Beef and Pork Flavor: Is it Important?
Rhonda MillerProfessor
Meat Science SectionDepartment of Animal Science
Texas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX
Outline
• Evidence that flavor is important to consumers
• Define components of beef and pork flavor
• Using a beef or pork lexicon to define flavor
• Using AromaTrax to define flavor
Flavor Drives Consumer Acceptability!!!
• Beef Customer Satisfaction• Pork Consumer Benchmark Study
Least-Squares Means for City by Quality level effect on Consumer Flavor Intensity ratings
(1=non; 23=extremely intense)
City Low High Low TopSelect Select Choice Choice
Chicago 18.4ef 18.2fg 18.4de 18.7c
Houston 18.9b 18.9b 19.2a 19.0ab
Philadelphia 17.8ij 17.9hij 18.1gh 18.3ef
San Francisco 17.7j 17.9hij 18.0ghi 18.0ghi
Quality grade level
a-jConsumerflavor intensity rating values with different superscript letters differ significantly (P < .05).
from Neely et al. (1998)
Top Sirloin SteaksLeast-Squares Means for cooking method by quality grade level
effect on consumer beef flavor intensity ratings (23=extreme amount; 1=none at all)
Outdoor grill 18.4cde 18.1def 18.4cde 18.7bc
Broil 18.2cdef 17.7lfg 18.2cdef 18.0ef
Indoor grill 19.2ab 18.9abc 19.0abc 19.6a
Pan Fry 18.4cde 18.6bcd 18.7bcd 18.4bcde
Stir Fry 16.9g 17.5fg 18.3cdef 18.0efg
Simmer & Stew 18.0efg 18.0efg 18.3cdef 17.4fg
Other 18.8bc 19.0ab 18.6bcd 18.7bcd
Cookingmethod
Low Select
HighSelect
LowChoice
TopChoice
Quality grade level
a-g Consumer Overall Like ratings with different superscript letters differ (P < .05). fromSavell et al. (1999)
Phenotypic correlations between consumer pork loin eating quality response variablesa (n = ~13,220
responses; from Moeller and Miller, 2010)Juiciness Juiciness Tenderness Tenderness Flavor FlavorLikelihood
Like Level Like Level Like Level of Purchaseb
Overall Likea 0.75 0.65 0.73 0.68 0.79 0.71 0.78Juiciness Likea 0.87 0.75 0.71 0.63 0.57 0.64Juiciness Levela 0.70 0.71 0.54 0.52 0.58Tenderness Likea 0.92 0.62 0.55 0.68Tenderness Levela 0.58 0.53 0.65Flavor Likea0.880.75Flavor Levela0.70
a Consumer responses measured on an 8-point, end-anchored scale; 1 = Most unfavorable, 8 = Most favorable.b Consumer responses measured on a 5-point scale; 1 = Definitely Would Not Buy, 5 = Definitely Would Buy.
Effect of a Cooked Temperature ×Enhancement Interaction on Flavor
Like
Cooked Temperature, ºC
Flav
or L
ike
Enhancement improved Flavor Like score by 1.10 units across the range As cooked temperature increased, enhanced responses improved
from Moeller and Miller (2010)
Effect of pH on Tenderness and Flavor Like - Consumer Non-Enhanced
Loin pH
Flav
or L
ike
Increasing pH by 0.20 units Improved Tenderness Like 0.20 units Improved Flavor Like by 0.10 units
from Moeller and Miller (2010)
Components of Meat Flavor:• Lean component
Lean meat flavor-water-soluble reducing sugars and amino acids Myoglobin content and non-heme iron level
• Lipid component Species specific flavors - Amount and fatty acid composition Lipid oxidation - amount and stage of development Diet specific components Hormonal/sex effects on meat flavor
• Off-flavor from microbial growth• Other degradative processes - proteolytic• Cooking
Millard reaction products Denaturation due to heat and volatilization of compounds
9
Chemical classes of aroma compounds reported from cooked beef (from Maarse and Visscher, 1989)
Class of CompoundNumber of components reportedAliphatic Hydrocarbons 103
Alcohols 70Aldehydes 55Ketones 49
Carboxylic acids 24Esters 7Amines 20
Alicyclic Hydrocarbons 44Alcohols 3
Ketones 18Heterocyclic Lactones 38
Furans and derivatives 44Thiophenes and derivatives 40Pyrroles and derivatives 20
Pyridines and derivatives 21Pyrazines and derivatives 54Oxazol(in)es 13Thiazol(in)es 29
Other suplphurheterocyclics 13Benzenoids 80Sulphur Compounds (not heterocyclic) 72Miscellaneous 7
Consumers Call it Taste!Scientists call it:
• AromaVolatiles identified through
smell or the olfactory bulb• Flavor AromaticsVolatiles identified while in
the mouth by the olfactory bulb
• Basic TastesReceptors on the tongue for
sweet, salt, sour and bitter
Bitter
Salty
Sour
Sweet
Consumers Call it Taste!Scientists call it:
• Mouth-feelsFat, astringent, metallic
• TextureTactile - skin has receptors for
pressure, light and heavy touch, pain and temperatureKinaesthetic- deep pressure felt
through the sense of tension and relaxation of muscle - gives resistance – Trigeminal nerves
• Aftertastes
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Beef CutsAdhikari et al. 2012 Journal of Sensory Studies
Major Notes Definition ReferenceBeef flavor ID Amount of beef flavor
identify Swanson’s beef broth = 5.0Beef Brisket = 12.0
Brown/Roasted A round, full aromatic generally associated with beef suet that has been broiled
Beef Suet, broiled = 8.580% Lean Ground Chuck = 10.0
Bloody/Serumy Aromatic associated with blood of cooked meat products; closely related to metallic aromatic.
Select Top Loin Steak = 5.5Beef Brisket = 6.0
Fat-like Aromatics associated with cooked animal fat
Broiled beef suet=12.0Hillshire Farms Lit’lSmokies=7.0
Metallic Impression of slightly oxidized metal, such as iron, copper, and silver spoons.
0.10% potassium chloride solution = 1.5Select Top Loin steak = 4.0Dole canned pineapple juice = 6.0
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Beef Cuts
Major Notes Definition ReferenceLiver-like Aromatic associated with
cooked organ meat/liverBroiled beef liver = 7.5Brauschweiger liver sausage = 10
Green-haylike Brown/green dusty aromatic associated with dry grasses, hay, dry parsley and tea leaves
Dry parsley, smelled= 5.0Dry parsley, tasted=6.0
Umami Flat, salty, somewhat brothy. The taste of glutamate, salts of amino acids and nucleotides
0.035% Accent Flavor Enhancer = 7.5
Overall sweet Combination of sweet taste and sweet aromatics
Post Shredded Wheat Spoon Size = 1.5Hillshire Farms Lit’l Beef Smokies=3.0
Sweet Basic taste of sweet 2.0% sucrose solution=2.0
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Beef Cuts
Major Notes Definition ReferenceSour Aromatic Aromatics associated with
sour substancesDillon’s buttermilk=5.0 smelled
Sour Basic taste of sour 0.015% citric acid solution =1.5
Salty Basic taste of salty 0.25% NaCl solution=3.5
Bitter Basic taste of bitter 0.02% caffeine solution=3.5
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Beef Cuts
Minor Notes Definition ReferenceAnimal hair Aromatic perceived with raw
wool is saturated with waterCaproic acid=12.0 smelled
Barnyard Combination of pungent, slightly sour, hay-like aromatic associated with farm animals and the inside of a horn
White pepper in water=5.4Tinture of civet=6.0
Burnt Sharp/acrid flavor associated with over roasted beef muscle
Alf’s Red Wheat Puffs=5.0
Rancid Aromatic associated with oxidized fat and oils (may include cardboard, painty, varnish and fishy)
Wesson Vegetable Oil, 3 min=7.0Wesson Vegetable Oil, 5 min=9.0
Heated oil Aromatic associated with oil Lays potato chips=4.0 smelled
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Beef Cuts
Minor Notes Minor Notes Minor NotesChemical Musty-Earthy/Humus Medicinal
Leather (old) Cumin Petroleum-like
Apricot Floral Smoky charcoal
Green Beet Smoky wood
Asparagus Chocolate/Cocoa Spoiled-putrid
Dairy Buttery Cooked milk
Sour milk/sourdairy
Refrigerator Stale
Soapy Warmed-over
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Pork Cutsfrom Miller et al. (2012)
Major Notes Definition ReferencePork flavor ID Amount of pork flavor
identify Swanson’s beef broth = 5.0Beef Brisket = 12.0
Brown/Roasted A round, full aromatic generally associated with pork fat that has been broiled
Pork SQ fat, broiled = 8.580% Lean Ground Chuck = 10.0
Bloody/Serumy Aromatic associated with blood of cooked meat products; closely related to metallic aromatic.
Select Top Loin Steak = 5.5Beef Brisket = 6.0
Fat-like Aromatics associated with cooked animal fat
Broiled beef suet=12.0Hillshire Farms Lit’lSmokies=7.0
Metallic Impression of slightly oxidized metal, such as iron, copper, and silver spoons.
0.10% potassium chloride solution = 1.5Select Top Loin steak = 4.0Dole canned pineapple juice = 6 0
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Pork Cuts
Major Notes Definition ReferenceLiver-like Aromatic associated with
cooked organ meat/liverBroiled beef liver = 7.5Brauschweiger liver sausage = 10
Green-haylike Brown/green dusty aromatic associated with dry grasses, hay, dry parsley and tea leaves
Dry parsley, smelled= 5.0Dry parsley, tasted=6.0
Umami Flat, salty, somewhat brothy. The taste of glutamate, salts of amino acids and nucleotides
0.035% Accent Flavor Enhancer = 7.5
Overall sweet Combination of sweet taste and sweet aromatics
Post Shredded Wheat Spoon Size = 1.5Hillshire Farms Lit’l Beef Smokies=3.0
Sweet Basic taste of sweet 2.0% sucrose solution=2.0
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Pork Cuts
Major Notes Definition ReferenceSour Aromatic Aromatics associated with
sour substancesDillon’s buttermilk=5.0 smelled
Sour Basic taste of sour 0.015% citric acid solution =1.5
Salty Basic taste of salty 0.25% NaCl solution=3.5
Bitter Basic taste of bitter 0.02% caffeine solution=3.5
Boar odor/urine Aromatic associated with mature boars and urine
Lexicon for Whole Muscle Pork CutsPork can taste like what it eats!
Minor Notes Minor Notes Minor NotesChemical Musty-Earthy/Humus Medicinal
Leather (old) Cumin Petroleum-like
Apricot Floral Smoky charcoal
Green Beet Smoky wood
Asparagus Chocolate/Cocoa Spoiled-putrid
Dairy Buttery Cooked milk
Sour milk/sourdairy
Refrigerator Stale
Soapy Warmed-over
Beef Lexicon: Validation and Cut Effects
• Trained descriptive attribute sensory panels fromUS Meat Animal Research Center in Clay
Center, NEUniversity of ArkansasTexas A&M University
• Standard training and samples
from Philips et al. (2012)
Brown/ Bloody/ Fat- Liver- Green Effect Beefy Roasted Serumy like Metallic like hay-like Umami
Quality Grade 0.30a 0.40h 0.36h 0.0014h 0.86h 0.0019h 0.42h 0.80h
Choice 4.0 1.4 1.9 1.3ab 1.4 0.9b 0.2 1.2Select4.0 1.4 1.8 1.1a 1.4 0.7a 0.2 1.2
Cut 0.0001h 0.0001h 0.0001h 0.0001h 0.0001h 0.0001h 0.03h 0.0001h
Bottom round roast 3.8b 1.1b 2.0c 0.9bc 1.6d 1.2d 0.2abc 1.1b
Eye of round roast 3.5a 0.9a 1.5a 0.5a 1.4bc 0.7b 0.3bc 1.0a
Inside round roast 3.8b 1.1b 1.9c 0.7ab 1.7d 0.9bc 0.2bc 1.1ab
Knuckle roast 3.8b 1.1b 1.9bc 0.8b 1.4bc 0.9c 0.2bc 1.2b
Flat iron steak 4.3cd 2.0d 1.8bc 2.6e 1.2a 0.8bc 0.1a 1.4e
Top sirloin steak 4.2c 1.7c 1.9c 1.1cd 1.5cd 0.5a 0.3c 1.3cd
Top loin steak 4.4d 1.9cd 1.7ab 1.3d 1.3b 0.5a 0.3ab 1.4de
Tenderloin steak 4.4d 1.7c 2.0c 1.3d 1.4b 0.8bc 0.2ab 1.4e
•Cut impacted flavor to a greater extent than Quality grade•Beefy was the attribute with the highest intensity•Steaks were higher in beefy, brown/roasted, fat-like, umami, than roasts from Philips et al. (2012)
Overall Effect Sweet Sweet Sour Salty Bitter
Quality Grade 0.01h 0.89h 0.38h 0.99h 0.14h
Choice 0.5b 0.3 2.0 1.0 1.2Select 0.4a 0.3 2.0 1.0 1.2
Cut 0.0001h 0.006h 0.0001h 0.0001h 0.008h
Bottom round roast 0.4ab 0.3bc 2.2def 1.0bc 1.4b
Eye of round roast 0.4a 0.2a 2.0bcd 0.9a 1.2a
Inside round roast 0.4ab 0.3ab 2.3f 1.0bc 1.4b
Knuckle roast 0.4ab 0.4c 2.1cde 0.9b 1.2ab
Flat iron steak 0.6d 0.3bc 1.5a 1.1d 1.1a
Top sirloin steak 0.5bc 0.4c 2.2ef 1.0cd 1.2a
Top loin steak 0.5d 0.3bc 1.9bc 1.1cd 1.1a
Tenderloin steak 0.5cd 0.3bc 1.8b 1.1cd 1.2a
•Steaks were lower in bitter than roasts
from Philips et al. (2012)
Vacuum/Broil/145
Prime/Broil/165Prime(GF)/Broil/145
Standard/Broil/165
TopChoice/Broil/145
Bull/FSEG/145LowChoice/FSEG/145ModAtm/FSEG/145
Prime/FSEG/145WetAged(28d)/FSEG/145
Cow/Grill/165
Prime/Grill/165
Prime(GF)/Grill/165
Standard/Grill/145
TopChoice/Grill/165
Wagyu(6/7)/Grill165
Cow/Roast/145
Standard/Roast/145Veal/Roast/165
WetAged(28d)/Roast/165
Beef ID
Brown/Roasted
Bloody/Serumy
Metallic
Green Haylike
Chemical
Fat-like
Sweet
Sour
Bitter
Beef ID-F
Brown/Roasted-F
Bloody/Serumy-F
Metallic-FGreen Haylike-F
Fat-like-F
Liver-like-F
Umami-F
Overall Sweet-F
Sweet-F
Sour-F
Bitter-FSalty-F
-1.25
0.00
1.25
‐1.25 0.00 1.25
PC 2
-22
%
PC 1 - 27%
from Philips et al. (2010)
Predicteda mean trained sensory panel responses for the assessment of pork loin eating quality at six loin
intramuscular fat percentage levelsIntramuscular Fat, %
Variableb 1 2 3 4 5 6
Juiciness Level 5.45 5.56 5.67 5.78 5.88 5.99Tenderness Level 6.86 7.30 7.72 8.13 8.51 8.86Chewiness Level 3.13 3.09 3.05 3.01 2.97 2.94Fat Flavor Level 1.88 1.92 1.96 2.00 2.05 2.09Lean Flavor Level 4.46 4.59 4.71 4.82 4.94 5.06Saltiness 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01
a Modeled effects with independent variables cooked temperature, loin pH, quadratic loin pH, Minolta L* color, and Warner-Bratzler Shear force at their respective mean values, and after adjustment for packing plant of origin and trained sensory panel effects.
b Trained sensory responses measured on a 10-point, end-anchored scalefrom Moeller and Miller (2010)
Principal component plots for consumer overall like/dislike (OLIKE) and (a) non-enhanced and (b) enhanced pork loin chop trained sensory descriptive measures (CHEW = chewiness; FFLAVOR= fat flavor; TEND = muscle fiber tenderness; JUICE = juiciness ; LFLAVOR = lean flavor) and Warner-Bratzlershear force (WBSAVG).
Identify chemical components to either positive or negative flavors:
work with Dr. Chris Kerth
5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
1000000
2000000
3000000
4000000
5000000
6000000
7000000
8000000
9000000
1e+07
1.1e+07
1.2e+07
1.3e+07
1.4e+07
1.5e+07
1.6e+07
1.7e+07
Time-->
Abundance
TIC: Pork Chop 70C.D\ data.ms
5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
1600000
1800000
2000000
2200000
2400000
2600000
2800000
3000000
Time-->
Abundance
TIC: Strip 70C.D\ data.ms
Top loin steak cooked to 70°C
Pork loin chop cooked to 70°C
5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.000
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
1600000
1800000
2000000
2200000
2400000
Time-->
Abundance
TIC: Strip 65C.D\ data.msTIC: Strip 75C.D\ data.ms (*)
5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
1600000
1800000
2000000
2200000
2400000
2600000
2800000
3000000
Time-->
Abundance
TIC: Strip 70C.D\ data.ms
Beef top loin steak cooked to 75°C
Beef top loin steak cooked to 70°C
Aromagram
Conclusions
• Flavor is important to beef and pork consumers• The beef and pork lexicon can assist in identifying
flavor attributes of pork and beef, both positive and negative
• Using the AromaTrax in combination with trained or consumer sensory can provide a diagnostic tool to identify off-flavors
Thank you to all the co-authors• Kansas State UniversityKoushikAdhikariEdgar Chambers IV
• University of ArkansasJean-Francois
Muellenet• U.S. Meat Animal
Research Center in Clay CenterTommy Wheeler
Steve ShackelfordAndy King
• Texas A&M UniversityChrisly PhilipsChris Kerth
• The Ohio State UniversitySteve MoellerHenry ZerbyJ.M. Box-
Steffensmeier