149
Cooperation and Regional Integration in Latin America and The Caribbean 2010
ORGANISMS AND MECHANISMS OF COOPERATION AND INTEGRATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
UNASUR
Andean Community, CAN (1996)
Caribean Community, CARICOM (1973)
Central American Common Market, CACM (1960)
Common Market of the South, MERCOSUR (1991)
North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA (1992)
Central American Integration System, SICA (1993)
LAIA: Mexico, Cuba, Chile, countries of the Andean Community and Mercosur
IBERO-AMERICAN COMMUNITY: Andorra, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Equador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Dominican Republic, Spain, Uruguay and Venezuela
RIO GROUP: Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Equador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Republic, Surinam, Uruguay and Venezuela
OAS: all the American independent States except Cuba
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
Chile
BelizeHonduras
NicaraguaEl Salvador
Guatemala
CostaRica
Panama
Surinam
Paraguay
Guyana
Uruguay
Equador
Argentina
Venezuela
United States
Canada
United States
Mexico
Bahamas
Cuba
Jamaica
Haiti
Dominican Rep.
Brazil
Trinidad & Tobago
Saint Vicent & Granadines
Grenada
Barbados
Dominica
Antigua & Barbuda
Saint Kitts & Nevis
Saint Lucia
Montserrat
CID
OB
In
tern
atio
na
l Y
earb
oo
k 2
011
150
Wo
rld
po
lit
ics
Evolution of Foreign Trade in the LAIA countries Overall, foreign trade in the LAIA member countries showed
recovery in 2010 with a rise in exports of almost 30%, con-
firming that improvement in the international setting favoured
Latin American countries through commerce. Country com-
parison reveals that the increases have been generalised and
with quite similar percentages (with the exception of Para-
guay with 43.2%). However, in absolute terms, the greatest
increase was displayed by Mexico (69,000 million dollars),
followed by Brazil (49,000), Chile (17,000) and Argentina
(13,000), these four countries totalling between them more
than 85% of the upswing in overall sales (see Table I).
In the case of imports as a whole, showing an increase bor-
dering on 34% for all the LAIA countries in 2010, the boost
in demand can be explained by the recovery of economic
activity in the region. Country comparison shows generalised
improvement, although with rather varying incidence in which
three countries (Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay) show growth
rates exceeding 40%. In absolute terms, the list was again
topped by Mexico (67,000 million dollars), after which come
Brazil (54,000), Argentina (18,000) and Chile (14,000),
these four countries accounting for 85% of the increase in
overall purchases (see Table II).
Recovery in 2010 was also registered in intraregional
trade, with data showing that the slump of 2009 is practical-
ly surmounted. According to LAIA figures, trade between the
member countries rose by approximately 30% with both ex-
ports and imports, along the lines of the ascendant tendency
in worldwide trade. In the case of exports, the most dynamic
sales were those of Mexico (49.7%) and Peru (42%), in con-
trast with Colombia, which showed a slight downturn of 10%.
As for imports, the biggest expansion in purchases occurred
in Argentina (45.1%), Paraguay (37.2%) and Brazil (35.5%),
while Uruguay’s scale of imports (6.5%) was the most mod-
est (see Tables I and II). Then again, from the standpoint of
exchanges between the different blocks of regional integra-
tion, the results also demonstrate considerable recovery in
trade between the members of the Southern Common Mar-
ket (MERCOSUR) and those of the Andean Community as
well as between the two blocks. Equally significant has been
the expansion in trade between MERCOSUR and Mexico and
Chile, between the Andean Community with these two coun-
tries and, finally between the two countries (see Table III)
ANDEAN COMMUNITY (AC)
Evolution of tradeAccording to the statistical estimates of the General Sec-
retariat of the Andean Community, which generally coincide
with those of ECLAC and LAIA data, the figures for foreign
trade in 2010 of the present members of the Andean Com-
munity (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru) reveal a signifi-
cant degree of recovery. Exports as whole increased by 26%,
this mainly being the result of price rises in mining products
and crude oil and derivates, while with agricultural and fishing
products the increase was more moderate. Country com-
parison shows that Peru (32%) achieved the best results fol-
LATIN AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF INTEGRATION (LAIA)
Evolution of GDP and the external sector of the Latin American CountriesThe economies of the countries of Latin America and the Car-
ibbean consolidated the trend to recovery observed at the end
of the previous year and, on average, showed a significant
GDP growth of approximately 6%. This conclusion published
in the Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America
and the Caribbean 2010, which is produced by the Economic
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC),
coincides with IMF and the United Nations Department of Eco-
nomic and Social Affairs trend analyses. There were internal
factors that aided recovery in this Latin American return to
growth, essentially the economic stimulus methods adopted
by the governments of the region. It was also influenced by
several external factors, beginning with the improvement in
worldwide growth and international trade, together with in-
creased Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and emigrant remit-
tances. According to IMF estimates, GDP growth worldwide
stood at a figure of 5% for 2010 while WTO estimates show
a 13% increase in international trade.
For all that, the ECLAC report also shows considerable
variation in the GDP findings for the different Latin Ameri-
can countries. Notable here is a group of seven countries
that showed very vigorous growth, led by Paraguay (9.7%),
Uruguay (9%), Peru (8.6%) and Argentina (8.4%), followed
closely by Brazil (7.7%), Dominican Republic (7%) and Pana-
ma (6.3%). Next came four countries (Colombia, Costa Rica,
Chile and Mexico) also showing a considerable upswing rang-
ing from 4% and 5.3%, while another six countries (El Salva-
dor, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Ecuador and Bolivia)
showed more moderate growth, from 1% to 3.5%. Finally,
Venezuela appeared with a negative figure of -1.6% and, in
Haiti, the earthquake aggravated the GDP downtrend to a
figure of -7%.
With regard to the evolution of foreign trade of the Latin
American countries, the ECLAC data show that recovery was
more marked with imports than with exports of goods and
services. With the trade in goods, the increase was of the
order of 25.5% in exports and 28.4% in imports while, in the
case of services, the trend was more moderate with a rise of
9.21% in exports and 19.6% in imports. As for the final bal-
ance for goods and services, the result was almost zero with
a persisting tendency towards deterioration. Finally, although
there was an improvement in remittances from emigrants,
the deficit in the current account balance endured, this being
estimated at about 1.1% of regional GDP for 2010.
Analysis of price trends and volumes of products exchanged
show differing results depending on the nature of each ele-
ment. In exports of mining products, and crude oil and deri-
vates the main increase in sales figures can be attributed
to price rises, while with exports of agricultural, fishing and
manufactured products the increase is explained by a greater
volume of sales. Imports rose as a result of the purchase of a
larger volume of manufactured goods, these being products
that traditionally tend to have more stable prices.
151
Co
ope
rati
on
an
d R
egio
na
l In
teg
rati
on
in
Lat
in A
mer
ica
an
d T
he
Ca
ribb
ean
201
0TABLE I. LAIA COUNTRIES EXPORTS
(million $)
To LAIA countries Total World
2009 2010 % variation 2009 2010 % variation
Country 2010/2009 2010/2009
Argentina 22,979 28,064 22.1 55,669 68,500 23.0
Bolivia 3,173 4,166 31.3 5,453 6,957 27.6
Brazil 29,897 41,202 37.8 152,995 201,915 32.0
Chile 8,473 10,956 29.3 49,938 67,425 35.0
Colombia 8,078 7,261 -10.1 32,853 39,820 21.2
Equador 3,296 4,227 28.2 13,799 17,369 25.9
Mexico 10,090 15,109 49.7 229,783 298,361 29.8
Paraguay 2,196 3,048 38.8 3,167 4,534 43.2
Peru 3,731 5,299 42.0 26,625 35,073 31.7
Uruguay 2,056 2,808 36.6 5,405 6,733 24.6
TOTAL1 93,969 122,140 30.0 575,687 746,687 29.7
1. Produced from data of the country informant. Information from Cuba and Venezuela not included. Source: ALADI Produced by: CIDOB
TABLE II. LAIA COUNTRIES IMPORTS
(million $)
LAIA countries origin World origin
2009 2010 % variation 2009 2010 % Variación
Country 2010/2009 2010/2009
Argentina 15,499 22,487 45.1 38,781 56,443 45.5
Bolivia 2,542 3,000 18.0 4,467 5,366 20.1
Brazil 21,944 29,744 35.5 127,722 181,649 42.2
Chile 12,389 16,010 29.2 38,826 52,872 36.2
Colombia 8,279 10,761 30.0 32,898 40,683 23.7
Equador 5,526 6,470 17.1 15,093 19,961 32.3
Mexico 8,133 9,621 18.3 234,385 301,482 28.6
Paraguay 3,153 4,326 37.2 6,497 9,400 44.7
Peru 7,078 8,935 26.2 21,815 29,880 37.0
Uruguay 3,883 4,135 6.5 6,907 8,622 24.8
TOTAL1 88,426 115,489 30.6 527,391 706,358 33.9
1. Produced from data of the country informant. Information from Cuba and Venezuela not included. Source: ALADI Produced by: CIDOB
TABLE III. TRADE FLOWS AMONG DIFFERENT ORGANIZATIONS AND LAIA MEMBER STATES
2009 (million $) % 2010
(million $) % Variation 2009/2010 %
Intra-MERCOSUR 32,655 38.2 43,655 38.3 33.7
MERCOSUR-Chile 11,589 13.5 15,410 13.5 33.0
CAN-MERCOSUR 12,481 14.6 16,282 14.3 30.5
Intra-CAN 6,541 7.6 8,853 7.8 35.3
MERCOSUR-Mexico 9,140 10.7 11,896 10.4 30.2
CAN-Mexico 4,957 5.8 7,441 6.5 50.1
CAN-Chile 5,383 6.3 6,417 5.6 19.2
Chile-Mexico 2,831 3.3 4,001 3.5 41.3
TOTAL1 85,577 100 113,955 100 33.2
1. Information from Cuba and Venezuela not included. Source: ALADI Produced by: CIDOB
CID
OB
In
tern
atio
na
l Y
earb
oo
k 2
011
152
Wo
rld
po
lit
ics
Presidents on 14 July 2007 in Tarija, Bolivia. Moreover, one
of the participants in this meeting was the Chilean president,
Michelle Bachelet, thus consummating the incorporation of
her country as an associate member of the Andean Com-
munity.
However, the respite was short-lived and discrepancies
once again emerged, these being defined by the president
of Ecuador, Rafael Correa, as serious asymmetries. The
Andean Community members have different conceptions of
joining the international sphere, apart from other particular
disagreements of a bilateral nature that have raised situa-
tions that are difficult to reconcile. On the one hand, with
regard to the international question, there are two countries
that have signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United
States (Peru and Colombia), while Bolivia and Ecuador de-
clined to sign such an agreement. On the other hand, there
are tensions in the bilateral relations between Bolivia and
Peru, while relations between Ecuador and Colombia were for
some time frozen for political reasons that were exacerbated
by a border conflict.
It was in these circumstances that the fortieth anniversary
celebrations of the signing of the first Cartagena Agreement
were held in 2009. This agreement was the one that origi-
nally gave shape to the first organism of Andean integration
and, in the commemorative activities, it was recalled that
the process of integration had gone through other crises
and that these had been dealt with through appeals to prag-
matism. In any case, the flow of institutional relations has
been partially blocked and it has not been possible to hold
the regular Presidential Council meetings. For the time be-
ing, institutional continuity is jointly maintained by the An-
dean Council of Foreign Ministers, the General Secretariat
of the AC and the temporary Secretariat, which is renewed
each year with the member countries alternating in the
chair, while the agenda of contents is discussed in periodical
thematic meetings of representatives of the member states
attended by ministers from the relevant area and other sec-
ond-level officials.
The difficulties in institutional relations have not favoured,
either, the lines of political cooperation that the AC member
countries have adopted at other times with a view to imple-
menting a joint foreign policy. In this regard, inertia would
seem to be holding sway and there are no major advances in
relations with the United States. The only significant event for
2010 is the renovation of the Andean Trade Promotion and
Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA), which benefits Colombia, Ec-
uador and Peru. As for the European Union, the negotiations
en bloc in order to reach trade agreements were abandoned
in 2009 and bilateral negotiations with Colombia and Peru
began, these concluding in March 2010 with the signing of
EU agreements with these two countries. A summit between
the Andean heads of state and the heads of state in the
European Council, the European Commission, and the rotat-
ing EU president was held on 19 May in Madrid. Among the
matters discussed were questions on the bi-regional agenda
– in particular environmental issues, migration and the fight
against drugs – and a commitment to continuity of political
dialogue and cooperation was reaffirmed.
lowed by Bolivia (28%), Ecuador (26%) and Colombia (21%).
With imports, the growth trend was also generalised with
considerable variation among the four countries. Peru (37%)
accounts for the largest rise in imports as a whole, followed
by Ecuador (32%), Colombia (24%) and Bolivia (20%).
Intraregional trade also showed very favourable recovery
estimated at about 35%. Hence the export quota among
the AC members slightly improved in comparison with global
exports so that it now stands at almost 8%, which is the
pre-slump figure from before 2009. In the country-by-country
reckoning, Colombia (45%) showed the largest rise in sales
to its neighbours, while also having the highest quota of par-
ticipation in AC trade as a whole, and is followed by Ecuador
(35%), Peru (29%) and Bolivia (19%). Bilateral trade flows
between the AC countries are once again irregular. First,
Bolivia’s sales to Ecuador show a steep climb of 85% even
though the volume of exchange is still the lowest. In terms of
its chief clients the increase in sales to Peru (35%) was very
substantial, although sales to Colombia showed no move-
ment. From the standpoint of purchases, the results reveal
stagnation in the case of Ecuador, where the volume is low
while, with Bolivia’s main suppliers, there was an increase of
21% with Colombia, and 22% with Peru. Second, Colombia,
records a steep rise in sales (45%) with its two main clients
(Ecuador and Peru) and a more moderate increase with Bo-
livia (18%). In the case of imports, the trend was similar
with 26% of purchases coming from Peru, after which came
Ecuador (29%) and then Bolivia (10%). Third, in its exports
Ecuador had its best result with its chief buyer (Peru), show-
ing an increase of 45%. Also considerable was the upsurge
in sales to Bolivia (37%), although by volume of exchange this
country is third on the client list, while exports to Colombia
rose by 20%. In the case of imports into Ecuador, acquisi-
tions from Bolivia multiplied sevenfold, although the baseline
level was very low. More significant was the 27% increase of
imports from Colombia, its main supplier while, with Peru,
the rise was 35%. Finally, although Peru has a slightly more
balanced structure of trade with its partners, it also showed
differential growth in its exports. Heading the client list was
Ecuador with a rise of 51%, followed by Bolivia (22%) and
then Colombia (15%). In contrast, with imports the average
growth of purchases from its neighbours was more even-
handed, ranging from 30% to 40%.
Institutional activities, agenda for integration, political co-operation and joint foreign policyThe Andean regional organism is passing through a delicate
time due to discord among its members and also some insti-
tutional debility. There is agreement in signalling that one of
the factors triggering the present situation occurred in April
2006 when Venezuela denounced the Cartagena Agreement
and withdrew from the Andean Community. A year went by
during which it was necessary to make the necessary ad-
justments with the representation of the countries in the ju-
risdictional organs and organisational structure, whereafter
it seemed that the institutional machinery was functioning
properly again. One example of this return to normal func-
tioning was the holding of the Seventeenth Council of Andean
153
Co
ope
rati
on
an
d R
egio
na
l In
teg
rati
on
in
Lat
in A
mer
ica
an
d T
he
Ca
ribb
ean
201
0
ter the earthquake and the urgent need for reconstruction in
the country. The heads of state emphasised the importance
of boosting financial aid and the fact that this should be given
directly to the Haitian government so it could be channelled
without intermediary delays to areas identified as priority (agri-
culture, infrastructure, governance and health). Another issue
dealt with was the economic evolution of the Caribbean coun-
tries following the consequences of the international crisis.
Since the presidents of the World Bank and the International
Development Bank (IDB) also attended the meeting, discus-
sions were held with both about initiatives for improving the
foreign debt standing of the Caribbean countries and also con-
cerning the fund for financing activities aimed at ameliorating
and preventing the consequences of climate change. Finally,
the CARICOM leaders reiterated their concern over the levy on
airline tickets introduced by the United Kingdom, which puts
the Caribbean countries at a disadvantage vis-à-vis other tour-
ist destinations.
Subsequently, from 4 to 7 July, the Thirty-first Regular Meet-
ing of the Conference of Heads of Government of the CARICOM
Community was held in Montego Bay, Jamaica. Prominent
among the main items on the agenda was an assessment of
the evolution of, and challenges faced by, the CARICOM Single
Market and Economy after presentation of the most recent re-
port. In addition, analysis was made of the impact of the inter-
national crisis in the development of the Caribbean economies,
especially with regard to agriculture and tourism. Questions
of security and climate change were also discussed together
with the sub-region’s foreign trade negotiations. Finally, a CARI-
COM report on aid given to Haiti was presented and the lead-
ers analysed the situation in the country. It was also agreed
to facilitate the movement of Haitian entrepreneurs within the
Caribbean Community and to establish non-reciprocal trade
for a series of goods as well as providing institutional technical
support. With respect to the presidential and legislative elec-
tions in Haiti slated for the end of the year, a commitment was
made by CARICOM to participate in the international support
mission.
Foreign RelationsThe Caribbean countries share a foreign relations agenda that
is debated and articulated at the institutional level in an organ
known as COFCOR (The Council for Foreign and Community Re-
lations). The Thirteenth Annual Meeting of this body was held
in Dominica on 5 and 6 May and considerable attention was
given to evaluating the crisis in Haiti after the catastrophe of
the earthquake and the response of the Caribbean countries
regarding the country’s reconstruction. Other items on the
agenda included consensus between the Caribbean countries
over negotiations on climate change after the Copenhagen
Summit, relations with third countries and groups of coun-
tries, the state of play of geopolitical changes in America, and
the prospects for CARICOM arising from reforms to the United
Nations and the international financial institutions.
Several other summits were also held during the year, these
being attended by the CARICOM heads of state and leaders
of other countries of the Americas – Mexico, Brazil and the
United States – and with the European Union. The first took
THE CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM)
Evolution of the economy, the external sector and integra-tionThe economies of the Caribbean countries showed quite an
irregular performance in 2010 although most of them consoli-
dated the tendency to recovery observed at the end of 2009
and achieved slight growth. According to the Preliminary Over-
view produced by the Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (ECLAC), the average figure for GDP growth
of the Caribbean Countries was 0.5%. Among the factors fa-
vouring recovery was a slight advance in tourist activity and
increased remittances from the region’s emigrants, although
the prices of raw materials were still subject to the volatility of
the times of crisis.
However, a breakdown and analysis of the data for the Carib-
bean countries reveals that GDP growth is quite varied and
uneven. First, there are three economies that are expanding
at a faster pace of between 2% and 3% (Belize, Guyana and
Surinam). Next is a group consisting of the Bahamas, Domi-
nica, Granada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia,
and Trinidad and Tobago, where the GDP rise has been very
small, between 0.5% and 1.4%. Then there are two countries
showing a moderate downturn in GDP – Barbados (-1%) and
Saint Kitts and Nevis (-1.5%) – while the drop for Antigua and
Barbuda was greater (-4.1%). Finally, in Haiti, the consequenc-
es of the earthquake exacerbated the GDP decline, the figure
here being estimated at -7%.
With regard to the evolution of the external sector of the
CARICOM countries in 2010, the ECLAC Overview data on the
international integration of Latin America and the Caribbean
also show an uneven performance. In goods exports the an-
nual growth rate has improved a little, in particular with the
advances made by Jamaica and Surinam. However, the sales
of Trinidad and Tobago are still stalled. Again, with exports
of services, the picture has been quite unchanging for the
majority of countries although slight gains have been made by
the Bahamas and Jamaica. Accordingly, with the exception of
Surinam and Trinidad and Tobago, the negative figures of the
current account balance still held.
As for the evolution of trade integration, the ECLAC Overview
data indicate that there has been some progress in recent
years in comparison with the previous decade. Participation
in the export trade by the CARICOM members with regard to
the exports total went from 10% in the period from 1991 to
1994 to 15% in the period from 2005 to 2008. However,
the lead taken by Trinidad and Tobago has also increased no-
tably from a quota of 55% of the total intraregional exports
in 1990 to 80% in 2008. As a result, Trinidad and Tobago
has registered large surpluses in exports of gas, crude oil and
derivatives to its neighbours, while the smaller countries of the
East Caribbean have considerable deficits.
Institutional activitiesThe Heads of State and Government of the Caribbean Com-
munity (CARICOM) countries held their Twenty-first Interim
Meeting on 11 and 12 March in Dominica. One of the most
pressing matters on the agenda was the situation in Haiti af-
CID
OB
In
tern
atio
na
l Y
earb
oo
k 2
011
154
Wo
rld
po
lit
ics
the Spanish acronym) and the Organisation of Ibero-American
States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI in the Spanish
acronym).
With respect to the meetings of members of civil society and
the high-level forums in 2010, there were four noteworthy
encounters. In chronological order, the first was held between
15 and 16 October in Mar del Plata (Argentina), venue for
the Fifth Ibero-American Local Government Forum which was
held with a view to discussing education for social inclusion.
Shortly afterwards, on 11 and 12 November, the Sixth Ibero-
American Parliamentary Forum was held in Buenos Aires, this
being attended by the legislative representatives of the coun-
tries comprising the community. At the meeting of senators
and members of parliament, discussion was organised around
four mainstays: access, permanence and obligatoriness in the
educational system; the new information and communication
technologies in education; educational pluralism and quality
schooling; and integral funding of the educational system. Fi-
nally, on 2 and 3 December, was the concurrent holding in
Mar del Plata (Argentina) of the Sixth Ibero-American Civic En-
counter and the Sixth Ibero-American Business Meeting. Dis-
cussion at the Civic Encounter was concerned with two main
themes, one dealing with educational access and the right to
education and the other with participation of networks, unions
and social organisations in regional education, as stated in
the final declaration. At the Business Meeting, several themes
were dealt with and subsequently detailed in the document
of conclusions. Notable among these are efforts to improve
and introduce innovations into productivity and productive di-
versity, the development of global Ibero-American enterprises,
the complementary needs between Ibero-America and Asia in
furthering economic relations and, finally, an appeal addressed
to the developed countries to avoid financial upheavals that
negatively affect economic growth.
In the case of sectoral ministerial meetings, twelve encoun-
ters were held in 2010 attended by ministers from different
spheres discussing matters of interest in Agriculture, Health,
Childhood and Adolescence, Public Administration and Govern-
ment Reform, Tourism, Education, Housing and Urban Devel-
opment, Culture, Work, Justice and Youth. At each of these
sessions discussion centred on issues featuring on a joint
agenda of cooperation, and agreement was sought on decla-
rations pertaining to the different spheres of activity and the
recommendations were addressed to the Secretary General
and the Heads of State and Government.
The core event, the meeting of Heads of State and Govern-
ment of the 22 countries of the Community, took place with
the Twentieth Ibero-American Summit held on 2 and 3 De-
cember in Mar del Plata (Argentina). Notable for his absence
at the Summit was Rodríguez Zapatero, this being the first
time that a Spanish Prime Minister had failed to attend this
meeting together with King Juan Carlos. His absence was due
to problems of financial turbulence arising from the economic
crisis which obliged him to remain in Spain to lead a Council
of Ministers at which crucial decisions had to be taken. With
the exception of Rafael Correa of Ecuador, other outstanding
absences were those of the heads of state of the Bolivarian
Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA), who offered
place on 21 February in Cancun, Mexico, with the aim of mak-
ing progress in bilateral cooperation in the domains of trade
and development. Other themes discussed were bilateral co-
operation in aiding Haiti and the debate over the Convention
on Climate Change. The second summit was held on 26 April
in Brasilia with an agenda featuring bilateral commitments
favouring peace and security as well as democratic develop-
ment. In the sphere of economic relations several agreements
on technical cooperation were signed and Brazil also under-
took to contribute funds to the Caribbean Development Bank.
Then again President Lula declared his support for negotiat-
ing a free trade treaty between MERCOSUR and CARICOM.
With regard to the United States, a ten-year extension was
approved in April for the US law regulating the trade facilities
conceded to the Caribbean Countries, the Caribbean Basin
Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA). In June, an informal meeting
was held between the US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and
her counterparts in CARICOM and the Dominican Republic at
which the commitment to cooperation for development and se-
curity in the Caribbean Basin was renewed. Finally, on 18 May,
there was a meeting in Madrid attended by the heads of state
of the member countries of CARIFORUM and the presidents
of the European Council, the European Commission and the
EU rotating Presidency. The relaunching of political dialogue,
which began with the meeting on 23 March in Kingston, Ja-
maica, was positively appraised, as were the advances being
made towards a new joint EU-Caribbean strategy.
THE IBERO-AMERICAN COMMUNITY (CIB)
Institutional activity and agenda for dialogue and coopera-tionBy means of the mechanism for dialogue, coordination and
cooperation established by the member countries of the Ibero-
American Community (CIB, in its Spanish acronym) a set of
institutional activities is carried out every year at different lev-
els and with dealing with different thematic areas. First and
foremost, and of outstanding relevance, is the annual sum-
mit of the Heads of State and Government, where the main
lines of the agenda are drawn up, resolutions are agreed upon
and plans of action are established; next are the ministerial
meetings by sector where the agenda corresponding to each
thematic area is negotiated; then, also noteworthy, are the
meetings of civil society and other high-level forums, these
constituting a third mainstay of the Community of Ibero-Amer-
ican countries and a space for discussion of issues that are
subsequently taken up to the presidential meetings for their
consideration. Likewise, also to be borne in mind are the many
projects for cooperation that are implemented on an annual
basis with the backing of the Ibero-American Summit of Heads
of State and Government. Finally, work for institutional con-
tinuity is carried out within the organisms pertaining to the
Ibero-American Conference, for example the Ibero-American
General Secretariat (SEGIB in the Spanish acronym) and other
Ibero-American intergovernmental organisations such as the
Ibero-American Social Security Organisation (OISS in the Span-
ish acronym), the Ibero-American Youth Organisation (OIJ in
155
Co
ope
rati
on
an
d R
egio
na
l In
teg
rati
on
in
Lat
in A
mer
ica
an
d T
he
Ca
ribb
ean
201
0
of state who are pushing for the creation of a Community of
Latin American and Caribbean States. The host in 2010 was
Mexico and the presidential summit was held on 23 February
in the Mayan Riviera with the attendance of representatives of
all the Latin American countries with the exception of Hondu-
ras, which was not invited.
As tends to happen with this type of gathering, the agenda
was wide-ranging and among the themes discussed at the
Mexican Summit, which are brought together in the Cancun
Declaration, those referring to cooperation among regional and
sub-regional mechanisms of integration are particularly promi-
nent. Second, were the issues on the economic agenda, from
the effects of the international crisis to other matters such as
trade, energy, physical integration, infrastructure, along with
science and technology. The third set of items on the agenda
consisted of social development questions, with programmes
addressing hunger and poverty eradication, food and nutrition-
al security, education, health, culture, migration and gender
issues. A fourth block was concerned with sustainable develop-
ment, climate change and natural disasters and, finally, there
were other areas of concern such as human rights, security
matters, drug problems and terrorism. At this summit, the po-
litical leaders decided to incorporate the Montego Bay plan of
action, which had been agreed upon by the Rio Group Foreign
Ministers in 2009, with the aim of implementing the themes
on the Latin American and Caribbean agenda.
Foreign relationsThe Rio Group also acts as a space of coordination in some
areas of the foreign relations of the member countries, out-
standing among these being the bi-regional relationship with
the countries of the European Union. In particular, biennial
meetings at the ministerial level are held with a view to eluci-
dating items on the common agenda while, in the alternating
year, the participants have the occasion to meet again in the
course of the summits of the Heads of State and Government
of the countries of Latin America, the Caribbean and the Eu-
ropean Union. In 2010 this was held in Madrid. Featuring in
the Declaration of Madrid, besides matters that reinforce the
commitment to make progress with the bi-regional associa-
tion, is the consensus achieved on the issues discussed on
this occasion, these including innovation and technology for
sustainable development and social inclusion. A plan of action
for implementing the agenda during the period from 2010 to
2012 was also agreed upon.
THE CENTRAL AMERICAN COMMON MARKET (CACM / CENTRAL AMERICAN INTEGRATION SYSTEM (SICA)
Evolution of tradeThe Central American countries benefited from improve-
ments in the international sphere and foreign trade showed
some recovery, although at levels below the average for
Latin America and with a wider gap between performance
in imports and that in exports. According to data offered by
the Secretariat for Central American Economic Integration
different explanations to justify their non-attendance. Finally,
Honduras was not represented either since President Lobo
was not formally invited by the host country.
Discussion at the meeting ranged over the many themes on
the agenda. Foremost among the most relevant results was
the Declaration on “Defence of Democracy and Constitutional
Order in Ibero-America”, in which it is established that the
Ibero-American Community undertakes to adopt measures
that extend to the suspension of participation of any country
in which there is a breakdown in constitutional order or rule of
law. Second, is the notable adoption of the educational project
“Metas 21” (Goals 21), this constituting a statement of the
objectives of the Summit which was devoted to “Education with
Social Inclusion”. This programme includes a commitment to
mobilise 100,000 million dollars in the period to 2021, with a
plan of implementation that aims to bring about a high-quality
education that will facilitate the progress of social inclusion
and achieve full literacy by 2015. Another proposal was to at-
tain universal coverage in primary and secondary schooling to-
gether with employing the new technologies with a view to pro-
viding a high level of education to more and more generations
of the people of Latin America. The Summit also approved
other programmes with the aims of raising the competitive-
ness of small businesses, following up migratory processes
and improving access to justice for the most disadvantaged
members of the population.
Finally, one outstanding result with regard to organisational
matters was the creation of the Council of Ibero-American Or-
ganisms, which is to coordinate the work of the different or-
ganisations and permit institutional reinforcement of the Ibero-
American Conference. Also important is the incorporation of
new associate and consultative observers in 2010 along the
lines of participation that were approved two years previously
in the San Salvador Summit. The new countries incorporated
with associate observer status are the Philippines, France Mo-
rocco and The Netherlands, while the new consultative observ-
ers are the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the An-
dean Development Corporation (CAF, in its Spanish acronym)
and the World Food Programme (WFP).
THE RIO GROUP
Institutional activity and agenda of regional political coor-dinationFrom its inception, the Rio Group has been a mechanism of
strictly Latin American political coordination, joined by different
countries at different times and now numbering 24 members.
With this dimension, the Rio Group can be said to have be-
come a regional forum and steps have recently been taken
with a view to formalising its status. The two biggest countries
of the region, Mexico and Brazil, have been quite active in
this process since each in its own way is attempting to take
on a leadership role vis-à-vis its neighbours and to create an
influential mechanism that will help to reaffirm its position in
the global context. After a period of a certain degree of stag-
nation, the Rio Group has now recovered its dynamism and
it is also reinforced by the organisation of meetings of heads
CID
OB
In
tern
atio
na
l Y
earb
oo
k 2
011
156
Wo
rld
po
lit
ics
tempt to resolve their differences. Finally, the meeting also ap-
proved a declaration commemorating the fifteenth anniversary
of the Framework Treaty on Democratic Security in Central
America.
As for the extraordinary summits, a meeting was held on
20 July in San Salvador (El Salvador) to relaunch the process
of integration in the region. A declaration of objectives was
adopted at the meeting and a plan of action was approved with
the aim of progressing along five different lines: democratic
security, social integration, climate change, institutional rein-
forcement and economic integration with particular emphasis
on eliminating non-tariff barriers and promoting trade. Fur-
thermore, the meeting approved a special Declaration on Hon-
duras in which its readmission to SICA was agreed upon and
its reincorporation into the Organisation of American States
(OAS) was requested.
Foreign relationsThe Central American countries have a concerted agenda of
activities and foreign relations within the framework of regional
cooperation and integration. In this context, the most signifi-
cant events of 2010 occurred in the regional setting of Mexico
and Colombia and, at the international level, with the European
Union. In addition, the Central American countries held other
meetings through mixed commissions that gave periodical
continuity to their relations with the Republic of Korea.
In the first case, the Twelfth Ordinary Summit of the Tuxtla
Mechanism was held in Cartagena de Indias (Colombia) from
24 to 26 October, this providing a space for dialogue and
consensus which, besides the Central American countries,
included Mexico and Colombia. In the course of the meeting,
the heads of state discussed advances made in the Mesoa-
merican Integration and Development Project, which has been
organised around an economic axis and a human development
axis, and adopted a proposal for establishing a Promotion
and Financing Commission. In the economic area, progress
has been significant with regard to electrical interconnection,
which entails a project for a backbone telecommunications
network and also involves transport infrastructure by means
of the so-called Pacific corridor. In the human development
area advances are centred on public health, prevention of
natural disasters and adaptation to climate change, along with
territorial management and social housing.
With respect to the European Union, after the suspension of
contacts in June 2009 due to the institutional breakdown in
Honduras, negotiations over the agreement on bi-regional as-
sociation were renewed in 2010. With the two meetings held
during the course of the Seventh Negotiating Round in Febru-
ary and March in Brussels progress was made regarding the
three pillars sustaining the project of the agreement. First, is
the political sphere, although some sensitive issues are still
pending, for example migration and the International Criminal
Court. In the area of trade, considerable advances were made
with the rules of origin although there are still differences
over certain regulations and other technical barriers affecting
trade, along with the need for further discussion on intellectual
property. Finally, in the sphere of cooperation it was agreed to
incorporate a developments clause that would make it possible
(SIECA in its Spanish acronym), the total for overall exports in
2010 rose by 11.5%, while the figure for imports was 19%.
Hence, while the balance for services showed a surplus, the
results of the current account balance showed a downturn,
with a deficit of 4.8% with regard to GDP. As for the terms
of exchange, ECLAC analyses suggest that the evolution was
less favourable here since the Central American region is a
net importer of basic products and the value of these prod-
ucts increased. As for performance in overall trade on a
country-by-country basis, the export results, although rela-
tively similar showed some variation, with the exception of
Nicaragua (33%), with the most promising figures, although
it should also be recalled that this country has a lower volume
of sales than its neighbours. In the comparison of imports,
there was less variety in the results with Nicaragua again be-
ing the slight exception (29%).
In terms of intraregional trade, SIECA estimates reveal that
the result for exports among the neighbouring countries in
2010 was similar to that for exports elsewhere in the world.
Accordingly, the percentage of participation in regional trade
at around 27% of total trade (not counting the maquila sector
and free zones) has been maintained. Looking at the evolution
of trade between countries, the sales of Honduras and Nica-
ragua to their neighbours dropped back slightly, while Guate-
mala showed the best performance with an increase of 20%.
In any case, there is continuity in the general trend of trade
flows among the Central American countries, with Guatemala
emerging as the major supplier. Again, both Guatemala and
Costa Rica enjoy a positive balance in exchanges with their
neighbours while Honduras and Nicaragua have deficits.
Institutional activities and relevant items in the agenda for integrationThe heads of state of the member and associate-member
countries of the Central American Integration System (SICA in
its Spanish acronym) attend one or two regular summits every
year in order to follow up the agenda for integration, while ex-
traordinary meetings are also held to discuss specific matters.
In the case of the regular summits, the Thirty-fifth Meeting of
the Heads of State and Government of the SICA countries
was held in Panama on 29 and 30 June. In the declaration
that was adopted and in the plan of action approved by the
heads of state, the need to reconsider the process of regional
integration by means of a new integral, revamped and realistic
strategy was established. Other matters discussed were re-
gional security, climate change, regional migratory policy and
incorporation of the Republic of Panama into the Sub-system
of Central American Economic Integration. Finally, participants
also discussed the situation of Honduras, although they failed
to reach agreement over the country’s readmission to SICA,
thus postponing the matter until a subsequent meeting.
The second summit was held in Belize on 16 December con-
currently with the Thirty-sixth Meeting of the Heads of State
and Government. On the agenda of this meeting were security
issues and regional development with particular reference to
organised crime and eradicating violence. The problems deriv-
ing from the reactivated border crisis between two member
countries was also debated, with a call for dialogue in the at-
157
Co
ope
rati
on
an
d R
egio
na
l In
teg
rati
on
in
Lat
in A
mer
ica
an
d T
he
Ca
ribb
ean
201
0
relevant themes discussed, approval was given for the deci-
sion that establishes the basic principles for eliminating the
double levying of the common external tariff and distribution
of customs revenue within the block. Another important item
was the agreement reached on the new regulations for the
MERCOSUR Structural Convergence Fund (FOCEM, in its
Spanish acronym), by means of which new projects were ap-
proved, these involving funding of some 600 million dollars.
The presidents also approved the agreement on the Guaraní
Aquifer which undertakes to conserve and use the transfron-
tier aquifers responsibly so as to ensure sustainability. Finally,
they reaffirmed the commitment to consolidate social policy
as an organising development principle of MERCOSUR. In this
regard, the heads of state took note of the project established
with a view to promoting small enterprises, and also adopted
the commitments undertaken by the ministers for Social Af-
fairs in a meeting they had attended in June in Buenos Aires.
The second presidential encounter occurred during the For-
tieth Meeting of the MERCOSUR Common Market Council
(CMC), which was held in Foz de Iguazú (Brazil) on 16 and
17 December. Several matters on the CMC agenda were dis-
cussed and notable among the main agreements reached is
the Consolidation Programme of the Customs Union, which
will permit greater liberalisation of intraregional trade by elimi-
nating exceptions to the Common External Tariff and special
regimes. In the economic domain, work was done on estab-
lishing the principles for an investment agreement in MERCO-
SUR, while a programme of work was agreed upon with the
aim of liberalising the services trade. In the political and institu-
tional sphere, there was agreement on creating a MERCOSUR
statute of citizenship with the intention of permitting, within
ten years, the free circulation of people and a joint vehicle
number plate system. Also approved was the establishment
of the figure of a High Representative for MERCOSUR Foreign
Relations. Finally, in the social sphere, the Tenth MERCOSUR
Social Summit, which was attended by the heads of state of
the member countries, is noteworthy. This meeting saw the
approval of the Strategic Plan for Social Action, an instrument
designed to further the social dimension of integration.
Foreign relationsBy virtue of the constitutive treaties of MERCOSUR, the mem-
ber countries jointly negotiate some international relations mat-
ters, mainly of a commercial nature, while others are trans-
acted in a concerted fashion. In this context, the MERCOSUR
countries are engaged in a complex process of negotiation
with European Union countries with the aim of fleshing out an
agreement on bi-regional association, which was suspended
in 2004 due to pronounced differences between the two par-
ties. Nevertheless, the desire to move ahead in relations with
Europe endures and, at the beginning of 2010, discussions in
the negotiating process were resumed. Subsequently a sum-
mit was held and attended by the heads of state of the MER-
COSUR countries and the presidents of the EU Council, the EU
Commission and the incumbent of the rotating EU presidency.
This took place in Madrid on 17 May and formal agreement
was reached on reopening negotiations with a new round of
talks that was scheduled in July.
to include themes or areas of cooperation that could be of
interest to the region in some future subsequent to the agree-
ment’s coming into effect. Later, on 19 May, the IV Summit
between the EU and Central American countries was held in
Madrid where the themes on the bi-regional agenda were re-
viewed and the agreement of association was finally signed.
THE COMMON MARKET OF THE SOUTH (MERCOSUR)
Evolution of tradeAs happened in the other Latin American countries, the econ-
omies of the MERCOSUR countries consolidated the trend
of recovery observed at the end of the previous year and,
in 2010, showed a significant upswing in GDP. According to
the preliminary data of ECLAC, growth was very vigorous in
the four countries led by Paraguay (9.7%), after which came
Uruguay (9%), Argentina (8.4%) and finally Brazil (7.7%). In
this context, the preliminary data of LAIA and ECLAC suggest
that the overall trade of the MERCOSUR countries made great
progress, having practically returned to pre-slump levels of
2009. Notwithstanding this, the external imbalances were
once again slightly accentuated with recovery since, in the
case of overall exports the growth was 30% while with im-
ports it was 42%. The results for balance of trade in the block
as a whole show a reduced figure, although it is still positive
and is estimated as being around 25,000 million dollars while
the coverage ratio dropped slightly to 110%. As for the per-
formance by country, the results were quite similar with the
rate of change in both imports and exports, although the dif-
ferences are accentuated with the trade balances. Finally, the
rate of change in the value of exports is explained by a 13%
increase in volume and a 15% rise in prices.
In intraregional trade, exports among the member countries
went up by 35% to a figure of some 44,241 million dollars.
This result indicates that the good results in overall trade have
generated income that has then had its effects on exchanges
within the group. Hence, the quota of intraregional trade grew
slightly with regard to overall trade to a figure of 16% in 2010.
In the comparison of trade between the neighbouring coun-
tries, the percentages of increased sales were quite similar,
except in the case of Argentina, which showed a marginally
inferior growth (25%). In contrast, the results for the trade
balances were more varied, and negative for all countries ex-
cept for Brazil, this confirming a recent trend that reveals an
imbalance in MERCOSUR trade in favour of this country.
Institutional activities and relevant items on the integration agendaNotable among the main institutional activities for 2010 were
the presidential summits held in the course of the regular
meetings of the MERCOSUR Common Market Council (CMC,
in its Spanish acronym), the group’s main decision-making
body, at which the ministers for Economy and Foreign Policy
of the member countries participated. The first presidential
encounter took place during the Thirty-ninth CMC Meeting on
2 and 3 August in San Juan (Argentina). Among the more
CID
OB
In
tern
atio
na
l Y
earb
oo
k 2
011
158
Wo
rld
po
lit
ics
tension and resolving crises so as to further Inter-American
endeavours of integral development.
In his speech, the OAS Secretary-General, José Miguel In-
sulza, took the occasion to express his thanks for the reno-
vation of his mandate for another five years, after which he
described the lines of action that will guide his second term
of office. This was followed by a report on the Inter-American
agenda in which, besides revising the state of affairs of the
central issues of that year’s meeting, he made particular men-
tion of the evolution of the worldwide economic crisis, which
has had serious effects in Latin America with growing poverty
and indigence as well as slowing down the previous trend of
improvement in the struggle against inequality. Another effect
of the crisis indicated by Insulza has been tightened controls
in migratory flows in Europe and the United States. In this re-
gard, he singled out for criticism the EU Return Directive and
Law SB 170 of the State of Arizona (USA).
Insulza also reviewed the situation of Honduras, starting with
its suspension from the OAS, which was unanimously decided
after the coup d’état of 28 June 2009. In the subsequent
period the Secretary-General had participated in a number
of diplomatic endeavours aiming at restoring the democratic
system in Honduras, both through direct missions and as a
back-up mediator in support of the mediation activities of the
President of Costa Rica, Óscar Arias. On the basis of his ac-
cumulated experience and the circumstances surrounding the
Honduras crisis, Insulza used the occasion to reflect critically
on the limits of multilateralism, in particular the difficulties of
reconciling principles such as non-interference with generally
accepted and shared democratic values.
On the other hand, for some time contacts have been made
with a view to favouring trade exchanges between MERCOSUR
with other American countries and with the rest of the world.
In this regard, the landmark achievements for 2010 were the
signing of the Free Trade Agreement with Egypt, besides the
adoption of a framework agreement to move towards the es-
tablishment of free trade with Syria, as well as another frame-
work agreement to facilitate trade and economic cooperation
with Palestine.
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS)
Institutional activityThe Foreign Ministers and Permanent Representatives of the
thirty-four member countries of the OAS attended the Fortieth
Regular Session of the General Assembly from 6 to 8 June
in Lima (Peru) in order to prepare the balance sheet for the
previous period and begin the new annual period of sessions.
The central theme of the meeting was peace, security and
cooperation in the Americas, as is reflected in the Declara-
tion of Lima, which was approved with the consensus of the
participants, affirming that commitment to such mechanisms
is the only way to confront the traditional and new threats af-
fecting the continent. In the debates, agreement was reached
in pointing out the importance of the obligation of the member
countries to avoid the use of violence except in cases of le-
gitimate self-defence, and also stressing the need for continu-
ity in promoting a regional environment that would propitiate
arms control. Also emphasised was overcoming situations of
TABLE IV. GLOBAL FOREIGN TRADE OF MERCOSUR COUNTRIES
(million $)
EXPORTS IMPORTS Balance of trade 2010
Coverage ratio
2010 (%)2010 2009 % 2010-2009 2010 2009 % 2010-2009
Country
Argentina 68,500 55,669 23 56,443 38,781 46 12,057 121
Brazil 201,915 152,995 32 181,649 127,722 42 20,266 111
Paraguay 4,534 3,167 43 9,400 6,497 45 -4,866 48
Uruguay 6,733 5,405 25 8,622 6,907 25 -1,889 78
TOTAL 281,682 217,236 30 256,114 179,907 42 25,568 110
Source: ALADI Produced by: CIDOB
TABLE V. FOREIGN TRADE BETWEEN MERCOSUR COUNTRIES
(million $)
EXPORTS IMPORTS Balance of trade 2010
Coverage ratio
2010 (%)2010 2009 % 2010-2009 2010 2009 % 2010-2009
Country
Argentina 17,295 13,861 25 18,967 13,124 45 -1,672 91
Brazil 22,602 15,829 43 16,611 13,107 27 5,991 136
Paraguay 2,195 1,533 43 3,880 2,632 47 -1,685 57
Uruguay 2,149 1,530 40 3,111 3,129 -1 -962 69
TOTAL MERCOSUR 44,241 32,753 35 42,569 31,992 33 1,672 104
Source: ALADI Produced by: CIDOB
159
Co
ope
rati
on
an
d R
egio
na
l In
teg
rati
on
in
Lat
in A
mer
ica
an
d T
he
Ca
ribb
ean
201
0
and resources for reconstructing the country. In this regard,
during 2010, the OAS has actively participated in the prepara-
tion and monitoring of the presidential and legislative elections
while, on 1 December, the Assistant Secretary-General, Albert
R. Ramdin, presented a report detailing complaints of fraud by
some of the candidates. The most dramatic event of the year,
however, was the earthquake in January, which hit the capital
Port-au-Prince and its environs. The OAS as an institution, like
several of its member countries has been working to support
reconstruction in Haiti.
Following the presidential succession after the elections of
November 2010 in Honduras, the OAS continued to insist that
the agreement on Zelaya’s temporary return to the presidency
as a condition for proceeding to an orderly transfer of power
to the president-elect Porfirio Lobo had not been respected.
Subsequently, during the Regular General Assembly of 8 June
2011, it was decided to send a high-level commission to Hon-
duras, this being headed by José Miguel Insulza, who present-
ed his report to the Permanent Council the following month so
that it would call an extraordinary general assembly to decide
upon the eventual reincorporation of Honduras into the OAS.
In response to the internal conflict following an alleged coup
d’état in Ecuador at the end of September the Permanent
Council of the OAS issued Resolution CP/RES. 977 (1772/10)
in which it repudiated the attempt to change the democratic
institutions of Ecuador and decided to send to Quito a com-
mission headed by José Miguel Insulza to demonstrate the
support of the OAS and its member countries for President
Correa.
Finally, at the beginning of November, with a border conflict
between Costa Rica and Nicaragua over the San Juan River,
both countries sought OAS mediation. The mission was head-
ed by José Miguel Insulza who, having met with the leaders
of both countries, presented a report with recommendations
for redressing the situation. This endorsed by the Permanent
Council through Resolution CP/RES. 978 (1777/10).
NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA)
Evolution of tradeThe economies of the three NAFTA member countries and
IMF data show a GDP growth of 2.8% for the United States,
2.9% for Canada and 5.2% for Mexico. A great part of this
improvement is due to the satisfactory performance of for-
eign trade in each case. According to official statistics re-
leased by the United States Census Bureau, total exports
of the United States rose by 21% thus coming close to pre-
crisis sales levels. Similar processes were observed with its
two partners and the official statistics of Canada and Mexico
show significant growth in exports as a whole, of 33% and
27% respectively.
In this context, evolution of trade between the NAFTA part-
ners in 2010 has been positive with exports showing a rise
of 20% within the block. However, the quota of regional trade
among the NAFTA partners showed scant variation, remain-
ing at a figure of 47% because the increase in overall exports
Finally, the Secretary-General gave an account of the OAS
activities in response to the crisis caused by the earthquake
in Haiti, where the organisation has been engaged in those
areas in which it has recognised experience, in particular with
regard to institutional reinforcement.
Electoral observation activities and special missions in crisis situationsThe OAS has been engaged in a wide-ranging set of activi-
ties aimed at favouring the internal stability of the member
states and peace in inter-American relations, while also com-
plying with specific requests made by any countries that are
interested parties. Noteworthy among these are, on the one
hand, the Electoral Observation Missions and, on the other,
the special missions carrying out good offices tasks of accom-
paniment, facilitation and mediation in situations of conflict
between member countries or of domestic crisis within the
states.
In the case of the Electoral Observation Missions, the OAS
presence was requested in 2010 for the general elections
in Saint Kitts and Nevis, which were held on 25 January; the
general elections and the municipal elections of Costa Rica on
7 February and 5 December respectively; the legislative elec-
tions of 14 March and the presidential elections on 30 May in
Colombia; the departmental and municipal elections in Bolivia
on 4 April; the general elections of the Dominican Republic
on 16 May; the general elections of Surinam on 25 May; the
regional and municipal elections in Peru on 3 October; the mu-
nicipal elections in Paraguay on 7 November; the first round
of the general elections in Haiti on 28 November; and, finally,
the general elections in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines on
13 December.
As for the Special Missions mediating in situations of crisis,
in 2010 there was continuity with those already established in
Colombia and Haiti, while three other situations also required
ad hoc missions, two because of internal conflict (Honduras
and Ecuador) and one due to the border conflict between Nica-
ragua and Costa Rica.
The Mission to Support the Peace Process in Colombia
(MAPP/OAS), the mandate for which was established in reso-
lution 859 (1397/04) of the Permanent Council, has been
entrusted with the assignment of verification of the cession
of hostilities, disarmament and reintegration of demobilised
groups along with working with communities affected by vio-
lence. In the reports of this year, along with indicating positive
results in a follow-up assessment of the aforementioned tasks,
the MASP/OAS warns of the dangers of recruitment of demo-
bilised forces and also draws attention to a persisting lack of
trust between institutions and communities.
The OAS has been involved in Haiti for several years and has
been engaged in sustained activity through successive man-
dates in order to attend to a situation of chronic crisis which,
at one point of threatened national collapse, required inter-
national intervention with a United Nations Stabilisation Mis-
sion in Haiti (MINUSTAH). After the presidential and legislative
elections of 2006 and the coming to power of President René
Préval, the assignment of the OAS has been to fortify and con-
solidate institutional structures and to help in seeking projects
CID
OB
In
tern
atio
na
l Y
earb
oo
k 2
011
160
Wo
rld
po
lit
ics
der the auspices of the space for dialogue and consensus
known as the Tuxtla Mechanism. In the twelfth meeting of this
body, which was held on 24 and 26 October in Cartagena
de Indias (Colombia), the heads of state discussed progress
with the Mesoamerican Integration and Development Project,
which is organised around two guiding principles, one econom-
ic and the other human development, and agreed to establish
a Promotion and Financing Commission. In the economic area,
progress has been significant with regard to electrical inter-
connection, which entails a project for a backbone telecommu-
nications network and also involves transport infrastructure by
means of the so-called Pacific corridor. In the human develop-
ment area advances are centred on public health, prevention
of natural disasters and adaptation to climate change, along
with territorial management and social housing.
Mexico has also begun to make some approaches to the
CARICOM countries, with a first meeting that took place on
21 February in Cancun (Mexico) with a view to advancing in
bilateral cooperation and in trade and development. Other
matters discussed were bilateral cooperation in aid for Haiti
and the debate on the Convention on Climate Change. Finally,
outside the continent, the most significant activities concerned
the European Union. On 16 May President Calderón met the
presidents of the EU Commission, the EU Council and the in-
cumbent of the EU rotating Presidency in Comillas (Spain) to
discuss economic association and the agenda for political dia-
logue and cooperation. On the bilateral level, the joint executive
plan of the Strategic Association was approved, while analysis
was made of the progress made in different sectoral discus-
sions and, at the general level, aspects of security, human
rights and climate change were also debated.
UNION OF SOUTH AMERICAN NATIONS (UNASUR)
The backgroundThe process of creating a community that would embrace the
nations of South America has been constructed in different
phases, which have included work on defining objectives, the
main themes on the agenda, the strategy for bringing the
project into being, and the organisational and institutional
architecture of the initiative. Its origins go back to the summit
of political leaders organised by the Brazilian president Fern-
ando Enrique Cardoso, which was held in Brasilia in 2000.
Since then, these presidential meetings have been held al-
most every year until it was decided at the 2004 meeting in
Cuzco, Peru, to institutionalise the gatherings with the initial
denomination of South American Community of Nations. Af-
ter a process of ironing out the details, which lasted another
four years, the presidents of the South American countries
met in Brazil on 23 May 2008 to sign the treaty constituting
UNASUR, whereby the normative framework and institutional
structure of the organism were established and it was stipu-
lated that the group would function with presidential summits
every year, six-monthly ministerial meetings and a permanent
secretariat with its headquarters in Quito. Also envisaged
was the future creation of a South American Parliament, to
was more significant (24%). In terms of performance by coun-
try, the upsurge in sales to partners was considerable in the
United States (23%) and Mexico (29%) and more modest in
the case of Canada (11%).
As for mutual interdependence within NAFTA, trade with
neighbours continues to be the most important for all three
members. In the exports ranking of the United States, the
first client is Canada, followed by Mexico and, considerably
behind, come China, Japan and the United Kingdom. With
US imports, first place is taken by China, followed by Canada
and Mexico and, quite a lot lower down, are Japan and then
Germany.
Nevertheless, there has been almost no change in the imbal-
ances and there are major asymmetries in the exchange be-
tween the United States and its lesser partners. In 2010, one
quarter of US imports came from Canada (14%) and Mexico
(12%), while the United States sold to these two countries
one third of the total of its exports, with a greater proportion
going to Canada (19%) than to Mexico (13%). In contrast, the
concentration of sales to the United States by its neighbours
continues to be very high, representing 80% of the total of
exports from Mexico and 73% of exports from Canada. As for
the concentration of imports, Canada’s levels of dependence
were maintained in 2010 since 63% of its total imports came
from the United States, while the figure for Mexico is a little
less pronounced.
Foreign relationsEach of the three NAFTA member countries develops its own
trade policy independently and basically negotiates free trade
agreements with third countries throughout the Americas, al-
though the United States is the most active of the trio and has
the most extensive agenda, which in 2010 was particularly
manifested in its activities with the CARICOM countries and
also those of the Andean Community. In the former case, the
United States approved in April a ten-year extension to the
Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA), an instru-
ment that regulates trade facilities conceded to the Caribbean
countries. In June an informal meeting between the Secretary
of State Hillary Clinton and her counterparts from CARICOM
and the Dominican Republic also took place. This led to a re-
newal of the commitment to cooperation for development and
security in the Caribbean Basin. Meanwhile, relations with the
Andean countries have reached a certain stalemate, the only
significant element being that the US Congress approved a
one-year extension to the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug
Eradication Act (ATPEDEA), which benefits Colombia, Ecuador
and Peru.
Throughout 2010 Canada continued its discussions aimed at
advancing negotiations for a free trade agreement with Costa
Rica, with a view to extending the agreement which has been
in force since 2002 with the inclusion of such new elements
as the service trade, telecommunications, financial services
and investments. Contacts have also been made with Hondu-
ras for discussions on a free trade agreement, while there are
also talks with Peru on cooperation on the labour front.
In Mexico’s case, its privileged relations with its neighbours
of the Central American isthmus continue, these coming un-
161
Co
ope
rati
on
an
d R
egio
na
l In
teg
rati
on
in
Lat
in A
mer
ica
an
d T
he
Ca
ribb
ean
201
0
Finally, on 26 November, the South American leaders met
at the Fourth Regular UNASUR Summit in Georgetown (Guy-
ana), where they assessed the organism’s agenda. Other mat-
ters were also discussed at the meeting, including the border
conflict between Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the cholera
epidemic in Haiti. Some agreements were reached, one of the
most relevant among these being the approval of a democratic
protocol that established diplomatic, political and commercial
sanctions in response to any coup attempt in the region. This
set of measures aims to defend democracy and to prevent any
illegitimate attempt to take power. The plan includes a shut-
down of trade, closing land borders, blocking air operations
and cutting off energy supplies.
Homage was also rendered at the Summit to the recently de-
ceased Néstor Kirchner who only some months previously had
been elected secretary-general of the organism, and agree-
ment was reached on a new procedure for election to this
position, with a two-year mandate and no possibility for re-elec-
tion. Venezuela and Colombia proposed a joint candidature for
the new secretary-general, with a Colombian representative
for the first year and one from Venezuela for the second year,
the final appointment pending approval at the next summit.
One of the diplomatic achievements of the meeting was the
complete reestablishment of bilateral relations between Co-
lombia and Ecuador after a two-year rupture. During the meet-
ing the Colombian President, Juan Manuel Santos, announced
that Colombia would send its ambassador to Ecuador before
the end of 2010. Finally, the summit also provided the occa-
sion for the heads of state to farewell Lula, who stepped down
from the presidency of Brazil in January 2010 to make way
for Dilma Rousseff.
Bibliographical and Documentary References
ASOCIACIÓN LATINOAMERICANA DE INTEGRACIÓN (ALADI)
- Latin American Integration Association (LAIA)
- Informe sobre Comercio Exterior Global, enero-diciembre
2010 (Report on Foreign Trade Worldwide: January – Decem-
ber 2010)
http://www.aladi.org/nsfaladi/estudios.nsf/vwestudiosy-
documentosweb/CD1193B4E957BCFD0325785E005C7F6F
Informe preliminar del Secretario General: la evolución del
proceso de integración en el año 2010 ((Preliminary Report
of the Secretary General: Evolution of the Process of Integra-
tion in 2010)
http://www.aladi.org/nsfaladi/estudios.nsf/vwestudios
ydocumentosweb/0932DC31ABD634C4032578320052
807C
BANCO INTERAMERICANO DE DESARROLLO (BID) – Inter-
American Development Bank (IDB), INSTITUTO PARA LA IN-
TEGRACIÓN DE AMÉRICA LATINA Y EL CARIBE (INTAL) – In-
stitute for the Integration of Latin America and the Caribbean
(INTAL)
Carta mensual INTAL (INTAL Monthly Letter), several num-
bers, 2010)
http://www.iadb.org/es/intal/intal,1081.html
be located in Cochabamba, Bolivia, the jurisdiction of which
was to be established in an Additional Protocol that is yet
to be negotiated by a special commission. The agreement
stipulates that the constitutive basis of this body is upheld by
the integration made possible by MERCOSUR and the Andean
Community, along with the participation of Chile, Guyana and
Surinam in such a way that the member countries are con-
fined to the geographic area of South America. However, the
wish of the UNASUR member countries is to advance coop-
erative relationships with all Latin American countries and
hence it is also established that five years after the treaty
comes into force the possibility will remain open for the in-
corporation into the group of other countries of the region
as associate members. Finally, in an extraordinary meeting
held in Brazil on 16 December 2008, the presidents ap-
proved the creation of the South American Defence Council
and the South American Health Council. The former body,
which will be subject to the principles and objectives estab-
lished in the United Nations Charter and the Charter of the
Organization of American States, will constitute an agency
for consultation, cooperation and coordination, the aim of
which is to consolidate the region as a zone of peace and
to serve as a basis for democratic stability and integrated
development of the different countries. The aim of the South
American Health Council is to construct a space of integra-
tion for health matters, incorporating therein the efforts and
achievements of other mechanisms of regional integration
and promoting the common policies and coordinated activi-
ties of the UNASUR countries. Moreover, a working plan was
approved for the South American health agenda, this taking
into consideration, inter alia, an epidemiological shield, the
development of universal systems guaranteeing the right to
health, access to medication, and the development of human
resources in this area.
Institutional activity and the agenda for dialogue and cooperationAn extraordinary meeting of the heads of state and govern-
ment of the UNASUR countries was held on 12 January in
Quito (Ecuador) in order to discuss aid to Haiti after the earth-
quake some days earlier. Subsequently, on 12 May 2010, a
second extraordinary meeting of the UNASUR South Ameri-
can Defence Council was held in Buenos Aires (Argentine) and
the former Argentine president Néstor Kirchner was elected
secretary-general of the organism. Also covered at the meet-
ing were items on the agenda and the plan of action, which
the heads of state ratified with a final declaration. Later, in
response to the alleged coup d’état in Ecuador at the end
of September, the political leaders held another extraordinary
meeting in Buenos Aires. On this occasion they signed a dec-
laration on the situation in Ecuador, reaffirming therein their
“firm commitment to the preservation of democratic institu-
tions, rule of law, constitutional order, social peace and unlim-
ited respect for human rights, these being essential conditions
for the process of regional integration”, and energetically con-
demning the “attempted coup d’état and subsequent kidnap-
ping of President Rafael Correa Delgado in our sister Republic
of Ecuador on 30 September”.
CID
OB
In
tern
atio
na
l Y
earb
oo
k 2
011
162
Wo
rld
po
lit
ics
MERCADO COMÚN DEL SUR (MERCOSUR) – Southern Cone
Common Market
Documentos oficiales, actas, comunicados y declaraciones
(Official documents, records, communiqués and declarations)
http://www.mercosur.int/t_generic.jsp?contentid=1317&
site=1&channel=secretaria&seccion=4
ORGANIZACIÓN DE ESTADOS AMERICANOS (OEA) – Organi-
zation of American States (OAS)
Declaración de Lima y documentos de la XL Asamblea Gen-
eral de la OEA (Declaration of Lima and documents of the
Fortieth OAS General Assembly)
http://www.oas.org/es/40ag/
Comunicados de prensa (Press communiqués)
http://www.oas.org/OASpage/press_releases/home_
spa/press.asp
Discursos (Speeches)
http://www.oas.org/documents/spa/speeches.asp
Informes de las misiones de observación electoral de la OEA
(Reports of OAS electoral missions)
http://www.oas.org/es/sap/deco/moe.asp
Informes de las misiones especiales de la OEA (Reports of
special OAS missions)
http://www.oas.org/es/sap/dsdme/misiones_especial-
es.asp
Misión de Apoyo al Proceso de Paz en Colombia MAPP-OEA
(Mission to Support the Peace Process in Colombia (MAPP/
OAS)
www.mapp-oea.org
ORGANIZACIÓN DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS (ONU) – United
Nations Organisation (UNO)
World Economic Situation and Prospects 2011
http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wesp/
wesp_current/2011wesp.pdf
SECRETARÍA DE INTEGRACIÓN ECONÓMICA CENTROAMERI-
CANA (SIECA) – Secretariat for Central American Economic
Integration (SIECA)
Centroamérica: Reporte del desempeño económico 2005-
2010 (Central America: Report on Economic Performance
2005 – 2010)
http://www.sieca.int/site/VisorDocs.aspx?IDDOC=Cache/
17990000003382/17990000003382.swf
Centroamérica: Estadísticas de Comercio (Central American
Trade Statistics)
http://www.sieca.int/site/Enlaces.aspx?ID=007001
SECRETARÍA DE RELACIONES EXTERIORES DE MÉXICO –
Secretariat of Foreign Affairs of Mexico
Proyecto Mesoamérica (Mesoamerican Project)
http://mesoamerica.sre.gob.mx/
Dirección General de Organismos y Mecanismos Regionales
Americanos (Directorate of American Regional Organisms and
Mechanisms)
http://www.sre.gob.mx/index.php/mexico-en-la-organiza-
cion-de-los-estados-americanos-oea-/555
CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY SECRETARIAT
Statements, Communiqués and Press Releases from CARI-
COM Meetings
http://www.caricom.org/jsp/communications/communi-
cations_index.jsp?menu=communications
COMISIÓN ECONÓMICA PARA AMÉRICA LATINA Y EL CAR-
IBE (CEPAL) - Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean (ECLAC)
- Balance preliminar de las economías de América Latina y el
Caribe 2010. (Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin
America and the Caribbean 2010)
- Panorama de la inserción internacional de las economías
de América Latina y el Caribe 2009-2010 (Overview of the
International Insertion of Latin America and the Caribbean
2009-2010)
http://www.cepal.org/publicaciones/
COMUNIDAD ANDINA (CAN) – Andean Community (AC)
Estadísticas de Comercio Exterior (Foreign Trade Statistics)
http://estadisticas.comunidadandina.org/eportal/Tema.
aspx?codtema=142
Boletín Estadístico sobre Comercio Exterior: Exportaciones
Intra y Extracomunitarias, enero-diciembre 2010 (Statistical
Bulletin on Foreign Trade: Intra- and Extra-community Exports,
January – December 2010)
http://estadisticas.comunidadandina.org/eportal/conteni-
dos/1549_8.pdf
EUROPEAN UNION EXTERNAL ACTION
European Union and Latin America
http://eeas.europa.eu/la/index_en.htm
European Union Relations with the Caribbean
http://eeas.europa.eu/caribbean/index_en.htm
FACULTAD LATINOAMERICANA DE CIENCIAS SOCIALES
(FLACSO) – Latin American Faculty of Social Sciences
Observatorio de Integración Regional Latinoamericana (OIR-
LA) – Observatory of Latin American Regional Integration
http://www.flacso.org/programas-y-proyectos/observato-
rio-integracion-regional-latinoamericana-oirla/
FONDO MONETARIO INTERNACIONAL (FMI) – International
Monetary Fund (IMF)
World Economic Outlook Update, January 2011
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/up-
date/01/pdf/0111.pdf
INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE ESTADÍSTICAS, GEOGRAFÍA E IN-
FORMÁTICA
DE MÉXICO (INEGI) – National Institute of Statistics, Geogra-
phy and Informatics of Mexico
Estadísticas económicas del sector externo (Economic Sta-
tistics of the External Sector)
http://www.inegi.org.mx/Sistemas/temasV2/Default.
aspx?s=est&c=23824
163
Co
ope
rati
on
an
d R
egio
na
l In
teg
rati
on
in
Lat
in A
mer
ica
an
d T
he
Ca
ribb
ean
201
0
SECRETARÍA GENERAL IBEROAMERICANA (SEGIB) - Ibero-
American General Secretariat (SEGIB)
Página oficial de la Cumbre de Mar del Plata (Official website
of the Mar de Plata Summit)
http://www.xxcumbreiberoamericana.mrecic.gov.ar/
Balance de la Cumbre de Mar del Plata (Report on the Mar
de Plata Summit)
http://segib.org/news/2010/12/resultados-de-la-cum-
bre-de-mar-del-plata/
Reuniones ministeriales sectoriales (Sectoral ministerial
meetings)
http://segib.org/reuniones/2010/06/29/reuniones-
ministeriales-sectoriales-2010-2/
Calendario de reuniones institucionales en el año 2010 (Cal-
endar of institutional meetings in 2010)
http://www.xxcumbreiberoamericana.mrecic.gov.
ar/?q=es/node/16
SISTEMA DE LA INTEGRACIÓN CENTROAMERICANA (SICA) –
Central American Integration System
Reuniones de presidentes (Presidential summits)
http://www.sica.int/busqueda/busqueda_basica.aspx?IdC
at=9&IdMod=8&IdEnt=1&IdEntStyle=401
Comunicados (Communiqués)
http://www.sica.int/busqueda/busqueda_basica.aspx?idC
at=27&idMod=3&Idm=1&IdmStyle=1
SISTEMA ECONÓMICO LATINOAMERICANO (SELA) – Latin
American Economic System (SELA)
Boletín sobre integración de América Latina y el Caribe (Bul-
letin on Latin American and Caribbean Integration), several
issues from 2010
h t t p : / / w w w . s e l a . o r g / v i e w / i n d e x .
asp?ms=258&pageMs=26362
STATISTICS CANADA
International Trade Statistics
http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/GBLEC02A-eng.
htm
UNIÓN DE NACIONES SURAMERICANAS (UNASUR) – Union
of South American Nations
Secretaría permanente (Permanent Secretariat)
http://www.pptunasur.com/inicio.php
UNITED STATES CENSUS BUREAU
Foreign Trade Statistics
http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/high-
lights/top/index.html