untitledVicente Leite1,2, Ângela Ferreira1,2, José Couto1, José
Batista1 1 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF BRAGANÇA
Campus de Santa Apolónia 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
E-Mail: {avtl, apf, jdvc,batista}@ipb.pt URL:
http://www.ipb.pt
2 CISE - Electromechatronic Systems Research Centre Covilhã,
Portugal
Keywords «Distributed power», «microgrid», «PV inverters»,
«renewable energy systems».
Abstract Small scale hydropower has a considerable untapped
potential, able to contribute to the increased energy demand. The
integration of these systems into microgrids is an emerging
solution for the electrification of remote areas and for
self-sustainable power systems. This paper is devoted to the design
optimization of grid-connected pico-hydro systems using
conventional photovoltaic inverters, providing cost effective
solutions able to explore a large amount of feasible sites.
Experimental tests of the proposed innovative topology with two
inverters and selected generators were performed, evaluating the
performance in steady state and dynamic conditions, corroborate the
proposed design procedure.
Introduction There is an active seeking to increase the percentage
share of the total electric energy supply from renewable and
environmental friendly sources. Additionally, the integration of
distributed generation (DG) into microgrids is an emerging solution
for electrification of remote regions and also for self-
sustainable systems. Small scale hydropower has an enormous
untapped potential, which can make a significant contribution to
the increasing energy demand, whilst decreasing the carbon
footprint [1]. Small-scale hydropower stations are usually
run-of-river schemes with no or shallow reservoirs, therefore
associated with low impacts on the hydrological regime, on the
aquatic or riparian ecosystems and on landscapes [2-4]. In order to
enable the widespread exploitation of these systems in a cost
effective way, it is necessary to develop a reliable and cheap
conversion system, preferably based in mature technologies.
Pico-hydro power plants are very small-scale infrastructures
designed to generate electric power, usually under 5 kW [5] by
converting the power available in flowing waters in rivers, canals
and streams and they are quite different from classical
hydroelectric power plants. They are considered as the most
appropriate solution for electrification of rural and isolated
communities in hilly and mountainous regions where it is very
expensive to implement conventional transmission and distribution
power systems [6, 7]. In fact, they have been particularly useful
in some countries such as India, Nepal, China, Iran, Peru, Brazil
and Kenya [8, 9]. Pico-hydro power plants are frequently used as
stand-alone systems, providing electricity for basic needs of a
house or a small village, with a turbine driving an AC generator
and a design load to regulate the output voltage and frequency [7].
In these systems, since the energy is usually directly used by
final consumers, it is essential to provide an effective regulation
of the output voltage and frequency to prevent harming their
appliances [2]. In some cases this is made by speed regulation
using complex and high-inertia mechanical devices which adjusts the
flow to the turbine to meet variations in power
demand. In alternative, the rotational speed of the turbine is
dictated by the available flow and a load management system
regulates the power usage in order to balance the power input and
output [2, 5]. Some off-grid systems are based on a DC generator
and a battery, with or without an off-grid inverter, depending on
whether the loads are AC or DC [10, 11]. When connected to a grid,
conventional pico- hydro systems are designed to operate at very
narrow speed range at different heads in order to approximate the
rotational speed as close as possible to the rated speed of the
generator [10], to ensure the requirements above mentioned. Most of
the times, there will be a trade-off between head and flow rate.
Taking into account variability of heads and the water flow
seasonal variation, the efficiency of pico- hydro power plants is
greatly improved if they may work at variable speed, enabling
increased energy capture [12]. Considering recent advances in low
speed generators with off-the-shelf low power solutions for wind
systems, e.g., variable speed pico-hydro systems can be applied
beyond those conventional structures. If additionally, an inverter
based grid interface is used, other turbine technologies become
viable [13]. However, such dedicated inverters for grid connection
as proposed recently [12, 14-16], would become an expensive
solution and are far way to be an off-the-shelf technology
available on the market. Conversely, photovoltaic (PV) inverters in
the range of 5 kW are a mature and reliable technology widely
available. Therefore, and considering the limitations of
conventional solutions, the procedure to integrate standard PV
inverters in grid connected variable speed pico-hydro systems
becomes attractive. In this non-conventional solution, pico-hydro
turbines are designed to behave electrically like PV strings, so
that they interact effectively with conventional PV equipment,
including grid connected inverters and charge controllers, as
proposed by Smithies Technology Ldt. [17]. However, a complete
description and investigation of a general approach is not
available yet. For this purpose, a design procedure to integrate
widespread standard PV inverters in grid connected variable speed
pico-hydro systems, previously introduced in [18], is further
investigated and optimized in this paper. In order to test the
robustness of the integration, several experimental tests using
different sets of generators and commercial inverters are reported.
Authors believe this innovative solution has a powerful application
domain integrating pico-hydro power systems into microgrids in
developing countries and in a huge number of applications in
developed ones such as in household water supply [11], wastewater
treatment facilities [19] and to improve control systems and
optimize generation as a part of integrated water management
systems [1, 20].
Design procedure of grid-connected pico-hydro systems The proposed
practical approach for grid-connected variable speed pico-hydro
systems is illustrated by the design topology of Fig. 1. Instead of
expensive turbines that allow an optimal control of the water flow,
it is preferable to consider fixed-blade propeller water turbine,
in order to reduce plant costs. This solution relies in a permanent
magnet (PM) synchronous generator and a PV inverter. The input
voltage of the PV inverter is the rectified output voltage of the
generator, by means of a power rectifier bridge. The inverter
decouples the generator output from the utility grid, which allows
coupling the turbine directly to the generator for a wide range of
head and flow combinations. The direct coupling of these two
devices increases the efficiency and reliability of the overall
system. For proper operation and, above all, safety, the system
requires an overvoltage protection circuitry, in order to prevent
damaging the system’ components, for instance, due to freewheeling
if the electric grid fails.
Fig. 1. Design topology for grid-connected pico-hydro
systems.
This simple approach has some important advantages such as high
performance in terms of component reliability, broad range of
products (up to 5 kW) and technological independence. Furthermore,
PV inverters are wide-spread, very cost competitive and their
installation is widely disseminated among small and medium
enterprises. Nevertheless, the integration of the inverter with the
generator must be properly assured, as discussed hereinafter.
Integration procedure of PV inverters with selected generators In
order to be a reliable and safe solution, the integration of the
inverter with the selected generator must be properly assured by
combining the operating areas of both devices. In fact, the
behaviour of the variable speed PM generator is very different from
the one of a PV string. However, under certain operating conditions
in terms of voltage and power ranges, the solution can be reliable
and efficient, benefiting from the advantages previously mentioned.
The integration procedure is determined by the superposition of the
operating areas of the inverter and the generator under analysis,
as proposed in Fig. 2. Regarding the PV inverter, the input voltage
range is defined by minDCV and maxDCV ; the range within it is able
to track the maximum power point (MPP) is frequently defined by min
minMPP DCV V≥ and
max maxMPP DCV V< ; the maximum input current and power of the
inverter, maxDCI and maxDCP respectively, stablish the remaining
limits of its operating area. An additional key characteristic of
the inverter is the initial minimum input voltage needed for the
inverter start working, PV startV . If a generator is to be
connected to a conventional PV inverter, the operating point of the
generator given by the output DC voltage and current, after
rectification, i.e., the I-V characteristics, for the desired speed
range, should be inside the safe operating area (SOA) of the
inverter, as illustrated in Fig. 2 by straight lines. For a given
speed, the I-V characteristic is defined by the no load rectified
output voltage,
0G DCV , and the slope given by the voltage drop in the internal
impedance of the generator.
Fig. 2. Overlapping of the operating areas of PV inverter and
generator.
The integration of the PM generator and the PV inverter as proposed
is straightforward, provided that a set of conditions is guaranteed
[18]:
• Taking into consideration the efficiency map of the inverter and
the higher capacity factor of pico-hydro systems when compared with
PV systems, the rated power of the generator should be in the range
of 0.4 maxDCP to maxDCP of the PV inverter;
• For the speed range of the application, the output DC voltage of
the generator should be within the input voltage range of the PV
inverter;
• The rated DC current of the generator must be equal or less the
maximum input current of the PV inverter, and it is also
recommended to be higher than minDC DCP V , in order to assure the
inverter is able to process the available power without overload
the generator, i.e.,
min rated maxDC DC G DC DCP V I I≤ ≤ ; (1)
• The maximum voltage allowed by the over-voltage protection
circuit should be lower than maxDCV ;
• The no-load output DC voltage of the generator for the initial
speed must be higher than ;PV startV • The system dynamics should
be compliant with the tracking period of the MPP algorithm,
to
prevent the output DC voltage of the generator forsaking the
operational voltage range during acceleration and deceleration
periods [18].
Usually, it is possible to change parameters of conventional PV
inverters such as maximum output power, initial minimum input
voltage, MPP algorithm’s tracking period, etc. These features may
improve the robustness of the procedure presented above, by
performing adjustments to a specific practical application, without
losing its main benefit of the outlined plug-and-play procedure, as
desired. Taking into consideration the previous conditions, a
possible route of the operating point of the generator, set by the
MPP tracking algorithm of the inverter, is shown in Fig. 2 (black
dots). For an initial speed higher than the corresponding to the
initial minimum input voltage, “speed 5” e.g., the MPP algorithm
will start from point 1 and increases the current up to its maximum
(point 2). From this point, if the available power increases, the
operating point will be set eventually in point 3, provided that
the corresponding voltage is lower than the maximum voltage allowed
by the over-voltage protection. On the other hand, from point 2, if
the power decreases the operating point will be set in point 4. It
must be noticed that the maximum admissible current may be set by
maxDCI of the inverter, or through the internal impedance of the
generator, from which the voltage drop superimposes an incremental
current variation in finding the MPP. Usually, this situation
occurs near the generator rated current, preventing critical
overloads.
Over-voltage protection The system requires an over-voltage
protection, in order to protect the circuitry integrity against
special states, such as sudden relieving of the inverter due to
grid failure or grid synchronization, due to occurrences of low
energy demand in stand-alone systems when the energy supply is high
or when the hydro turbine starts (or restarts). In order to the
system be compliant with a cost effective, reliable and robust
solution, the proposed over- voltage protection uses an electronic
circuit which controls the power flow to an auxiliary power
resistor to reduce the generator speed and thus the over-voltage in
the event of surpassing a DC voltage limit. The protection circuit
is shown in Fig. 3 and includes a voltage divider with a
potentiometer (P=10 K) to control the voltage level at which the
IGBT will switch ON and when the dump load is connected to the
DC-link to charge the generator.
Fig. 3. Over-voltage protection circuit.
The resistor (R=47 K) controls the hysteresis window size of the
comparator to define how far above the set point the DC-link
voltage must be before the IGBT is turned ON and how far below the
set point must be before turning OFF the IGBT. Galvanic isolation
is provide to the protection circuit. At the input side, a small
transformer (T) with a rectifier bridge is used. The advantage of
using this transformer, instead of deriving a voltage divider
directly from the DC-link, is that the control circuit can be the
same for different voltage ranges of generators by choosing a
suitable transformation ratio (400:55 in this case). At the output
side, the galvanic isolation is provided by using the IGBT driver
HCPL-314J together with an isolated DC-DC converter as power
supply.
Experimental analysis of the proposed design topology To validate
the proposed design topology, the steady-state operation of the
overall system has been tested with two standard PV inverters from
SMA and selected PM synchronous generators. Additionally, several
dynamic tests have also been performed in order to evaluate the
performance of the over-voltage protection circuit. There were used
three different PM synchronous generators, two of them with
reconfiguring windings in star and delta, which allow different
characteristics. The technical data of the generators is presented
in Table 1 and Table II introduces the main characteristics of the
standard inverters under test.
Table I: Technical data of the PM synchronous generators Generator
(winding) V/rpm W/rpm
@ 1500 rpm 0DCV (V) DCV (V) DCI (A) DCP (W)
1 0.15 0.86 219 150 8.6 1297 2a (star) 0.25 0.87 381 266 4.9
1300
2b (delta) 0.15 0.83 223 148 8.4 1245 3a (star) 0.4 0.53 594 440
1.8 796
3b (delta) 0.25 0.53 369 263 3 799
Table II: Technical data of the inverters Inverter maxDCP (W)
maxDCI (A) minDCV (V) maxDCV (V) rangeMPPV (V) PV startV (V) SB
1500 1600 10 50 600 160-500 80
SB 2100TL 2200 11 125 600 125-480 150
Turbine emulator system The static and dynamic behaviour of the
micro-hydro system at laboratory level requires a prime mover
emulator to assist the performance analysis of the overall system
under variable conditions. The emulator relies on an inverter
controlled squirrel cage induction motor of 3 kW rated power.
Typically, hydro turbines present low dynamics speed variations due
to high damping factor and inertia. Therefore, it is possible to
consider the speed control of the electrical drive, as previously
performed in [18]. Nevertheless, and keeping the focus of this work
in the integration procedure of the PV inverter and the generator,
to emulate flow variations or various head and flow combinations,
it is adopted the power control of the drive which results in a
variable speed operation, being the MPP algorithm of the inverter
responsible for the efficiency and power management of the overall
system, for grid-connected systems.
Steady state operation The steady state operation of the overall
system has been tested for several combinations of the two
inverters with the selected generators. The results obtained are
reported in Fig. 4 to 7. Generators 1 and 2 (a and b) have been
tested with both PV inverters, while Generator 3 (a and b) has been
tested with SB 2100TL, because it is not compatible with the SB
1500 inverter. In fact, taking into account the compatibility
considerations previously introduced, specifically the one given by
(1), the rated current of the generator, for both star and delta
configurations, is lower than the ratio between the power
range
to be processed and the minimum input voltage of the inverter,
which would easily overload the generator.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4. Steady state operation of Generator 1with (a) SB1500 and
(b) SB2100TL.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5. Steady state operation of Generator 2a with (a) SB1500 and
(b) SB2100TL.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6. Steady state operation of Generator 2b with (a) SB1500 and
(b) SB2100TL.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7. Steady state operation of (a) Generator 3a and (b)
Generator 3b with SB2100TL.
Dynamic operation The main objective of the dynamic tests of the
proposed structure is to evaluate the performance of the
over-voltage protection circuit when the conversion power system is
subjected to dynamic conditions.
Tests have been performed monitoring the dissipated power in the
auxiliary dump resistor of the over- voltage circuit, the voltage
and current in the DC bus. These tests also allow the evaluation of
the time delay till the inverter synchronization with the utility
grid. The experimental data acquisition set-up is based on the
MATLAB with Simulink and the dSPACE 1103 controller board. The
threshold of the maximum voltage allowed in the DC bus, set by the
over- voltage protection circuit, is 180 V for the topology using
Generator 1 and 250 V when using Generator 2a. Fig. 8 presents the
synchronization with the utility grid and Fig. 9 reports a grid
failure and the power flow diverted from the generator to the
auxiliary power resistor by the over-voltage protection circuit,
with the proposed topology using SB 1500 and SB 2100TL inverters
and Generators 1 and 2a.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8. Synchronization with the utility with (a) SB 1500 and (b)
SB 2100TL inverters.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9. Grid failure with (a) SB 1500 and (b) SB 2100TL
inverters.
Discussion From the obtained results for steady state performance
and the analysis of the dynamic behaviour in specific conditions,
it can been seen that the integration procedure of PV inverters
with selected generators preconizes a stable and reliable
configuration for grid-connected pico-hydro systems. Regarding the
steady state analysis, it can been seen that operating points of
the generators are within the SOA of the inverters without
surpassing their rated quantities in a critical extent, provided
that the reference mechanical power is kept in the power range of
the generators and the compatibility conditions are verified. For
each tested generator, both inverters are able to process the
available mechanical power, though with different I-V
characteristics for each generator. Generators 1 to 3 work within
the MPP range with SB 2100TL inverter (Fig. 4 (b), 5 (b), 6 (b) and
7), but when using SB 1500 inverter, the locus of the operating
point is, in a large extent, out of its MPP range due to the
deviation between its minimum input voltage and minimum MPP voltage
(Fig. 4 (a), 5 (a) and 6 (a)). It can been seen that for a given
mechanical power reference, the inverter imposes an increasing
current while keeping the voltage around its minimum input voltage
till reaching its maximum DC input current or while the ratio
between the processed power and the minimum input DC voltage is
lower than the rated current of the generator. For instance,
Generators 1 and 2b have rated currents of 8.6 A and 8.4 A,
respectively. While minDC DCP V is lower than those quantities, for
an increasing input power both inverters increase the current till
this increment is overlapped by the voltage drop in the internal
impedance of the generators for a given power to be processed. From
this point forward, inverters
increase the voltage, while keeping the current, approximately, in
its previous maximum. Eventually, inverters may increase a little
further the current (e.g., Fig. 6 (a)) overloading the generators
in an acceptable extent. This behavior is further corroborated with
Generator 2a (Fig.5) and Generators 3a and 3b (Fig. 7), which have
rated currents considerably lower than the maximum DC input
currents of the inverters and, again, not being surpassed in the
power range of the application. From the reported results in the
dynamic analysis it can be seen that the time delay for the
inverter synchronization with the grid is 80 seconds for both
inverters (Fig. 8), being a parametrized value by manufacturers.
After the synchronization, it can be seen that the topology using
Generator 2 (a) is operating with a DC voltage near the threshold
of the maximum DC voltage allowed by the protection circuit which
leads to current divert to the auxiliary power resistor for short
time intervals, restoring the DC voltage below its maximum allowed.
Fig. 9 validates the instantaneous limitation of the DC voltage,
when the grid fails, with the proposed topology using both
inverters.
Conclusion This paper presents a practical approach for
grid-connected pico-hydro systems using conventional photovoltaic
inverters, preconizing a cheap solution with off-the-shelf
technology. For this purpose, a design topology and procedure were
presented to integrate pico-hydro generators into the grid using
conventional PV inverters. This topology allows a variable speed
operation mode whereas a maximum power efficiency operation
tracking is provided by the PV inverter. An over-voltage protection
circuit was designed in order to protect both the generator and
inverter against special states, such as sudden relieving of the
inverter due to grid failure. Steady state and dynamic performances
of the proposed approach have been experimentally tested under
power control by using a turbine emulation system. The results
obtained allow the validation of the proposed design procedure as
well as the definition of the operating conditions, particularly in
applications with a wide speed range.
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/ColorImageResolution 300 /ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold
1.50000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /DCTEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.76 /HSamples [2 1 1 2]
/VSamples [2 1 1 2] >> /ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.76
/HSamples [2 1 1 2] /VSamples [2 1 1 2] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256
/Quality 15 >> /JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth
256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 15 >> /AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true /GrayImageMinResolution 200
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /GrayImageResolution 300
/GrayImageDepth -1 /GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.76 /HSamples [2 1 1 2] /VSamples [2 1 1 2] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.76 /HSamples [2 1 1 2] /VSamples
[2 1 1 2] >> /JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth
256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 15 >> /JPEG2000GrayImageDict
<< /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 15 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false /CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 400 /MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages true /MonoImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/MonoImageResolution 600 /MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode /MonoImageDict << /K -1
>> /AllowPSXObjects false /CheckCompliance [ /None ]
/PDFX1aCheck false /PDFX3Check false /PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true /PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [ 0.00000
0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None) /PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition () /PDFXRegistryName () /PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false /Description << /CHS
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/CHT
<FEFF4f7f752890194e9b8a2d7f6e5efa7acb7684002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002065874ef69069752865bc666e901a554652d965874ef6768467e5770b548c52175370300260a853ef4ee54f7f75280020004100630072006f0062006100740020548c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee553ca66f49ad87248672c4f86958b555f5df25efa7acb76840020005000440046002065874ef63002>
/DAN
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/DEU
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/ESP
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/FRA
<FEFF005500740069006c006900730065007a00200063006500730020006f007000740069006f006e00730020006100660069006e00200064006500200063007200e900650072002000640065007300200064006f00630075006d0065006e00740073002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002000700072006f00660065007300730069006f006e006e0065006c007300200066006900610062006c0065007300200070006f007500720020006c0061002000760069007300750061006c00690073006100740069006f006e0020006500740020006c00270069006d007000720065007300730069006f006e002e0020004c0065007300200064006f00630075006d0065006e00740073002000500044004600200063007200e900e90073002000700065007500760065006e0074002000ea0074007200650020006f007500760065007200740073002000640061006e00730020004100630072006f006200610074002c002000610069006e00730069002000710075002700410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000650074002000760065007200730069006f006e007300200075006c007400e90072006900650075007200650073002e>
/ITA (Utilizzare queste impostazioni per creare documenti Adobe PDF
adatti per visualizzare e stampare documenti aziendali in modo
affidabile. I documenti PDF creati possono essere aperti con
Acrobat e Adobe Reader 5.0 e versioni successive.) /JPN
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/KOR
<FEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020be44c988b2c8c2a40020bb38c11cb97c0020c548c815c801c73cb85c0020bcf4ace00020c778c1c4d558b2940020b3700020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002e>
/NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken
waarmee zakelijke documenten betrouwbaar kunnen worden weergegeven
en afgedrukt. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met
Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.) /NOR
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/PTB
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/SUO
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/SVE
<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>
/ENU (Use these settings to create PDFs that match the "Required"
settings for PDF Specification 4.01) >> >>
setdistillerparams << /HWResolution [600 600] /PageSize
[612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice