Changes in RainfallChanges in Rainfall
Chloe DonaldsonChloe Donaldson
Water CycleWater Cycle
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SnowSnow When water evaporates, it removes heat. When that moisture
condenses inside clouds to form snowflakes, it releases this stored heat, which warms the air. As more snow crystallizes, more heat is released, which in turn makes wind. When the snow falls, it takes water out of the atmosphere, leaving it drier. Snow on the ground also reflects sunlight back into space, which helps cool the planet. http://www.physorg.com/news92329920.html
When water evaporates, it removes heat. When that moisture condenses inside clouds to form snowflakes, it releases this stored heat, which warms the air. As more snow crystallizes, more heat is released, which in turn makes wind. When the snow falls, it takes water out of the atmosphere, leaving it drier. Snow on the ground also reflects sunlight back into space, which helps cool the planet. http://www.physorg.com/news92329920.html
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The Effect of Global Warming on RainfallThe Effect of Global Warming on Rainfall
Every degree of warming attributes to a one percent increase in rainfall (not evenly distributed)
Rising sea surface temperatures (SST)
Every degree of warming attributes to a one percent increase in rainfall (not evenly distributed)
Rising sea surface temperatures (SST)
More water: GREAT!More water: GREAT!
An excess amount of rain is falling at high latitudes in winter which has caused severe problems for many habitats.
An excess amount of rain is falling at high latitudes in winter which has caused severe problems for many habitats.
CanadaCanada
On August 1st 2008 tourists were evacuated from the Baffin Islands in Canada due to "Thawing permafrost, eroding lakeshores, a melting glacier and fears of flash floods”
In the winter of 2002-2003 58 people were killed by avalanches in the worst avalanche season in Canadian history
http://www.avalanche.org/accidnt1.htmhttp://www.desmogblog.com/arctic-tourists-evacuated-amid-melting-and-
unprecedented-warming
On August 1st 2008 tourists were evacuated from the Baffin Islands in Canada due to "Thawing permafrost, eroding lakeshores, a melting glacier and fears of flash floods”
In the winter of 2002-2003 58 people were killed by avalanches in the worst avalanche season in Canadian history
http://www.avalanche.org/accidnt1.htmhttp://www.desmogblog.com/arctic-tourists-evacuated-amid-melting-and-
unprecedented-warming
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A: Ward Hunt Ice Shelf
B: Disraeli ford
C: Arctic Ocean
Ward Hunt Ice ShelfWard Hunt Ice Shelf On July 29th 2008 four square kilometers of the Ward
Hunt Ice Shelf broke off This is the largest break since 2005 More than 8,000 square kilometers of the Arctic Ice
Shelf have been broken off leaving only 1,000 square kilometers
“Sea ice cover has been shrinking about three percent per decade” says Mark Serreze (scientist with the National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, Co.)
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/todd-carmichael/massive-piece-of-ward-hun_b_115677.html
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/img/img_vedette-rsat_1215_2d2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://polarwarming.ca/blog/%3Fp%3D276&usg=__P4aZnUfZcZWXRapzAbd_R7lZwck=&h=809&w=600&sz=423&hl=en&start=3&sig2=j2Hpwb4Seb2LnKnnZUHQ1g&um=1&tbnid=ktrmbg5-_uOFKM:&tbnh=143&tbnw=106&ei=ZJM1SZf8HoSoefj8sPcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dward%2Bhunt%2Bice%2Bshelf%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DN
On July 29th 2008 four square kilometers of the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf broke off
This is the largest break since 2005 More than 8,000 square kilometers of the Arctic Ice
Shelf have been broken off leaving only 1,000 square kilometers
“Sea ice cover has been shrinking about three percent per decade” says Mark Serreze (scientist with the National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, Co.)
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/todd-carmichael/massive-piece-of-ward-hun_b_115677.html
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/img/img_vedette-rsat_1215_2d2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://polarwarming.ca/blog/%3Fp%3D276&usg=__P4aZnUfZcZWXRapzAbd_R7lZwck=&h=809&w=600&sz=423&hl=en&start=3&sig2=j2Hpwb4Seb2LnKnnZUHQ1g&um=1&tbnid=ktrmbg5-_uOFKM:&tbnh=143&tbnw=106&ei=ZJM1SZf8HoSoefj8sPcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dward%2Bhunt%2Bice%2Bshelf%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DN
Spring of 2004Spring of 2004 The spring of 2004 brought an end
to England’s drought but it also brought unprecedented downpours and storms that raged through April, May, and June
Thunder storms and urban flooding were reported across England
Seasonal precipitation in the Upper North Grain catchment with dashed lines showing the winter and summer mean precipitation at the Featherbed Top meteorological site (1961 ミ 2005).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V6C-4T4XRHG-3&_user=961305&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000049425&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=961305&md5=56fa1861d10edd3ac19b160cb480bd67
http://www.nerc-wallingford.ac.uk/ih/nrfa/yb/yb2004/rainfall.html
The spring of 2004 brought an end to England’s drought but it also brought unprecedented downpours and storms that raged through April, May, and June
Thunder storms and urban flooding were reported across England
Seasonal precipitation in the Upper North Grain catchment with dashed lines showing the winter and summer mean precipitation at the Featherbed Top meteorological site (1961 ミ 2005).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V6C-4T4XRHG-3&_user=961305&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000049425&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=961305&md5=56fa1861d10edd3ac19b160cb480bd67
http://www.nerc-wallingford.ac.uk/ih/nrfa/yb/yb2004/rainfall.html
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Implications of the Destruction of the Arctic
Implications of the Destruction of the Arctic
According to Nasa:“Loss of sea ice can have major
implications for global climate. Because of its light appearance, sea ice reflects most of the Sun's energy back into space, whereas darker seawater absorbs most of the incoming radiation and could potentially warm Earth's climate. As sea ice continues to melt, more radiation will be absorbed by the ocean.”
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/todd-carmichael/massive-piece-of-ward-hun_b_115677.html
According to Nasa:“Loss of sea ice can have major
implications for global climate. Because of its light appearance, sea ice reflects most of the Sun's energy back into space, whereas darker seawater absorbs most of the incoming radiation and could potentially warm Earth's climate. As sea ice continues to melt, more radiation will be absorbed by the ocean.”
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/todd-carmichael/massive-piece-of-ward-hun_b_115677.html
Where’s the Water?Where’s the Water?
Global warming is increasing the amount of rainfall per year but because it is not evenly distributed many places that depend on seasonal rainfall are being faced with severe droughts
Global warming is increasing the amount of rainfall per year but because it is not evenly distributed many places that depend on seasonal rainfall are being faced with severe droughts
The Sahel RegionThe Sahel Region
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http://bp1.blogger.com/_cgI0mqeCmD4/RvVA9jwQM5I/AAAAAAAAAFE/Xqok0Rf7afQ/s1600-h/Africa_Sahel.jpg
Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal
An Unending DroughtAn Unending Drought
In the 1970’s over 200,000 people living in the Sahel Region of Africa died due to the lack of rain. The monsoon rains have yet to return to this desperate section of the world.
Farmers dependent on the seasonal spring and summer rains can not work their land which is slowly turning to desert
Nomadic camel herders who travel through the drier areas feeding their herd are now forced to encroach on the small sections of fertile land the farmers have left
In the 1970’s over 200,000 people living in the Sahel Region of Africa died due to the lack of rain. The monsoon rains have yet to return to this desperate section of the world.
Farmers dependent on the seasonal spring and summer rains can not work their land which is slowly turning to desert
Nomadic camel herders who travel through the drier areas feeding their herd are now forced to encroach on the small sections of fertile land the farmers have left
SahelSahel
Droughts in the Sahel reduced productivity, leading to low vegetation cover that increased albedo, reduced water recycling and monsoon circulation, thus decreasing precipitation. Reduced vegetation cover also led to soil erosion and further reduction of productivity. This vicious cycle further suppressed vegetation cover
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/images/box7-1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/figtableboxes/box-7-1.htm&usg=__S6cNyoATUxpc2qoTFME_A_AsF6A=&h=352&w=620&sz=41&hl=en&start=3&sig2=PDrf1xEsoX0r83gMDyCyCA&um=1&tbnid=aVNb7rLreHj5LM:&tbnh=77&tbnw=136&ei=Boc1SbK8Mo6ceezN4fcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dthe%2Bsahel%2Bregion%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DG
Droughts in the Sahel reduced productivity, leading to low vegetation cover that increased albedo, reduced water recycling and monsoon circulation, thus decreasing precipitation. Reduced vegetation cover also led to soil erosion and further reduction of productivity. This vicious cycle further suppressed vegetation cover
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/images/box7-1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/figtableboxes/box-7-1.htm&usg=__S6cNyoATUxpc2qoTFME_A_AsF6A=&h=352&w=620&sz=41&hl=en&start=3&sig2=PDrf1xEsoX0r83gMDyCyCA&um=1&tbnid=aVNb7rLreHj5LM:&tbnh=77&tbnw=136&ei=Boc1SbK8Mo6ceezN4fcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dthe%2Bsahel%2Bregion%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DG
Why?Why?
The time series in the figure above represents variations above or below the long-term mean of rainfall in the Sahel region of Africa. The observed time series is the average of station observations in the region, while the modeled time series is an area average of the model's rendition of the variability. The similarity between the two is a measure of the success of the model in reproducing the observed variability, based on the influence of sea surface temperatures only on the global atmospheric circulation, and on Sahel
rainfall. http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2003/images/sciencefig1.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2003/
story10-09-03.html&usg=__EO6jnQJeFxQhQWAtw5e1aMmb_RQ=&h=629&w=944&sz=659&hl=en&start=5&sig2=TntUJBSHJ9Du5UZOL7JUtA&um=1&tbnid=_aRBxEoMBGfzCM:&tbnh=99&tbnw=148&ei=Boc1SbK8Mo6ceezN4fcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dthe%2Bsahel%2Bregion%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DG
The time series in the figure above represents variations above or below the long-term mean of rainfall in the Sahel region of Africa. The observed time series is the average of station observations in the region, while the modeled time series is an area average of the model's rendition of the variability. The similarity between the two is a measure of the success of the model in reproducing the observed variability, based on the influence of sea surface temperatures only on the global atmospheric circulation, and on Sahel
rainfall. http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2003/images/sciencefig1.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2003/
story10-09-03.html&usg=__EO6jnQJeFxQhQWAtw5e1aMmb_RQ=&h=629&w=944&sz=659&hl=en&start=5&sig2=TntUJBSHJ9Du5UZOL7JUtA&um=1&tbnid=_aRBxEoMBGfzCM:&tbnh=99&tbnw=148&ei=Boc1SbK8Mo6ceezN4fcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dthe%2Bsahel%2Bregion%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DG
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Sea Surface TemperaturesSea Surface Temperatures
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http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5647/1027/FIG2
Explanation of ChartExplanation of Chart The two leading patterns of observed precipitation explain 25% and
15% of the total variance, their modeled counterparts 32% and 21% of the ensemble-mean variance, respectively. (A and D) Leading spatial patterns (EOFs) in the model. Red, positive precipitation anomalies; blue, negative anomalies. (B and E) Leading PCs; (B) is interannual in nature, whereas (E) captures the well-known trend in Sahel rainfall. The correlation between observed (red, solid line) and modeled (blue, dashed line) Gulf of Guinea PCs is 0.62; that between Sahel PCs is 0.73. (C and F) Regression maps of the leading model PCs with ensemble-mean surface temperature. Contour interval is every 0.4 K, starting at 0.2 K, and shading represents statistical significance of the anomalies at the 99.9% level or higher. Solid lines and red color, positive anomalies; dashed lines and blue color, negative anomalies.
The two leading patterns of observed precipitation explain 25% and 15% of the total variance, their modeled counterparts 32% and 21% of the ensemble-mean variance, respectively. (A and D) Leading spatial patterns (EOFs) in the model. Red, positive precipitation anomalies; blue, negative anomalies. (B and E) Leading PCs; (B) is interannual in nature, whereas (E) captures the well-known trend in Sahel rainfall. The correlation between observed (red, solid line) and modeled (blue, dashed line) Gulf of Guinea PCs is 0.62; that between Sahel PCs is 0.73. (C and F) Regression maps of the leading model PCs with ensemble-mean surface temperature. Contour interval is every 0.4 K, starting at 0.2 K, and shading represents statistical significance of the anomalies at the 99.9% level or higher. Solid lines and red color, positive anomalies; dashed lines and blue color, negative anomalies.
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ExplanationExplanation Decomposition of the Sahel PC of precipitation into low (A to C) and
high frequency (D to F) components. (A) Twenty-one year running mean of the Sahel PC, in observations (red), and in the model (blue). (D) Solid lines, the observed PC; dashed lines, the modeled PC. Correlation is 0.52, meaning that the success of the simulations comes from their ability to capture more than just the interdecadal variability. The vertical lines represent ENSO events: warm in red, cold in blue. (B and E) Regression maps of the (B) low- and (E) high-frequency components of the Jahel PC with ensemble-mean surface temperature. Contouring and shading are as in Fig. 2. [(C) and (F)] Regression maps with precipitation. Contour interval is every 0.4 mm/day, starting at 0.2 mm/day.
Decomposition of the Sahel PC of precipitation into low (A to C) and high frequency (D to F) components. (A) Twenty-one year running mean of the Sahel PC, in observations (red), and in the model (blue). (D) Solid lines, the observed PC; dashed lines, the modeled PC. Correlation is 0.52, meaning that the success of the simulations comes from their ability to capture more than just the interdecadal variability. The vertical lines represent ENSO events: warm in red, cold in blue. (B and E) Regression maps of the (B) low- and (E) high-frequency components of the Jahel PC with ensemble-mean surface temperature. Contouring and shading are as in Fig. 2. [(C) and (F)] Regression maps with precipitation. Contour interval is every 0.4 mm/day, starting at 0.2 mm/day.
Breaking it DownBreaking it DownThe positive rainfall anaomoly of 1 standard
deviation is associated with negative Sea Surface Temp. in the Pacific and Indian oceans of up to .2 degrees celcius and negative surface temp. in Sahel of up to .6 degrees Celcius
On land above average rainfall equals more soil moisture
Moisture is evaporated=enhanced precipitation over land=increased soil moisture=evaporation and decreased land surface temperature
In Sahel less water = higher temperatures = destruction of vegetation =
The positive rainfall anaomoly of 1 standard deviation is associated with negative Sea Surface Temp. in the Pacific and Indian oceans of up to .2 degrees celcius and negative surface temp. in Sahel of up to .6 degrees Celcius
On land above average rainfall equals more soil moisture
Moisture is evaporated=enhanced precipitation over land=increased soil moisture=evaporation and decreased land surface temperature
In Sahel less water = higher temperatures = destruction of vegetation =
Breaking it Down Continued
Breaking it Down Continued
The semi-arid Sahel is highly sensitive to SST changes in all tropical basins including the Pacific and more local Atlantic and Indian. An increased SST in the
Indian Ocean, between East Africa and Indonesia, is identified as a leading factor for the decrease in rainfall trend observed in the Sahel from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Combined with the warmer-than-average eastern equatorial Atlantic Ocean it formed a low-latitude ring of warm SSTs around Africa that disrupted the fragile balance that defines the monsoon, between the competing
effects of high summertime land surface temperatures and the associated development of a land-ocean temperature contrast versus the availability of moisture. Rainfall anomalies of opposite sign across the Sahel and in the equatorial Indian Ocean support the hypothesis that the oceanic warming around Africa may indeed have weakened the land-ocean temperature contrast and consequently the monsoon, causing deep convection to migrate over the ocean and causing widespread drought over land, from the Atlantic coast of West Africa to the highlands of Ethiopia.
The semi-arid Sahel is highly sensitive to SST changes in all tropical basins including the Pacific and more local Atlantic and Indian. An increased SST in the
Indian Ocean, between East Africa and Indonesia, is identified as a leading factor for the decrease in rainfall trend observed in the Sahel from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Combined with the warmer-than-average eastern equatorial Atlantic Ocean it formed a low-latitude ring of warm SSTs around Africa that disrupted the fragile balance that defines the monsoon, between the competing
effects of high summertime land surface temperatures and the associated development of a land-ocean temperature contrast versus the availability of moisture. Rainfall anomalies of opposite sign across the Sahel and in the equatorial Indian Ocean support the hypothesis that the oceanic warming around Africa may indeed have weakened the land-ocean temperature contrast and consequently the monsoon, causing deep convection to migrate over the ocean and causing widespread drought over land, from the Atlantic coast of West Africa to the highlands of Ethiopia.
Simply put:Simply put:
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The Sahel drought was likely initiated by a change in worldwide ocean temperatures, which reduced the strength of the African monsoon, and was exacerbated by land-atmosphere feedbacks through natural vegetation and land cover change.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5647/999
The Sahel drought was likely initiated by a change in worldwide ocean temperatures, which reduced the strength of the African monsoon, and was exacerbated by land-atmosphere feedbacks through natural vegetation and land cover change.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5647/999
Global DimmingGlobal Dimming Although many problems arise from the warming of the
earths oceans scientists have noted that some of the oceans around Europe have begun to cool
Scientists attribute some of the cooling to Global dimming
Coal-fired power plants, cars, and factories all put massive amounts of dust particles into the air
These particles scatter and absorb light which lowers temperatures
Dust also carries nutrients to the ocean and far off lands helping the growth of CO2 absorbing plants and plankton
About half of the dust in the air is produced in Africa and as a result of the drying of its land the amount of dust in the atmosphere has icreased by a third
Although many problems arise from the warming of the earths oceans scientists have noted that some of the oceans around Europe have begun to cool
Scientists attribute some of the cooling to Global dimming
Coal-fired power plants, cars, and factories all put massive amounts of dust particles into the air
These particles scatter and absorb light which lowers temperatures
Dust also carries nutrients to the ocean and far off lands helping the growth of CO2 absorbing plants and plankton
About half of the dust in the air is produced in Africa and as a result of the drying of its land the amount of dust in the atmosphere has icreased by a third
AustraliaAustraliaSince 1975 Australia has suffered a 15% decrease
in rainfallClimatologist David Karoly attributes this to “the
destruction of the ozone layer, which has cooled the stratosphere over the Antarctic, thus hastening the circulation of cold air around the Pole and drawing the southern rainfall zone even farther southward.”
Winter rainfall which the farmers depend on to nourish their crops and replenish their water supply has decreased more than 15%
Summer rainfall which is erratic and not suitable for supplying water to crops has increased
Since 1975 Australia has suffered a 15% decrease in rainfall
Climatologist David Karoly attributes this to “the destruction of the ozone layer, which has cooled the stratosphere over the Antarctic, thus hastening the circulation of cold air around the Pole and drawing the southern rainfall zone even farther southward.”
Winter rainfall which the farmers depend on to nourish their crops and replenish their water supply has decreased more than 15%
Summer rainfall which is erratic and not suitable for supplying water to crops has increased
Rainfall in AustraliaRainfall in Australia
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Seems OddSeems Odd It seems odd that overall rainfall has increased in
Australia However the areas that have decreased rainfall statistics
are more harmfully affected Large increases (greater than 20 mm per ten years)
since 1950, intensifying since 1970, have been observed in north-west Australia. Decreases since 1950, intensifying since 1970, have occurred in all the eastern states, South Australia and much of the Northern Territory.The rainfall graph shows an increase in annual rainfall averaged across the continent over the reporting period 1900 to 2004. The increase from the mid 1970s is more pronounced. This is interesting given that the area affected by decreased rainfall seems to be greater than the area affected by increased rainfall.
It seems odd that overall rainfall has increased in Australia
However the areas that have decreased rainfall statistics are more harmfully affected
Large increases (greater than 20 mm per ten years) since 1950, intensifying since 1970, have been observed in north-west Australia. Decreases since 1950, intensifying since 1970, have occurred in all the eastern states, South Australia and much of the Northern Territory.The rainfall graph shows an increase in annual rainfall averaged across the continent over the reporting period 1900 to 2004. The increase from the mid 1970s is more pronounced. This is interesting given that the area affected by decreased rainfall seems to be greater than the area affected by increased rainfall.
America and the OceansAmerica and the Oceans
Most of western America has experienced a series of severe droughts
During the years between 1998 and 2002 the Pacific Ocean was split. The water in the east were cooler than normal while the water in the west were warmer than average
This shifted the jet stream northward and pushed the storms about 5 degrees latitudinally northward
The warming of the ocean is attributed to the increased CO2 in the atmosphere
Most of western America has experienced a series of severe droughts
During the years between 1998 and 2002 the Pacific Ocean was split. The water in the east were cooler than normal while the water in the west were warmer than average
This shifted the jet stream northward and pushed the storms about 5 degrees latitudinally northward
The warming of the ocean is attributed to the increased CO2 in the atmosphere
America’s Water SupplyAmerica’s Water Supply
Farmers in the US rely on the snowpack to provide water to their crops
Snow fall has declined severely over the last 50 years and if trends continue the snowpack could be reduced by up to 60%
Higher temperatures cause the snowpack to melt earlier so water is released earlier in the spring and winter than needed so crops aren’t getting enough water in the summer
More water in the spring and winter is a cause for flooding
Farmers in the US rely on the snowpack to provide water to their crops
Snow fall has declined severely over the last 50 years and if trends continue the snowpack could be reduced by up to 60%
Higher temperatures cause the snowpack to melt earlier so water is released earlier in the spring and winter than needed so crops aren’t getting enough water in the summer
More water in the spring and winter is a cause for flooding
SummarySummary
It would be accurate to say that rain has shifted, it has not only decreased in some places but increased (detrimentally in others)
Excess water has caused the degredation of arctic environments as well as harmful flooding
A lack of water is responsible for the destruction of healthy environments and an increase in global dust
It would be accurate to say that rain has shifted, it has not only decreased in some places but increased (detrimentally in others)
Excess water has caused the degredation of arctic environments as well as harmful flooding
A lack of water is responsible for the destruction of healthy environments and an increase in global dust
How Come?How Come?
CO2 emissions are contributing to rising sea surface temperatures which throw the storm patters off causing rainfall to increase in some areas and decrease in others
The force of Monsoon season is weakened by the higher sea surface temperatures
A decrease in water leads to a dangerous cycle of increase land surface temperature and decreased evaporation which is directly connected to decreased rainfall
CO2 emissions are contributing to rising sea surface temperatures which throw the storm patters off causing rainfall to increase in some areas and decrease in others
The force of Monsoon season is weakened by the higher sea surface temperatures
A decrease in water leads to a dangerous cycle of increase land surface temperature and decreased evaporation which is directly connected to decreased rainfall
SourcesSources