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Chapter 6: Teaching Speaking
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Chapter 6: Teaching Speaking
6.1 Preamble
6.2 What is teaching speaking?
6.3 Teaching speaking or talk as interaction
6.4 Teaching speaking or talks as transaction
6.5 Teaching speaking or talk as performance
6.6 Lesson plan
Summary
References
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
Define what is speaking
Explain how to teach talk as interaction
Discuss the steps in teaching talk as transaction
Describe how talk as performance may be taught
Chapter 1: Introduction to Listening
Chapter 2: Teaching Listening
Chapter 3: Listening Activities
Chapter 4: Assessing Listening Skills
Chapter 5: Introduction to Speaking
Chapter 6: Teaching Speaking
Chapter 7: Speaking Activities
Chapter 8: Assessing Speaking Skills
Chapter 9: Listening-Speaking Connection
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embedded in naturalistic dialogs that model features such as opening and closing
conversations, making small talk, recounting personal incidents and experiences, and reacting
to what others say. One rule for making small talk is to initiate interactions with a comment
concerning something in the immediate vicinity or that both participants have knowledge of.
The comment should elicit agreement, since agreement is face-preserving and non-
threatening. Hence, safe topics, such as the weather, traffic, and so on, must be chosen.
Students can initially be given models such as the following to practice:
Later, students can be given situations in which
small talk might be appropriate (e.g., meeting
someone at a movie, running into a friend in the
teh tarik stall, or waiting at a bus stop). They can
then be asked to think of small talk topic
comments and responses. Giving feedback (or
back channelling) is another important aspect of
talk as interaction. It involves responding to a
conversational partner with expressions that
indicate interest and a wish for the speaker tocontinue, such as “That’s interesting,” “yeah,”
“really,” and so on. To practice using back
channelling in this way, students can examine dialogs from which feedback expressions have
been omitted. They can consider suitable ways of providing them and then practice using
them. For example, they can come up with different responses to use in the following dialog:
A: I’m going to Langkawi for my next vacation.
B:
A: Yeah, my parents are taking me there as a graduation present.
B: And what do you plan to do there? A: Well I guess I’ll spend a lot of time on the beach.
B:
A: But I also want to do some fishing.
B:
Another technique to practice the use of conversation starters and narratives about personal
experiences involves giving conversation starters that students respond to by asking one or
two follow-up questions. For example: “I didn’t sleep very well last night.” “Look what I
bought on Sunday. How do you like it?” “Did that thunderstorm last night wake you?”
Rosly: How is the traffic in Kuala Lumpur?
Kumar: Very smooth today.
Rosly: Oh! Yes, I forgot that today is a holiday in Kuala Lumpur.
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Role-play activities are another familiar technique for practicing real-world transactions
and typically involve the following steps:
Preparing : Reviewing vocabulary, real-world knowledge related to the content, and
context of the role play (e.g., returning a faulty item to a store).
Modell ing and Eliciting : Demonstrating the stages that are typically involved in the
transaction, eliciting suggestions for how each stage can be carried out, and teaching
the functional language needed for each stage.
Practicing and Reviewing : Assigning students roles and practicing a role play using
cue cards or realia to provide language and other support.
Should students be penalised for grammatical errors? i.e. the level of linguistic accuracy that
students achieve when carrying out these tasks. One argument is that form will largely lookafter itself with incidental support from the teacher. Grammar is seen a mediating role, rather
than serving as an end in itself. As students carry out communicative tasks, they will engage
in:
negotiation of meaning,
comprehension checks,
confirmation checks, and
clarification requests.
Some experts argue that communications tasks may develop fluency but it could be at the
expense of grammar accuracy. Hence, some teachers are unwilling to get students to engage
in communicative tasks until they have a relatively large vocabulary.
Premature immersion of a student into an unstructured or “free”
conversational setting before certain linguistic structures are
more or less in place is not done without cost (Richards, 2008).
According to Rickards (2008), students who do not have a large vocabulary and not
knowledgeable about grammatical rules when carrying out communication tasks, often rely
on a lexicalised system of communication that depends heavily on vocabulary and memorised
chunks of language, as well as both verbal and nonverbal communication strategies, to get
meaning across.
To address the issue of language accuracy when students are practicing transactional use of
language, the following methods may be adopted:
By pre-teaching certain linguistic forms that can be used while completing a
task.
By reducing the complexity of the task (e.g., by familiarising students with the
demands of the activity by showing them a similar activity on video or as a
dialog).
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By giving adequate time to plan the task.
By repeated performance of the task.
CYCLE OF ACTIVITIES for Teaching Talk as Transaction by Jane
Willis
Jane Willis (1966) suggests using a cycle of activities with task work using a sequence of
activities in a lesson. These activities create interaction mediated by a task and then build
language awareness and language development around task performance. She proposes the
following sequence of activities:
Pre-task activities
INTRODUCTION TO TOPIC & TASK
The Teacher helps Students to understand the theme and objectives of the task, for
example, brainstorming ideas with the class, using pictures, mime, or personal
experience to introduce the topic.
Students may do a pre-task, for example, topic-based odd-word-out games. Teacher
may highlight useful words and phrases, but would not pre-teach new structures.
Students can be given preparation time to think about how to do the task.
Students can hear a recording of a parallel task being done (so long as this does not
give away the solution to the problem). If the task is based on a text, Ss read a part
of it.
a) Why is teaching ‘talk as transaction’ easier compared to teaching ‘talk as
interaction’?
b) Describe the role-playing activities that may be used in teaching ‘talk as
transaction.
c) Should students be penalised for grammatical errors?d) What methods may be adopted to enhance language accuracy?
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The task cycle
TASK
The task is done by Students (in pairs or groups) and gives Students a chance to use
whatever language they already have to express themselves and say whatever they
want to say. This may be in response to reading a text or hearing a recording.
Teacher walks around and monitors, encouraging everyone’s attempt at
communication in the target language.
Teacher helps Students to formulate what they want to say, but will not intervene to
correct errors of form.
The emphasis is on spontaneous, exploratory talk and confidence building, within
the privacy of the small group. Success in achieving the goals of the tasks helps
Students’ motivation.
PLANNING
Planning prepares Students for the next stage, where they are asked to briefly report
to the whole class how they did the task and what the outcome was.
Students draft and rehearse what they want to say or write.
Teacher goes around to advise students on language, suggesting phrases and helping
Ss to polish and correct their language.
If the reports are in writing, Teacher can encourage peer editing and use of
dictionaries.
The emphasis is on clarity, organization, and accuracy, as appropriate for a public
presentation.
Individual students often take this chance to ask questions about specific languageitems.
REPORT
Teacher asks some pairs to report briefly to the whole class so everyone can
compare findings, or begin a survey. There must be a purpose for others to listen.
Sometimes only one or two groups report in full; others comment and add extra
points. The class
may take notes.
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Teacher chairs, comments on the content of group reports, rephrases perhaps, but
gives no overt public correction.
The LANGUAGE FOCUS
Analysis
Teacher sets some language-focused tasks, based on the texts student read or on the
transcripts of the recordings they heard. Examples include the following:
o Find words and phrases related to the topic or text.
o Read the transcript, find words ending in “s” and say what the “s”
means.
o Find all the words in the simple past form. Say which refer to past timeand which do not.
o Underline and classify the questions in the transcript.
Teacher starts Students off, then students continue, often in pairs.
Teacher goes around to help. Ss can ask individual questions.
In plenary, Teacher then reviews the analysis, possibly listing relevant language on
the board. Ss may take notes.
Practice
Teacher conducts practice activities as needed, based on the language analysis work
already on the board, or using examples from the text or transcript. Practice activities
can include:
o Choral repetition of the phrases identified and classified
o Memory challenge games based on partially erased examples or using
lists already on blackboard for progressive deletion
o Sentence completion (base sentence set by one team for another)
o Matching the past-tense verbs (jumbled) with the subject or objects
they had in the text
o Dictionary reference with words from text or transcript
a) List the steps suggested by Jane Willis to enhance language awareness when teaching
‘talk as transaction’.
b) What activities are done at the ‘Introduction to Topic’ stage?
c) List the activities performed by the teacher and students at the ‘Task’ stage.
d) Why is ‘planning’ important?
e) What is done during ‘language focus’?
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Teaching talk as performance requires a different teaching strategy. According to Jones(1996), preparation for ‘talk as performance’ is quite similar to the preparation what one does
for written text, and many of the teaching strategies used in teaching writing can be applied
to teaching ‘speaking or talk as performance’. Do you agree?
This approach involves providing examples or models of speeches, oral presentations,
stories, etc., through video or audio recordings or written examples. These are then
analysed, or “deconstructed,” to understand how such texts work and to understand their
linguistic and organisational features. Questions such as the following guide this process:
What is the speaker’s purpose?
Who is the audience?
What kind of information does the audience expect?
How does the talk begin, develop, and end? What moves or stages are involved?
Is any special language used?
PROCEDURES IN A TEXT-BASED LESSON for Teaching Talk as
performance by Feez & Joyce (1998).
The TEXT is the basis on which the speaker uses when talking to an audience. S. Feez & H.
Joyce (1998) suggested the following steps in developing the TEXT:
Phase 1 BUILDING THE CONTEXT: In this phase, students:
Are introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text being studied
Explore features of the general cultural context in which the text is used and thesocial purposes the text-type achieves, e.g. are you giving a speech thanking your
classmates for voting you as class monitor.
Explore the immediate context of situation by investigating the register of a modeltext that has been selected on the basis of the course objectives and learner need
An exploration of register involves:
Building knowledge of the topic of the model text and knowledge of the social
activity in which the text is used, e.g., job seeking
Understanding the roles and relationships of the people using the text and how
these are established and maintained, e.g., the relationship between a job seeker
and a prospective employer
Understanding the channel of communication being used, e.g., using the telephone,
or speaking face-to-face with members of an interview panel
6.4 Teaching Talk as Performance
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Phase 2: MODELL ING AND DECONSTRUCTING THE TEXT: In this phase:
Students investigate the structural pattern and language features of the model
Students compare the model with other examples of the same text-type
Phase 3: JOINT CONSTRUCTION OF THE TEXT: In this phase:
Students contribute to the construction of whole examples of the text-type
The teacher gradually reduces the contribution to text construction, as the studentsmove closer to being able to control text-type independently
Phase 4: INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION OF THE TEXT: In this phase:
Student work independently with the text
Learner performances are used for achievement assessment
Independent construction activities include:
Listening tasks, e.g., comprehension activities in response to live or recorded material
such as performing a task, sequencing pictures, numbering, ticking or underlining
material on a worksheet, and answering questions
Listening and speaking tasks, e.g., role plays, and simulated or authentic dialogs
Speaking tasks, e.g., spoken presentation to class, a community organization, or a
workplace
Reading tasks, e.g., comprehension activities in response to written material such as
performing a task, sequencing pictures, numbering, ticking or underlining material on
a worksheet, and answering questions
Writing tasks which demand that students draft and present whole texts
Context building activities include:
Presenting the context through pictures, audiovisual materials, realia, excursions, field-trips,guest speakers, etc.
Establishing the social purpose through discussions or surveys, etc.
Cross-cultural activities, such as comparing differences in the use of the text in two cultures
Comparing the model text with other texts of the same or contrasting type, e.g., comparinga job interview with a complex spoken exchange involving close friends, a work colleague,or a stranger in a service encounter
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Phase 5 LINKING TO RELATED TEXTS: In this stage, students investigate how what
they have learned in this teaching/learning cycle can be related to:
Other texts in the same or similar context
Future or past cycles of teaching and learning
Activities that link the text-type to related texts include:
Comparing the use of the text-type across different fields
Researching other text-types used in the same field
Role-playing what happens if the same text-type is used by people with different roles
and relationships
Comparing spoken and written modes of the same text-type
Researching how a key language feature used in this text-type is used in other text-
types
CONCLUSION
In planning to teach speaking in an English class, it is important to determine what kinds of
speaking skills the class will focus on. Which of the three functions of speaking should the
teacher give attention to? Should one function be given greater attention than others?
Informal needs analysis is the starting point.
Set Lesson Goals
Lesson goals are most usefully stated in terms of what students will have done or
accomplished at the end of the lesson. Stating goals in this way allows both teacher and
learners to know when the goals have been reached.
6.5 Lesson Plan for Teaching Speaking
a) Why does teaching ‘talking as performance’ require a different strategy?
b) What is meant by ‘building context’?
c) List what is involved during ‘independent construction of text’?
d) What do you mean by ‘joint construction of text’?
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To set lesson goals:
1. Identify a topic for the lesson. The topic is not a goal, but it will help you develop your
goals. The topic may be determined largely by your curriculum and textbook, and may be
part of a larger thematic unit such as Travel or Leisure Activities. If you have some flexibility
in choice of topic, consider your students’ interests and the availability of authentic materials
at the appropriate level.
2. Identify specific linguistic content, such as vocabulary and points of grammar or language
use, to be introduced or reviewed. These are usually prescribed by the course textbook or
course curriculum. If they are not, select points that are connected in some significant way
with the topic of the lesson.
3. Identify specific communication tasks to be completed by students. To be authentic, the
tasks should allow, but not require, students to use the vocabulary, grammar, and strategies presented in the lesson. The focus of the tasks should be topical, not grammatical. This means
that it may be possible for some students to complete the task without using either the
grammar point or the strategy presented in the first part of the lesson.
4. Identify specific learning strategies to be introduced or reviewed in connection with the
lesson.
5. Create goal statements for the linguistic content, communication tasks, and learning
strategies that state what you will do and what students will do during the lesson.
Structure the Lesson
A language lesson should include a variety of activities that combine different types of
language input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels benefit from such variety;
research has shown that it is more motivating and is more likely to result in effective
language learning.
An effective lesson has five parts:
Preparation Presentation Practice Evaluation Expansion
The five parts of a lesson may all take place in one class session or may extend over multiple
sessions, depending on the nature of the topic and the activities.
The lesson plan should outline who will do what in each part of the lesson. The time allotted
for preparation, presentation, and evaluation activities should be no more than 8-10 minutes
each. Communication practice activities may run a little longer.
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1. Preparation
As the class begins, give students a broad outline of the day’s goals and activities so they
know what to expect. Help them focus by eliciting their existing knowledge of the day’s
topics.
Use discussion or homework review to elicit knowledge related to the grammar and
language use points to be covered
Use comparison with the native language to elicit strategies that students may already
be using
Use discussion of what students do and/or like to do to elicit their knowledge of the
topic they will address in communication activities
2. Presentation/Modelling
Move from preparation into presentation of the linguistic and topical content of the lesson
and relevant learning strategies. Present the strategy first if it will help students absorb the
lesson content.
Presentation provides the language input that gives students the foundation for their
knowledge of the language. Input comes from the instructor and from course textbooks.
Language textbooks designed for students in U.S. universities usually provide input only in
the form of examples; explanations and instructions are written in English. To increase the
amount of input that students receive in the target language, instructors should use it as much
as possible for all classroom communication purposes.
An important part of the presentation is structured output, in which students practice the form
that the instructor has presented. In structured output, accuracy of performance is important.
Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific language items
recently introduced.
Structured output is a type of communication that is found only in language classrooms.
Because production is limited to preselected items, structured output is not truly
communicative.
3. Practice
In this part of the lesson, the focus shifts from the instructor as presenter to the students as
completers of a designated task . Students work in pairs or small groups on a topic-based task
with a specific outcome. Completion of the task may require the bridging of an information
gap. The instructor observes the groups an acts as a resource when students have questions
that they cannot resolve themselves.
In their work together, students move from structured output to communicative output, in
which the main purpose is to complete the communication task. Language becomes a tool,
rather than an end in itself. Learners have to use any or all of the language that they know
along with varied communication strategies. The criterion of success is whether the learner
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gets the message across. Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with
the message.
Activities for the practice segment of the lesson may come from a textbook or be designed by
the instructor.
4. Evaluation
When all students have completed the communication practice task, reconvene the class as a
group to recap the lesson. Ask students to give examples of how they used the linguistic
content and learning or communication strategies to carry out the communication task.
Evaluation is useful for four reasons:
It reinforces the material that was presented earlier in the lesson
It provides an opportunity for students to raise questions of usage and style It enables the instructor to monitor individual student comprehension and learning It provides closure to the lesson
5. Expansion
Expansion activities allow students to apply the knowledge they have gained in the classroom
to situations outside it. Expansion activities include out-of-class observation assignments, in
which the instructor asks students to find examples of something or to use a strategy and then
report back.
Identify Materials and Activities
The materials for a specific lesson will fall into two categories: those that are required, such
as course textbooks and lab materials, and authentic materials that the teacher incorporates
into classroom activities.
For required materials, determine what information must be presented in class and decide
which exercise(s) to use in class and which for out-of-class work. For teacher-provided
materials, use materials that are genuinely related to realistic communication activities. Don’t
be tempted to try to create a communication task around something just because it’s a really
cool video or a beautiful brochure.
Truly authentic communication tasks have several features:
They involve solving a true problem or discussing a topic of interest They require using language to accomplish a goal, not using language merely to use
language They allow students to use all of the language skills they have, rather than specific
forms or vocabulary, and to self-correct when they realize they need to The criterion of success is clear: completion of a defined task
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SUMMARY
Teaching speaking is to teach second language learners to produce the English speech
sounds and sound patterns; use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and therhythm of the second language.
‘Talk as interaction’ is perhaps the most difficult skill to teach since interactional talk
is a very complex and subtle phenomenon that takes place under the control of
unspoken rules.
Giving feedback (or back channelling) is another important aspect of talk as
interaction.
Another technique to practice the use of conversation starters and narratives about
personal experiences involves giving conversation starters that students respond to byasking one or two follow-up questions.
Talk as transaction is more easily planned since current communicative materials are
a rich resource of group activities.
Role-play activities are another familiar technique for practicing real-world
transactions.
The cycle of activities with task work using a sequence of activities in a lesson by
Willis, create interaction mediated by a task and then build language awareness andlanguage development around task performance.
Teaching talk as performance requires a different teaching strategy which is quite
similar to the preparation what one does for written text.
The TEXT is the basis on which the speaker uses when talking to an audience.
Understanding the roles and relationships of the people using the text and how these
are established and maintained.
In planning to teach speaking in an English class, it is important to determine whatkinds of speaking skills the class will focus on.
An effective lesson has five parts: Preparation, Presentation, Practice, Evaluationand Expansion
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REFERENCES
Willis, Jane (1996). A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Harlow, UK: Longman.
Feez, S., and H. Joyce 1998. Text-Based Syllabus Design. Sydney: Macquarie University.
Hayriye Kayi (2006). Teaching Speaking: Activities to Promote Speaking in a SecondLanguage. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XII, No. 11, November.
Jones, Pauline (1996). Planning an oral language program. In Pauline Jones (ed.), Talking
to Learn. Melbourne: PETA, pp. 12 – 26
Richards, J. (2008). Teaching Listening and Speaking. New York: Cambridge University
Press.