesign
Model
ProductConceptModel
Require-mentModel
CustomerModel
Exterior Model
1. Step 2. StepSteps of Realization: 3. Step
Interior Model
FMS configuration
Coloured-TimedPetri Net Models
Product Definiton(Precedence graph)
Petri Net
Generator
Scheduler
Background
RequirementsSpecificationsAssumptionsConstraintsDesign HistoryDesign MethodsRationale etc.
esgnProcess
Foreground
Product Descript.DrawingCAD DataProduct Model
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requirements. He describes the interplay of styling andengineering design and computer aided tools for stylingdesign (Figure 38) [27].
Figure 38: CAD for styling and engineering design.
Digital product models can be used for maintainabilityanalysis and maintenance planning. It is not feasible to
build digital product models for maintenance purposesonly, but if a digital product model is available, it may beused to support many maintenance-related engineeringtasks. Examples are the influence of product use onproduct performance, the influence of wear on productfunction, failure mode and effect analysis, product model-based monitoring to relate sensor signals to failure modes,failure diagnosis, disassemblability analysis for repair andreplacement. Virtual maintenance systems are developedto support the activities mentioned above and thereforecan be used for robust design.
5.2 Concurrent Engineering
Sometimes materials processing and product design areso much independent, that they must be performedconcurrently. An example for this is filament winding. In[39] this widely used technique for composite structures ispresented. Precise control of fiber orientation is a majordesign consideration. Allowing a high-speed accurate lay-down of continuous fiber reinforcement in pre-describedpatterns, filament winding is particularly attractive formanufacturing components. An example can be the crea-tion of a basket-weave structure by helical winding. Afterthe winding process is finished, curing and finishing followsresulting in a product that can be tested and evaluated [48][50][84].
The term concurrent engineering has stimulated an indus-
trial development towards shorter lead times, lower costand better customer satisfaction. Leadership, developmentof team work and education have been important factors.The main methodology is to integrate product andprocesses development as much as possible in parallelrather than in sequence (Figure 39) [68].
Figure 39: Compressed product and manufacturingprocess design cycle under concurrent engineering.
CAD and rapid prototyping (RP) accelerate the productdevelopment process once a consistent computerinternalshape description is available and RP requirements areconsidered. By decomposing CAD models into criticalworkpiece areas, shape related definition of technologyparameters, layer models for RP, a technological planningsystem for RP is realized to be faster in phases of designand prototyping (Figure 40) [36].
Figure 40: Acceleration potentials through use of CADand rapid prototyping.
5.3 Cooperative Design
As costs and lead times for product development immedi-
ately affect the economic success, outsourcing of develop-ment activities becomes a major element of businessstrategy. Prerequisite is the ability to cooperate efficientlywith partners, jointly developing new products in a flexiblemanner.
In the model fusion approach presented by Lu in 1997 [41]the paradigm of engineering as a collaborative negotiationprocess is implemented in an adaptive and interactivemodelling system. Tichkiewitch in 1997 [72] presents amultiview system allowing to involve marketing agents, ITtechnologists, designers, manufacturers, people frommaintenance or recycling i.e. any participant of the productlife cycle into the product development process. In [62] a
method for distributed design and manufacturing based ona circuit representation of the product architecture support-ing self organizing development-consortia is presented
Computer Graphics Product Modelling
Form FeatureGeometric Modelling
Rapid PrototypingVirtual Reality
CAD
STYLINGDESIGN
Aesthetics
Ergonomics
Functionality
Manufacturability
ENGINEERINGDESIGN
Separationversus
Integration
CompetetiveStrategy
ProductPlanning
Product Design &Modelling
MaterialsSelection
Mfg. Process
DesignMdg. System
Design
PrototypeTesting
Detailed Process &Mfg. System Planning
Implementation &Logistics
Production & Distribution
Strategic
Logistics
LIFE CYCLE ECONOMICS MODEL Activity Based Costing Models
New Product Introduction
Time
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
Design phase n Prototype Production
Design
Model Preparation
Technological Planning
Manufacturing
Digitization
Rapid
Prototyping
Design process
CAD Time Savings
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(Figure 41). It is based on a general model of productdevelopment (Figure 42) [83].
Figure 41: Passage of a bus, connecting the front and therear vehicle. Primary, secondary and
tertiary circuits.
Figure 42: General model of distributed productdevelopment.
In [22] agents for the support of collaborative design, formonitoring design activities to identify needs for coopera-tion, to establish links between designers, and to providesuggestions for coordinated decisions are described.
In their 1999 keynote paper [42] Lu and Shpitalni showhow virtual and augmented reality technologies for productrealization can bridge gaps between design and manufac-turing, electrical engineering and computer science, howproduct realization will emerge between people, resources
and organisations distributed in time and space.Identifiying interdependencies among design tasks, thusmanaging technical decisions, social interaction and con-flicts is dealt with in [43].
5.4 Learning and Organisational Aspects
Innovation requires human initiative and open minds forchange. Information technology i.e. artificial intelligence,access to documentation, computer tools for decision sup-port, scenario based assessment, technical and economi-cal calculation can stimulate and support humanjudgement and creative imagination. Continuous learningand permanent organisational adaptation in driving teams
constitute a corporate attitude of readiness for innovation.Existing simulation tools are very often too slow on existingcomputers and prevent interactive decision making.Although most real-world problems involve multiple andcompeting objectives, the majority of optimisation tech-niques are single-objective optimisation tools requiring thatthe designer weighting the competing objectives. A knowl-edge processing methodology is proposed which com-bines the power of simulation and optimisation fromengineering with induction from machine learning researchin artificial intelligence (AI). Software techniques from AIinductive learning are integrated with multi-objective opti-misation to form a modelling system which provides flexi-ble support to engineers during both model formation andutilization phases. The advantage of this methodology isthat the designers can have explicit understanding andflexible control over the trade-off between speed and accu-racy of simulation models for design tasks [40].
Hierarchical and interactive decision refinement (HIDER)is a methodology for system design, that combinesmachine learning based modelling, multiple-objective opti-misation, and interactive refinement techniques to providedecision support for quickly exploring the design space.HIDER starts with an initial design space and uses theresults of optimisation to gradually refine the space until afully specified design is obtained. This is in contrast to thetraditional approach, which starts with a fully-specified
starting design and iteratively modifies its specifications.The shift in paradigm between the traditional and the pro-posed approaches is schematically illustrated in Figure 43[58].
Figure 43: Iterative modification andinteractive refinement.
A 1996 technical report on machine learning approachesto manufacturing [49] states that continuous steadyimprovement is a key requirement to manufacturing enter-prises necessitating flat and flexible organisation, life-longlearning of employees on the one side, and informationand material processing systems with adaptive, learningabilities on the other side. Sustainable production and sus-tainable competitiveness, or learning faster than competi-
tors are notations that describe current trends. As learningfactories, enterprises in manufacturing must be consciousof their duality, i.e. the interdependence of their technical
1
2
3
4
5
6
1 Front Joint
2 Rear Joint
3 Front-Chassis-Connection
4 Rear-Chassis-Connection
5 Folding Bellow
6 Tube-Wire-Package
Tertiary Circuit: Flow Media
TertiaryCircuit:FlowMedia
SecondaryCircuit:Fo
rcesMomentum
s, Displacements
Primary Circuit: Free Space
PrimaryCircuit:FreeSpace
Distributed
Product
Development
Interdependencies
Schedule
Intera
ctio
ns
c b d a e
c
b
d
a
e
x
x
x
x x
x
x
Requirements
a b c d e
A B C
Organization
Organizatio
nstructural
knowledgestructural
knowledge
Proce
ss
Process
Product ArchitectureProduct Architecture
proceduralknowledgeproceduralknowledge
descriptiveknowledgedescriptiveknowledge
a
bc d
e
m
lkj
i
h
gf
Dy
Dz
analysis andoptimisation fully specified
initial design
Dx
Dy
Dz
Dx
initial designspace
paradigm shift
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and human constituents. Human and machine learning areequally essential for learning enterprises.
A. Kjellberg defines three critical company capabilities:commitment, shared mindset and innovation aredemanded, to create company core excellence values. Allemployees in a company gain holistic understanding, con-sciousness (Figure 44) [29].
Figure 44: Company core excellence values.
Atransparency organizational model supports building upinnovative capabilities of teams competence brokers [30].
Cellular manufacturing systems are introduced as a rapidprototyping and strategic decision-making tool for configur-ing facilities and product task assignment [32]. The cellularsystems consist of atonomous intelligent units having thefollowing characteristics:
Homogeneity use only as few cells as necessary.
Distributed information cellular machine has no cen-tral control.
Autonomy each cell has intelligence and acts inde-pendently.
A self-organisation algorithm based on reinforcementlearning is introduced. By this algorithm, a cellular manu-facturing system can acquire an adequate configuration.
6 CASE EXAMPLES
A promising approach from a manufacturing perspective tocope with unpredictable high-frequency market changesdriven by global competition are reconfigurable manufac-turing systems [33] [75].
The development of upgradeable cellular machines hasbeen presented in 1998 by Kondoh, Umeda andYoshikawa [31].
In a 1999 keynote paper Koren and others present tripod-kinematic machines to be integrated in machining lines forcylinder blocks and also to be installed as stand-alone orportal styled laser centers for machining of sheet metal(Figure 45) [33].
Figure 45: Tripod-kinematic machines integrated intoa machining line.
In 2000 Arai presented a cell based holonic assembly sys-
tem as a modular plug & produce concept (Figure 46).Holons represent autonomous and cooperating systemcomponents [6].
Figure 46: Cell based holonic manufacturing system.
Machine tools equipped with process controlling sensorialdevices to compensate tool wear in cutting processeshave always been product innovations in the machine toolindustry. In [1] Brinksmeyer and others present an intelli-gent grinding wheel (Figure 47) with respective in-processcontrol of grinding. Miniaturized sensors for temperatureand force connected to wireless telemetric units for power
supply and data transmission are integrated in the grindingwheel sufficiently close to the contact zone (Figure 48).
Figure 47: Intelligent grinding wheel.
Comp
any CoreExcellenceValues
Professional
Competence
Innovative
Competence
Holistic Work
Organization Competence
Social Competence
Business Competence
Vision & Goal
Competence
TemperatureSensors
Segment of theGrinding Layer
Grinding Wheel
ForceSensors
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Figure 48: In-process control of grinding.
7 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
Innovation has been analysed considering art, natural sci-ences, economics and management, engineering andsocial sciences as sources of understanding and initiatinginvention and exploitation. Illustrating cases have been
presented along classifying criteria. The challenge of cre-ating business and jobs by intelligent deciding on how toassign resources to promising paths of innovation withoutin lack of strategy spilling the R&D budget on a wide rangeof activities has been stated. Methods and tools of design,case examples in manufacturing developed and dealt within our scientific community have been evaluated withrespect to meeting the challenge.
Manufacturing in general and especially design empow-ered by integrated knowledge processing beyond tradi-tional disciplinary barriers prove to be areas emergingartifacts. Referencing our creative imagination to meetinghuman goals and purpose for mankinds prosperity will
help us keeping course.
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Prof. F. Kimura, Prof. T. Kjellberg, Prof.F.-L. Krause, Prof. S. Lu, Prof. A. Y. C. Nee, Prof. M.Shpitalni, and to the following colleagues who contributedvaluable material: Prof. E. Brinksmeier, Prof. J. Corbett,Prof. B. Hon, Prof. E. Rivin, and Prof. H. K. Tnshoff.
9 REFERENCES
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