Study report on
Ephedra foliata Boiss. ex C.A.Mey.
By:- Vishwanath Zunjar
(P.G.DIPLOMA MEDICO BOTANY)
The Maharaja Sayajiroa Universityof Baroda,
Department of Botany,Vadodara-39002, Gujarat India.
INDEX
vernacular names 3
Classification 4
Plants description 5
Distribution 6
Habit and cultivation 7
Macroscopic and microscopic studies 8-10
Major chemical constituent 11
Isolation of ephedrine 12
Adult dosage 13
Application 14
Medical uses 15
Clinical pharmacology 16
Precautions 17
References 20
Taxonomic classification:Based on benthan and hookers
Kingdom: Plantae Order: Gnetianales
Family: Ephedraceae Genus: Ephedra
Species: foliata Boiss. ex C.A.Mey.
It was originally described by Pierre Edmond Boissier, later validly published by Carl Anton von Meyer in 1846.
Selected vernacular names • Kuchar• Tutgantha• Dewaria• Somlata• Alanda
• Suaphogro
• Andhokimp.
Morphological description :
Gymnosperm Shrubs, dioecious , with erect, climbing stems.
Branches jointed, photosynthetic, yellowish green to olive-green
when young. Branchlets opposite or whorled, green, longitudinally
grooved.
Leaves opposite or in whorls of 3, scalelike, generally ephemeral,
mostly not photosynthetic; resin canals absent.
Seeds have two Cotyledons. Seeds 1-3 per cone, ellipsoid to
globose, yellow to dark brown, smooth to scabrous or furrowed
Pollen cones solitary or clustered at nodes, each composed of 2-8
decussate pairs or 3-part whorls of membranous bracts, proximal
bracts empty.
Each bract subtending a male flower composed of 2 basally fused,
orbicular or obovate scales (false perianth), anthers sessile or stipitate on
staminal column
Perennial, small, slender, much branched pubescent
twining or climbing herbs or under shrubs; sap yellowish,.
found in the sub-himalayan tract from Uttar Pradesh to
Meghalaya and in the central and peninsular India,
ascending up to 1,260 m. Rootstock 2.5-5 cm. thick, Roots
long, fleshy, with longitudinally fissured light brown, corky
bark;; Leaves 6.0-10.5 x 3.8-6.0 cm, ovate-oblong to
elliptic-oblong, acute to acuminate, cordate at base,
thick, pubescent beneath when young, glabrous above;
petioles up to 12 mm long.; Flowers minute, 1-1.5 cm
across, in 2 to 3-flowered fascicles in axillary umbellate
cymes.; Calyx divided nearly to the base, densely hairy
outside; segments lanceolate, acute. Corolla greenish-
yellow or greenish-purple; lobes oblong, acute. Fruit a
follicle, .up to 7 x 1 cm,; ovoid lanceolate, tapering at apex
forming fine mucro, finally striate, glabrous. sSeeds 0.6-
0.8 x 0.3-0.4 cm, broadly ovate or ovate-oblong, flat,
brown, dark coloured in centre; coma 2.0-2.5 cm long.. Fl.
& Fr.: August-December (Kirtikar & Basu, 1935; Chopra et
al., 1956; Jagtap & Singh, 1999).
Habitat :
Found in the plains, forests, and hilly slopes and outskirts of the forest (Vita cost, 2004; Truestarhealth, 2005). Forms dense patches in the forest in moist and humid conditions in open hill slopes and narrow valleys, also cultivated for its medicinal uses. The plant shows stunted growth in the areas with lesser rainfall. According to Nadkarni (1976), it will on a wide range of well drained soils prefers sandy localities..
Distribution:
It is indigenous to India (Aurorahealthcare, 2005). The
plant inhabits up to an elevation of 1,260 m in the sub-
Himalayan tract and in the central and peninsular India. It
also Gmet with in Eastern, North-East and Central India,
Bengal and, parts of South India (Nadkarni, 1976). Except
throughout plains of India, it also harbor in Ceylon, Malay
island and Borneo (Kirtikar & Basu, 1935).
Medicinal Importance:
It is traditionally used as a folk remedy in certain regions
of India for the treatment of bronchial asthma (Bielory &
Lupoli, 1999), inflammation (Exoticnatural. 2005),
bronchitis, allergies, rheumatism and dermatitis (Gupta &
Bal, 1956; Shivpuri et al., 1969; Dhananjayan et al., 1974;
Mathew and & Shivpuri, 1974; Haranath &
Shyamalakumari, 1975; Thiruvengadam et al., 1978;
Gupta et al., 1979; Karnick and & Jopat, 1979; and Gore
et al., 1980; Truestarhealth, 2005; Remedyfind, 2005).
Apart from the above, it also seems to be a good remedy
in traditional medicine as anti-psoriasis, seborrheic,
anaphylactic, leucopenia and as an inhibitor of the
Schultz-Dale reaction (Sarma, 1978, Sarma & Misra,
1995).
The leaves and roots are used medicinally (Bhavan,
1992). It is said to have laxative, expectorant, diaphoretic
and purgative properties. It has also been used for the
treatment of allergies, cold, dysentery, hay fever and
arthritis (CSIR, 1948-1976). It has reputation as an
alterative and as a blood purifier, often used in
rheumatism and syphilitic rheumatism. Root or leaf
powder is used in diarrhoea, dysentery and intermittent
fever. It is an expectorant and administered in respiratory
affections, bronchitis and whooping cough (Nadkarni,
1976). Dried leaves are emetic diaphoretic and
expectorant. It is regarded as one of the best indigenous
substitute for ipecacuanha (Kirtikar & Basu, 1935), so it
was considered as Indian ipecacuahna in the latter half of
the 19th century (Food4less1, 2005)
The roots and leaves possess stimulant, emetic, cathartic and purgative properties (Shah and & Kapoor, 1976; Sharma and & Sharma, 1977; Vasudevan Nair et al., 1982; Nair et al., 1984 ). The roots and leaves are also reported to be used in hydrophobia. The leaves are employed to destroy vermin. The leaf extract ,acts as it is anti tumour (Chitnis et al., 1972; Stephen & Vijayammal, 2000).
Ayurvedic properties
GUNA: snigdhaRASA: madhuraVEERYA: sheetaVIPAKA: madhura
DOSHA: kaphahara
Formulations and Dosage
Leaves powder : 400-600 mg t.i.d.Decoction of leaves (1in 10) : 15-20 mlInfusion of root bark (1in 10) : 15-20 mlFresh leaf : one leaf to be chewed daily for 6 days
Cultivation (propagation)
The plant is propagated by portions of the old root-stalk or rhizomes, either in autumn or in spring.The plant is also propagated by the seeds or seedlings of the wild plant.The nursery is raised in July-August or April-May.At first the nursery raised seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 18-20 cm in rows 30 cm apart.When the seedlings are 6-8 weeks old and 10-15 cm tall , they are transplanted to their permanent sites.
Irrigation
This crop requires 2-3 irrigations during the dry period from June to September.
Weeding
Weeding is done for first three months to avoid competition. Later on ,weeding is attended to as and when required
Manures and fertilizers
It needs the application of FYM @ 10 t/ha., which is mixed in the soil well in advance.The crop responds to inorganic fertilizers as well.About 60 kg of N and 40 kg/ha. of P2O5 and K2O have to be applied for better yield.Nitrogen is given in 2 split doses for efficient utilization.
Pests and Diseases
The crop suffers from sooty mould; the fungus grows on gummy excreta of the insect deposited on the leaves and in the advanced stage it spreads to the entire leaf and reduces the yielding capacity of the plant.Later on , the leaves dry , wither or drop off.It can be controlled by spraying, starch mixed with Nuvacrone solution on the leaves of the plant.The starch along with the fungus dries up and drops off from the leaves.
Harvesting and Yield
The first harvesting of leaves can be done after 3-4 months of planting and subsequently at 2 months’ interval.While harvesting, care should be taken to pluck the leaves without damaging the veins.The leaves are then spread on a clean floor for drying for 7-10 days and then packed in polythene lined bags for further marketing.An average yield of 5000 kg/ha/year of dried leaves can be obtained.
Toxic effect:
According to Gupta et al. (1979), it may produce some
side effects like drowsiness or giddiness. Loss of taste for
salt, mouth pain, upset stomach, temporary nausea and
vomiting are some other side effects (Shivpuri et al., 1969,
1972; Bone, 1996). Tightness in throat or chest, chest
pain, skin hives, rash, or itchy or swollen skin may occur in
some cases (Healthtouch, 2005).
Preliminary studies shows that extract of Tylophora is
toxic only in extremely high doses; these extracts were
apparently safe in the far smaller doses needed to
produce a therapeutic effect (Dikshith et al., 1990).
Chemical Components:
The major constituent in this plant is alkaloid Tylophorine
that is responsible for a strong anti-inflammatory action
(Gopalakrishnan et al., 1979) and Tylophorininepresent.
The other alkaloids include Tylophorinidine, Septicine and
Isotylocrebrine.
From phytochemistry point of view, Tylophora asthmatica
contains 0.2-0.3 % of alkaloids. Tylophorine and
tylophornine are important alkaloids encountered and the
percentage is not affected by seasonal variations [3].
Pharmacology:
Test tube studies suggest that tylophorine is able to
interfere with the action of mast cells, which are key
components in the process of inflammation action
(Gopalakrishnan et al., 1980). These actions seem to
support its traditional use as an anti-asthmatic and anti-
allergic medication by traditional healers. According to
Bone (1996), the dose should not exceed 200-400 mg
dried leaf powder per day or 1 to 2 ml of tincture per day
for the treatment of asthma. The plant shows inhibitory
effect on cellular immune response (Ganguly & Sainis,
2001) and antiallergic activity (Nayampalli & Sheth, 1979).
Weak preliminary evidence hints that Tylophora might
have anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, and antispasmodic
actions (Gopalakrishnan et al., 1980; Wagner, 1989;
Udupa et al., 1991; Nandi, 1999). In tests with tTylophora
extract, both adrenal weight and plasma steroid levels
were found increased (Vitasentials, 2005).
Clinical trials:
These historical and laboratory findings have been
supported by several human clinical trials using differing
preparations of Tylophora, including the crude leaf,
tincture, and capsule. Clinical trial against asthma shows
that Tylophora leaf chewed and swallowed daily in the
early morning for six days reduces asthma symptoms
(Shivpuri et al., 1969). An alcoholic extract of crude
Tylophora leaves in 1 gram of glucose had comparable
effects to that of chewing the crude leaf (Shivpuri et al.,
1972). Another trial found similar success in reducing
asthma symptoms (Thiruvengadam et al., 1978).
However, the Tylophora was not as effective as a
standard asthma drug combination. One double-blind trial
failed to show any effect on asthma for Tylophora (Gupta
et al., 1979).
One such study randomly assigned 110 bronchial asthma patients to receive one Tylophora asthmatica leaf (150 mg of the leaf by weight) or comparable placebo to be chewed and swallowed daily in the early morning for six days. At the end of one week, 62% of the patients consuming the tylophora reported experiencing moderate to complete relief of their asthma symptoms compared to 28% in the placebo group. Moreover, when patients were switched from the placebo to the active group and vice versa, similar positive trends could be seen, with 50% of the tylophora group and 11% of the placebo group reporting symptomatic relief [5]. In a follow-up study, the alcoholic extract of crude tylophora leaves in 1 gram of glucose had comparable effects to that of chewing the crude leaf, with 56% of the patients reporting moderate to complete improvement in asthmatic symptoms compared to 32% in the placebo group [6].
In another clinical trial, 30 patients with a diagnosis of
bronchial asthma for at least two years were assigned at
random to one of two treatment groups consisting of 15
individuals each [7]. One group received either 350 mg of
tylophora leaf powder or placebo daily in the first week. In
comparison, a second group of asthmatics were given a
similar amount of the leaf for seven days followed by an
anti-asthmatic drug combination. Overall, results of the
study showed the amount of oxygen in the lung increased
in those using the leaf but decreased in those using the
placebo. In addition, those taking the herb had a notable
nighttime reduction in their symptoms of shortness of
breath.
A higher quality double-blind study that enrolled 135 individuals found no benefit from Tylophora asthmatica in asthma [9].
HPTLC Fingerprinting of different leaf extracts of Tylophora indica (Burm f.) Merill.
TitleHPTLC Fingerprinting of different leaf extracts of Tylophora indica (Burm f.) Merill.
Publication Type
Journal Article
Year of Publication
2010
AuthorsMayank G, Mhaveer S, Mukhatr Hayat M, Sayeed A
Journal Pharmacognosy JournalVolume 2Issue 11Pagination 381–385Date Published
August
KeywordsHPTLC fingerprinting, TLC, TOC Alerts - Phcog J, Tylophora indica, Tylophorine.
AbstractTylophora indica is very popularly used for the
treatment of asthma based on its traditional use
for asthma. Tylophora is perennial climbing
plant native to the plains, forests, and hills of
southern and eastern India. A method has been
developed for different extracts of Tylophora
indica for HPTLC fingerprinting analysis for
identification and quantification of marker
compound. For chloroform extract-
Chloroform(90): Methanol (5) : Ethyl acetate (5)
v/v, Methanol Extract-Toluene(5):
Chloroform(90), Ethyl acetate(5) v/v and for
Petroleum ether extract-Hexane(40) : Ethyl
acetate (60) v/v. The HPTLC fingerprinting
profile developed for different extracts of
Tylophora indica will help in proper identification
and quantification of marker compound.
URL http://phcogj.com/files/PJ11/PJ11_4.html
Adulterant of Tylophora indica
Tylophora dalzellii a medicinal member belongs to the
tribe Marsdenieae
of the family Asclepiadaceae.
T. dalzellii has been used in treatment of asthma,
dermatitis
and rheumatism. However, it has not yet been studied
pharmacognostically.
T. dalzellii is a frequent climber of scrub forest. Stems are
much
branched and pubescent. Latex is milky-white. The
leaves are most of the natural products tested for were
present in the plant material except glycosides,
anthroquinones and flavonoides which were not detected
in any of the tested fractions.
References:
www.google.com/tylophora indica
dmapr.org.in
species.wikimedia.org
6] Shivpuri DN, Singhal SC, Parkash D. Treatment of
asthma with an alcoholic extract of Tylophora indica: a
cross-over, double-blind study. Ann Allergy 1972; 30:407-
12
7] Thiruvengadam KV, Haranatii K, Sudarsan S, et al. Tylophora indica in bronchial asthma: a controlled comparison with a standard anti-asthmatic drug. J Indian Med Assoc 1978; 71:172-6.
9] Gupta S, George P, Gupta V, et al. Tylophora indica in
bronchial asthma double blind study. Indian J Med Res.
1979; 69:981-989
Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops – A A Farooqi
and B S Sreeramu
Selected Medicinal Plants of India- compiled by-Bhartiya
Vidya Bhavan’s and Swami Prakashanand Ayurveda
Research Centre-Bombay