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Journal of Buddhist EthicsISSN 1076-9005
http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/
Volume 20, 2013
Buddhism Between Abstinence and Indulgence:
Vegetarianism in the Life and Works of
Jigm Lingpa
Geoffrey BarstowOtterbein University
Copyright Notice: Digital copies of this work may be made and distributed
provided no change is made and no alteration is made to the content. Repro-
duction in any other format, with the exception of a single copy for private
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Buddhism Between Abstinence and
Indulgence: Vegetarianism in the Life and
Works of Jigm Lingpa
Geoffrey Barstow1
Abstract
Tibetan Buddhism idealizes the practice of compassion, the
drive to relieve the suffering of others, including animals.
At the same time, however, meat is a standard part of the
Tibetan diet, and abandoning it is widely understood to be
difficult. This tension between the ethical problems of a
meat based diet and the difficulty of vegetarianism has not
been lost on Tibetan religious leaders, including the eight-
eenth century master Jigm Lingpa. Jigm Lingpa argues
repeatedly that meat is a sinful food, incompatible with a
compassionate mindset. At the same time, however, he
acknowledges the difficulties of vegetarianism, and refuses
to mandate vegetarianism among his students. Instead, he
offers a variety of practices that can ameliorate the inherent
negativity of eating meat. By so doing, Jigm Lingpa offers
1 Department of Religion and Philosophy, Otterbein University. Email:
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75 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
his students a chance to continue cultivating compassion
without having to completely abandon meat.2
Tibetan Buddhism has long argued for the sanctity of life, condemning the
killing of humans and animals alike. For just as long, however, meat has
been a staple of the Tibetan diet. Individual religious leaders have dealt
with this tension in different ways, but few have done so as revealingly as
the eighteenth century master Jigm Lingpa (jigs med gling pa, 1730-
1798). In his religious and autobiographical writings, Jigm Lingpa draws
on Buddhist ideals promoting compassion towards all beings and his ownunusually strong love of animals to praise vegetarianism and condemn the
killing of animals for meat. Jigm Lingpa also recognizes, however, that
vegetarianism is a difficult ideal. Rather than insisting on vegetarianism,
therefore, he offers his students a variety of means through which to mod-
erate the negativity of eating meat without fully abandoning it. By doing
so, Jigm Lingpa offers his disciples a method to resolve the tension be-
tween Tibetan Buddhisms compassionate ideal and the practical difficul-
ties of a vegetarian diet, allowing one to practice compassion without be-
coming vegetarian.
Tibetan Buddhism adheres to the Mahyna school of Buddhist
thought, and, as such, largely defines itself through the persona of the Bo-
dhisattva and the cultivation of compassion. Individuals are called upon to
2 At the outset, I wish to extend my appreciation to the Fulbright U. S. Student Program,
The Julian Green Fellowship and the University of Virginia, whose generosity support-
ed this research. I would also like to thank Professor Janet Gyatso of Harvard Divinity
School, who generously granted me access to her notes on Jigm Lingpas Autobiog-
raphy, and Kurtis Schaeffer of the University of Virginia, who commented on an earlier
draft. Finally, I would like to thank my research assistant Yesh Drolma and the many
other Tibetans who generously offered their insights to this project, but whose names I
am withholding to protect their privacy.
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 76
practice religion not out of concern for their own suffering, but out of con-
cern for the sufferings of others. In addition, practitioners are expected to
put this compassionate orientation into practice, striving to relieve the suf-
fering of all sentient beingsa category that explicitly includes animals
through both religious and worldly means.
Concerns over the compatibility of this compassionate attitude
with a meat-based diet arose early in the history of the Mahyna, and
several early Mahyna texts contain explicit critiques of meat. Among
these, the text most commonly cited by later Tibetan authors is the
Lakvatra Stra, which D.T. Suzuki notes could have been composed
no later than the third century (5). TheLakvatra Stra contains an en-
tire chapter devoted to the flaws of meat, focusing on the contradiction
between meat and the compassionate attitude a Mahyna practitioner
should display. Ultimately, the text concludes, Because they cultivate the
idea that all beings are their only child, Bodhisattvas possess the nature of
compassion and do not eat meat (Shakyamuni lang kar gshegs pai mdo
153b).3
Despite these concerns, however, vegetarianism does not seem to
have become normative in Indian Buddhism. The seventh century Chinese
monk Yijing, in fact, returned to China after fifteen years in India and ex-plicitly reported that vegetarianism was not found in Indian Buddhist
monasteries (Yijing 213.a06-213.a10; I-Tsing 58-59).
Yijings emphasis on this point was likely prompted by the preva-
lence of vegetarianism among his own contemporaries in China (Benn
316). By the late seventh century, when Yijing was writing, vegetarianism
had become normative for Chinese Buddhist monks (Kieschnick 201).
Supported by a conviction that meat eating leads to a negative birth, vege-
tarianism spread steadily in China and eventually all devout Buddhists,both monks and laity, would be expected to adhere to a meat free diet
3sems can thams cad la bu gcig gi 'du shes su bsgom pa'i phyir byang chub sems dpa' snying
brtse ba'i bdag nyid can gyis sha thams cad mi bza'o/
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77 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
(Kieschnick 187). By the late nineteenth century, vegetarianism had be-
come so closely associated with Buddhism that Christian missionaries in
Shanghai saw an individuals willingness to eat meat as proof that they
had forsaken Buddhist beliefs (Reinders).
In contrast to the situation in China, meat remained common in Ti-
bet. Despite the emphasis on the practice of compassion for all beings, the
traditional Tibetan diet includes large quantities of meat. Meat is eaten
dried and raw, steamed in dumplings or boiled in soup. Indeed, along with
roasted barley flour and butter tea, meat is a key staple in the diets of most
Tibetans, resulting in the death of many animals.4
The apparent contradiction between Tibetan Buddhisms idealiza-
tion of compassion and the fact that Tibetans consume large quantities of
meat has not been lost on Tibetan religious leaders, known as lamas (bla
ma), and several reasons have been advanced to explain the importance of
meat in the Tibetan diet. Foremost among these is the negative impact of
vegetarianism on personal health. Tibetan medicine speaks of a need to
maintain balance among the three bodily humors of wind (rlung), phlegm
(bad kan), and bile (mkhris pa), and asserts that a meatless diet can result
in an increase in wind, disturbing the balance and resulting in weakness
and diminished energy.5
In addition to concerns over health, interviews conducted among
contemporary Tibetans in the eastern region of Kham make it clear that
the pervasive presence of meat in the Tibetan diet makes the adoption of a
vegetarian diet difficult. Almost all informants, both vegetarian and non-
vegetarian, agreed that meat tastes good. Seeing it on a daily basis, there-
4 The anthropologists Melvyn Goldstein and Cynthia Beall note that a moderately
wealthy nomadic family of five can consume the meat of as many as forty-five to fifty
animals a year (99).5 I base this brief description on a series of interviews with contemporary Tibetan doc-
tors and medical students in Amdo during the summer of 2012.
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 78
fore, made complete abstinence a demanding proposition. One lama in his
thirties, for example, looked at his friends plate of meat dumplings and
reported that although he had taken a vow to not eat meat for three years,
he enjoyed the taste of meat so much he would not be able to continue
with vegetarianism after this period was over. Interviews such as this one
reflect the concerns of contemporary Tibetans, but we may suppose that
similar concerns existed during earlier periods of Tibetan history.
Ultimately, for many Tibetans, meat was simply a part of life. The
eighteenth century nun Orgyen Chkyi (o rgyan chos skyid, 1675-1729)
makes this point elegantly in herAutobiography: When I put goats meat
to my mouth, my mind is sad; Set in this human condition, we need food
(o rgyan chos skyid 9; Schaeffer 138).6
For Orgyan Chkyiand presum-
ably many other Tibetans lamasmeat is distasteful and opposes the ideal
of compassion, but consuming it is also a necessary aspect of being hu-
man.
Not all Tibetan lamas, however, were content to apologize for the
consumption of meat, and several have spoken out on the topic, offering a
variety of methods for dealing with the contradiction between meat and
compassion. For some of these figures, such as Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen
(dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan, 1292-1361) and Shabkar Tsokdruk
Rangdrl (zhabs dkar tshogs drug rang grol, 1781-1851), meat is simply
incompatible with a compassionate mindset. These figures, and others like
them, adopted a vegetarian diet and encouraged their disciples to do so as
well, sometimes penning stinging critiques of those who ate meat. Other
lamas have been more nuanced in their treatment of meat eating. Among
these is the eighteenth century luminary Jigm Lingpa.
6ra sha kha ru jugs dus sems nyid skyo/ mi yi lugs la rten nas zas dgos byung/Citations in this
article include the original Tibetan text followed by the English translation, if one has
been published.
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79 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
Jigm Lingpa was born in 1730 in Central Tibet, not far from Lha-
sa. At age six, he became a monk at Palri Monastery (dpal ri chos sde),
where he studied under several lamas of different schools. In his twenties,
he undertook two three-year-long periods of seclusion. During these re-
treats, he had a series of visions during which he received prophetic teach-
ings from the eighth-century Indian master Padmasambhava (gu ru rin po
che) and the fourteenth century master Longchen Rabjam (klong chen rab
byams, 1308-1364). After his retreats ended, he wrote out these visionary
teachings and began spreading them to students. These teaching cycles
were well received, and he quickly became known as a great master. By
the time of his death in 1798, he was one of the most renowned religious
figures in Tibet (Goodman 135-146).
Jigm Lingpa was a prolific author, and his collected works stretch
to over seven thousand pages, organized into nine volumes.7
These include
an unusually candid autobiography, two volumes comprising the visionary
teachings he received, and six volumes of assorted works of scholarship,
religious advice, and history. Throughout these works, Jigm Lingpa dis-
plays a degree of concern for animals that is uncommon for Tibetan lamas
of his stature. He recalls writing a letter to the king of the eastern Tibetankingdom of Deg, advising the king to free animals so that they may live
out their lives in full, without the fear of being killed, Give the gift of
fearlessness, as this will lengthen your life8
(Autobiography 409).
Jigm Lingpas concerns for the welfare of animals were not ex-
pressed only to the political elite, however, and he also encouraged ordi-
7 For the purposes of this article, I am relying on the nine-volume edition of Jigm
Lingpas collected works, printed from woodblocks carved in the early nineteenth cen-
tury and housed at the Deg Printing House (sde dge dpar khang). There is also a thir-teen-volume collection of Jigm Lingpas collected works, printed from woodblocks and
held at Adzom Gar (a dzom sgar), and there are also numerous editions of individual
texts.8mi 'jigs pa'i skyabs sbyin dang/ bzod pa'i rten 'brel las sku tshe 'phel phyir/
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 80
nary people to stop hunting. In doing so, he often used the threat of hell as
motivation, bluntly telling one group of villagers, To pursue innocent
deer and destroy beehives is to create the causes for birth in hell (Autobi-
ography 282).9
Moreover, as in his letter to the king of Deg, Jigm
Lingpa holds up the promise of positive karma for those who save ani-
mals. By doing so, Jigm Lingpa connects concern with animal welfare
with larger Buddhist ethical frameworks, establishing it as an important
aspect of an individuals conduct.
Jigm Lingpa did not, however, limit himself to encouraging oth-
ers to practice compassion towards animals. His autobiography recounts
numerous episodes during which he ransomed (tshe thar) the lives of ani-
mals himself. This practice involves purchasing animals destined for
slaughter, marking them to show that they have been ransomed, and then
releasing them into the wild, where their special markings will prevent
them from being captured and slaughtered by others. From 1758 through
1769, Jigm Lingpa systematically engaged in this practice, paying for the
release of sheep, fish and rabbits on an annual basis (Autobiography 164).
On other occasions, he ransomed animals less systematically, saving five
sheep in 1775, for example, and a hundred more in 1780 (Autobiography262, 309).
Once, Jigm Lingpa even purchased the entirety of Wagom Moun-
tain (wa gom ri) in order to seal it (ri rgya), legally preventing local vil-
lagers from killing bees for their honey (Autobiography 395). The practice
of sealing mountains against hunting in this manner has a long history in
Tibet. In examining this phenomenon, the anthropologist Toni Huber has
noted that those who seal mountains against hunting are acting on a varie-
ty of motivations beyond mere concern for the hunted animals. As notedabove, freeing animals is seen as a way of generating positive karma and
eventually a positive rebirth. At the same time, rulers may also have hoped
9nyes med kyi ri dwags ded pa/ sbrang tshang rdi nas dmyal bai rgyu bsgrubs/
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81 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
that establishing such animal sanctuaries would bolster the legitimacy of
their rule. Citing the administrative code of the regent Desi Sangy Gyatso
(sde srid sangs rgyas rgya mtsho, 1653-1705), Huber argues that by seal-
ing hills and protecting animals, a leader could align themselves with what
were perceived to be the duties of an enlightened ruler, thereby creating an
aura of legitimacy around his rule (41).10
Although Jigm Lingpa did not rule a state as Desi Sangy Gyatso
did, he was still responsible for overseeing a sizable monastic estate. Ac-
tions such as the sealing of Wagom Mountain, therefore, can be seen as an
attempt to fulfill cultural expectations of what a lama should do, and
thereby create a sense of his own legitimacy in that role. By performing
and recordingsuch actions, Jigm Lingpa was aligning himself with the
expected practices of a Tibetan lama.
Further, all the examples presented so far are drawn from Jigm
Lingpas autobiography, and, as Janet Gyatso has shown, the autobio-
graphical genre in Tibet often serves as a way of creating a sense of legit-
imacy around an individuals religious standing. Specifically addressing
Jigm Lingpas writings, Gyatso argues convincingly that he uses two
shorter autobiographical works to present himself and his visionary revela-
tions in a way that aligns with cultural expectations for such a lama, creat-
ing an aura of legitimacy concerning his standing as a religious leader
(116-121). It could be argued, therefore, that the concern for animal wel-
fare demonstrated in Jigm Lingpas Autobiography is simply part of a
larger program to generate a sense of legitimacy surrounding his status as
a lama.
10 It is worth noting that Desi Sangy Gyatso ruled Tibet in the name of the Dalai Lama,
and that his right to rule was not uncontested. He may, therefore, have had particular
motivation for trying to generate a sense of personal legitimacy surrounding himself.
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 82
The language Jigm Lingpa uses to describe his interactions with
animals, however, suggests that although he is interested in portraying
himself as a legitimate religious leader, he also has a sustained and per-
sonal affection for animals. In one striking scene, Jigm Lingpa narrates
an experience he had while traveling near the Indian border. In this epi-
sode, Jigm Lingpa saw two female yaks, and decided to ransom them,
reflecting that, From the core of my being, I wished I had the power to
save all the animals (Autobiography 271).11
The language he employed here, with the wish to save these ani-
mals arising from the core of [his] being, displays something of the
emotions the experience provoked in him. A similar tone pervades Jigm
Lingpas other passages concerning animals. Further, this tone differs
from the tone used in other passages of Jigm Lingpas Autobiography.
The personal nature of Jigm Lingpas writing in these passages suggests
that these reactions to animal suffering are not simply part of a broader
attempt to justify his religious position through autobiographical writing.
This argument is also buttressed by a comparison between Jigm
Lingpas discussion of animal and that found in the autobiographies of
other Tibetan lamas. While many such works do mention animals suffer-
ing and the actions the author took to relieve it, to my knowledge few do
so as frequently as Jigm Lingpa. Together, these points suggest that
Jigm Lingpas writing about animals and animal suffering is not simply a
literary representation, but reflects a deeply personal affection and con-
cern.
Perhaps the most striking aspect of Jigm Lingpas relationship
with animals, however, is the way his compassionate response to animal
11 'bri gnyis go rar btsud pa mthong bas pha ma bsod du cha ba'i sdug bsngal byung/ de gnyis
srog bslu'i brda sbyang bas dngul srang brgyad kyi gong btab/ sde pa'ang snang 'gyur nas 'bri
gcig bslu ba mdzad/ sems can thams cad kyi srog skyob pa'i nus pa yod na snyam pa snying thag
pa nas skyes/
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83 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
suffering repeatedly sparks important religious experiences. During one
early retreat on a remote mountain, Jigm Lingpa recalls hearing an ani-
mal climb trees at night in search of baby birds to eat. Hearing the cries of
the birds, he became very sad. For a time he defended the birds by throw-
ing stones at the animal, but in the end he realized, These so called 'hap-
py experiences' dont exist anywhere. Thinking like this gave rise to a
state of infinite sadness, and while it lasted I chanted the mai.12
Within
that state, all my coarse thoughts [dissolved] into the ground of all (Auto-
biography 108-110).13
The most important example of Jigm Lingpas use of animal
compassion to spark religious experiences, however, comes from the
opening pages of hisAutobiography. There, Jigm Lingpa recalls seeing a
group of sheep lined up for slaughter:
Seeing and hearing the killing of these beings, which re-
minded me of the actions of great dogs, caused me great
suffering. I wanted to immediately liberate these beings
from their suffering, and wished that I had a safe house to
protect them. Such horrific activities occur merely because
it was the season for slaughtering animals. Thinking like
this, uncontrived compassion arose. Until that day, even
though I had recited the words of the mind-training of the
four immeasurables hundreds of thousands of times, I had
never had true, uncontrived compassion of that strength.
12 The most famous tantric mantra in Tibet, om mai padme hung, is often referred to
simply as the mai. It is the mantra of Avalokitevara, the Bodhisattva of compassion,and chanting it can be understood as a prayer for compassion.13myong bas skyid po zer ba gang na'ang mi 'dug/ ci tshugs byed snyam nas sems sdug langs pa
la tshad med pa zhig gi bar du ma Ni 'dren gyi na ba skad tsa na/ de kha'i ngang la 'dus shes 'di
'khrul kun gyi gzhi
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 84
This experience was the most important event of my life.14
(14)
In this passage, Jigm Lingpas distress at the sight of animals
awaiting slaughter provokes an experience of uncontrived compassion, an
advanced mental state. Further, this experience, the most important event
of his life, is explicitly contrasted with the compassion he developed
through more conventional practices. For Jigm Lingpa, compassion di-
rected towards animals was a powerful soteriological method, capable of
producing profound religious states.
Jigm Lingpa also codified this idea, that compassion towards an-imals can spark religious experiences, in his advice manuals. In one such
work,Engaging the Path of the Buddha, Jigm Lingpa advises students to
think that the animal whose meat they are about to eat was, in a past life,
their kind parent and so should be treated with kindness in return. In so
doing, he concludes, If you are a normal minded person thinking about
this, your heart will break, and you will necessarily develop compassion
towards the animal. Then, even if you cant develop perfect compassion,
something similar will definitely arise (jigs med gling paEngaging723;
Jigme LingpaEntering133).15
14 sems can gyi srog gcod pa mthong zhing thos paam/ khyi rab sogs kyi byed spo yod yid la dran
pa tsam nas rang yang shin ti sdug bsngal zhing/ sems can 'di dag sdug bsngal 'di las da lta nyid
du thar na snyam pa dang/ 'di thams cad kyi srog bskyab pa'i gnyer khang la yod na snyam pa
dang/ sems can gsod pa'i nam zla shar ba tsam nas rnams pa kun tu gnas skabs 'di na mi bzad
pa'i las 'di lta bu zhig yod 'ong snyam nas snying rje'i blo bcos min du skye ba 'di da lta'i bar du
yod pas tshad med bzhi'i blo sbyong gi tshig tsam 'bum ther gsog pa bo las bcos min gyi snying
rje shugs drag skye ba 'di don gyi chod che bar 'gyur grang snyams pa 'di bdag gi rnam tharbzang shos yin/15snyam du bsam mno zhig btang na blog zur gnas shig yin phyin chad snying rtsi shum shum
ba dad sems can de la snying rje dbang med du mi skye ba'i thabs med/ de'i tshe byang chub kyi
sems mtshan nyid dang ldan pa ma byung kyang rjes mthun zhig nges par skye ba
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85 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
There is also evidence that Jigm Lingpa had a reputation for this
technique among later Tibetans. In hisNotes on The Words of My Perfect
Teacher, for instance, Khenpo Ngawang Pelzang (mkhan po ngag dbang
dpal bzang, 1879-1941) writes:
When meditating on compassion, the system of Apu [Patrl
Rinpoch (dpal sprul rin po che, 1808-1887)] and Jowo
[Atis (a ti sha, c. 982-1054)] is to meditate on one's pre-
sent mother. According to the intention of Rigdzin Jigm
Lingpa, when you observe a being which is about to be
killed, such as a sheep awaiting slaughter, or when you ob-
serve someone with a painful illness, imagine that they are
either yourself or your old mother. Whichever method you
want to use is fine.16
(mkhan po ngag dbang dpal bzang
Notes 214; Khenpo Ngawang Pelzang Guide 148)
Their own written works demonstrate that both Atia and Patrl
Rinpoch were also concerned with the well-being of animals, and yet
Khenpo Ngawang Pelzang singles out Jigm Lingpa as a proponent of de-
veloping compassion by contemplating animals awaiting slaughter. By the
early twentieth century, it seems, Jigm Lingpa was known for his rela-
tionship with animals, and for using that relationship to provoke religious
experiences.
Among Tibetan lamas, Jigm Lingpa was not unique for directing
his compassion towards animals. Nor was he unique for having religious
experiences sparked by the sight of animals suffering.17
His deeply per-
16snying rje bsgom pa la a bu dang jo boi lugs la/ rang gi rtsa bai ma nas bsgom/ rig dzin jigs
med gling gi dgongs pa ltar na/ bsha lug la sogs pa sems can gsod du nye baam nad pa dang
sdug bsngal can zhig la dmigs nas rang ngam rang gi ma rgan gyi du shes bzhag nas bsgom pa
yin/ gang ltar bsgom kyang chog la/17 Shabkar, for instance, had such an experience after saving insects dying in a pool that
was slowly drying (zhabs dkar Autobiography 146a; Shabkar Life 169). Similarly, Jikm
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 86
sonal responses to animals suffering, however, as well as the extreme im-
portance he attached to experiences that arose through animal compassion,
demonstrate a level of concern with animal welfare that is unusual among
Tibetan lamas. Indeed, as Khenpo Ngawang Pelzang demonstrates, Jigm
Lingpas spiritual heirs understood him to be particularly focused on com-
passion towards animals, contrasting his approach with ones promoted by
other figures.
Given the strength and consistency of Jigm Lingpas concern for
animals, it should not be surprising to find that several of his works are
strongly critical of eating meat. In a short poetic work of religious advice,
The Well-Grounded Rabbit, he declares, Because meat is sinful food,
think of it with deathly fear (772).18
In articulating this critique of meat eating, Jigm Lingpa relies on
the importance which Tibetan Buddhism, as a part of the Mahyna, plac-
es on compassion. This point is made in the Chariot of the Two Truths,
where, in the course of an extended discourse on the flaws of meat, he re-
flects, Rather than some other system, where one pretends to be a follow-
er of the Mahyna, but actually seeks only to eat meat and drink alco-
hol,19 those who follow after our Teacher [the Buddhas] great heart-
teaching seek only to save the lives of beings (349).20
As this passage
makes clear, Jigm Lingpa sees both meat and alcohol as incompatible
with Mahyna practice.
Gyelw Nygu (jigs med rgyal bai myu gu, 1765-1842) is said to have had a profound ex-
perience sparked by the sight of a sheep being slaughtered for him (mkhan po ngag
dbang dpal bzangAutobiography 80).18sha ni sdig pai zas yin pas/ gsad pai jigs pa dran par bya/19 As a sinful object of consumption, alcohol is often critiqued alongside meat in Jigm
Lingpas works, as well as the writings of other Tibetan lamas.20theg pa chen po'i gang zag tu khas 'ches nas sha chang gi bza' btung 'ba' zhig don du gnyer ba
ni lugs gzhan pa zhig las bdag cag gi ston pa thugs sde chen po dang ldan pa de'i rjes su zhugs pa
rnams kyis ni sems can gyi srog skyob pa 'ba' zhig dang du blang zhing/
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87 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
When making this argument, Jigm Lingpa repeatedly comes back
to the notion that any given animal was once ones parent. In his Autobi-
ography, he recalls an event during which villagers killed many animals in
order to offer meat to the religious practitioners present:
In the view of the villagers, killing is a minor fault, and
they hope that giving [to the meditators] will bring great
[karmic] benefit. They think it is acceptable, because [giv-
ing to the meditators] will purify their faults, and it will
connect the animals to religion with an iron chain. How
could I be such an optimist? They are worldly people, so
they do not recognize that all beings were their mothers.
Thus they are able to kill them. But how can we dharma
practitioners eat it without incurring a fault? These fathers,
mothers, kinsmen and friends were all cherished in previ-
ous lives. Having now become animals, our previous
lives's fathers, mothers, siblings, friends, etc., all tremble
with fear in these butchers's hands, panting for breath with
tears streaming from their eyes. In that state they wonder
what to do. Alas, there is no refuge!
21
(125-126)
21 Elided passages largely repeat the arguments made here and have been removed for
the sake of brevity.
khong tsho'i snang ba la gsod ba'i nyes pa chen po de mi brtsi bar/ phran tshegs byin pa la phan
yon chen po 'ong du re bas khong rang tsho'i nyes pa 'dag pa dang/ sems can de nged chos lcags
thag 'then 'then byas chog pa lta bu'i re ba chen po zhig bdag ste ga nas yod/ sems can thams
cad kyi rang gi ma byas/ khong 'jig rten pas de ltar ma rig ste gsod nus kyang/ rang re chos pa
tshos bza' nus pa'i kha na mi 'dug/ de ci'i phyir na skye ba sngon ma'i pha dang/ ma dang/ spun
dang/ mdza' bshes la sogs pa yid la gces lag tu rang gi skye ba sngon ma'i pha dang/ ma dang/
spun zla gnyen bshes la sogs pa de dag mthar chags su rtsis sprod byas ba'i tshe/ ma rgan de dag
lus 'dar phri li li/ mig mchi ma khram khram/ dbugs spud pa lhed lhed pa'i ngang nas 'di snyam
du/ da ci drag kyi hud/ 'bros sa ni med/
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 88
In this passage, one of his longest discourses on eating meat, Jigm
Lingpa bases his argument against meat on the idea that all beings have
been ones parent and ones friend. Those who eat the meat of slaughtered
animals, therefore, are repaying the kindness of their parents with vio-
lence.
In this passage Jigm Lingpa also uses strikingly vivid language to
describe the suffering animals undergo while awaiting slaughter, claiming
they all tremble with fear in these butchers's hands, panting for breath
with tears streaming from their eyes (Autobiography 126).22
Clearly,
Jigm Lingpa had a keen awareness of animal suffering. By using such
vivid descriptions, Jigm Lingpa tried to pass that awareness on to his
readers. Further, this description of animal suffering makes clear that
Jigm Lingpa believed animals to have feelings and an awareness of their
fate, and that these combine to produce an intense fear.
The critique of meat presented here hinges on the relationship be-
tween eating meat and killing animals. Many Tibetans who eat meat argue
that this is entirely divorced from the act of killing. In this argument, a
butcher who kills an animal is solely responsible for the death of the ani-
mal; the person who buys the meat does so after the death has already oc-
curred, and bears no culpability, karmic or otherwise.23
Given Jigm Lingpas concern for animals, it should not be sur-
prising that he disagrees with this logic. We can see this implicitly in the
22ma rgan de dag lus 'dar phri li li/ mig mchi ma khram khram/ dbugs spud pa lhed lhed pa'i
ngang nas 'di snyam du/23 I have yet to find any Tibetan texts that actually promote this idea, though it was
widely mentioned by contemporary informants in Tibet, India and Nepal. Further, it
has been repeatedly critiqued by many authors supportive of vegetarianism, including
Dolpopa, Shabkar and Patrl Rinpoch in addition to Jigm Lingpa. It seems likely,
therefore, that the idea that eating meat is wholly separate from the killing of the ani-
mal has been current at many points in Tibetan history.
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89 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
above quote from his Autobiography, but it is made explicit in other
works, such as the short Tale of the Deer. Here, Jigm Lingpa tells the sto-
ry of a hermit who encounters a hunter, whom he encourages to give up
his sinful ways. The hunter is unimpressed, however, accusing the hermit
of being a hypocrite, Even if it is hunters like me who do the actual kill-
ing, the meat is bought and eaten by all of the so called religious ascet-
ics. It is laughable to claim there is a difference between the sin of killing
and the sin of eating. While the hermit eventually wins the overall debate,
he is forced to concede on this point, It is true: the religious ascetics who
behave immorally, and the monks who uphold the 250 vows of the monas-
tic code, will all be pursued by their karma (jigs med gling pa Tale 759;
Jigm Lingpa Story 7).24 Although they disagree about whether it is ac-
ceptable to kill, both the hunter and the hermit agree that the one who buys
the meat is just as karmically responsible for the death as the hunter.
In addition to these appeals to Tibetan Buddhist ideals of compas-
sion, Jigm Lingpa also argued that eating meat is incompatible with the
vows taken by monks. In The Chariot of Two Truths, he notes, A Stra
says, Offering meat and alcohol [to monks] is like offering poison and a
sword. Thus, the great faults of offering such things have been shown.What need is there to mention actually using them? (348).
25If substances
such as meat and alcohol are inappropriate to offer to monks, Jigm
Lingpa concludes, they are also inappropriate for monks to consume.
In the vinaya (dul ba), the formal rules for monks, alcohol is
clearly forbidden. The regulations regarding meat, however, are more
open to interpretation. Strictly speaking, the vinaya permits meat as long
24gsod pa rngon pa ngas gsod kyang/ za ba dge spyong rnams kyis za/ za dang gsod pai sdig pala/ khyad par yod na gad mo bro/ tshul min spyod pa'i dge sbyong dang/ 'dul khrims srung
ba'i nyan thos kyi/ nyis brgya lnga bcu'i khrims rtsal/ las kyis bda' 'ded 'phyugs ba med/25mdo las/ sha dang chang gi sbyin pa dang/ dug dang mtshon cha'i sbyin pa dang/ zhes gnas
ma yin pa'i sbyin pa'i nyes dmigs rgya cher bstan na/ longs spyod pa po smos ci dgos te/
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 90
as the monk eating the meat is not directly responsible for the animals
death (Shakyamuni dul ba gzhi 25a-25b). Tibetan commentators have of-
ten differed on how much emphasis to place on this rule, with many con-
cluding that meat is broadly permitted, while other assert that such blame-
less meat does not exist, and monks should forsake all meat. By linking
meat and alcohol in this manner, Jigm Lingpa aligns himself with the lat-
ter interpretation.
Jigm Lingpas advocacy of vegetarianism was not without cave-
ats, however. In several of his works, Jigm Lingpa first strongly critiques
meat, only to immediately soften his stance on the issue. In some instanc-
es, he does this by offering his readers prayers said to reduce the negative
karmic repercussions of eating meat. In others, he presents a graded ap-
proach to avoiding meat, where it is important for some groups, but less so
for others. Ultimately, despite his repeated critiques of meat and praise of
vegetarianism, at no point did Jigm Lingpa ever mandate a vegetarian
diet among his students.
The most common way Jigm Lingpa tempers his pro-vegetarian
stance is by offering readers prayers they can recite to purify the meat they
consume. Such prayers, usually recited over a plate of meat before it is
eaten, but sometimes said at a distance, are intended to create a positive
karmic connection between the animal and the religious practitioner about
to eat the meat, helping the animal achieve a better re-birth. An example
of such advice can be found in Engaging the Path of the Buddha, where
Jigm Lingpa encourages his readers to think of the dead animal whose
meat is laid before them as a parent. As discussed above, Jigm Lingpa
suggests that contemplating in this way will naturally give rise to strong
feelings of compassion. Jigm Lingpa did not, however, ask his readers touse this compassion as motivation for adopting vegetarianism. Instead, he
suggests, Without reducing the strength of those thoughts, recite the
Kamkani, the TsuktormaMantra, and the essential Takdrl as much as
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91 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
you can. Then blow on the meat. Remaining aware of the situation, make
strong prayers [for the animal's rebirth] (jigs med gling pa Engaging
723; Jigm Lingpa Entering133).26 In A Wondrous Ocean of Advice for
Solitary Retreat, Jigm Lingpa recalls that he himself performed this prac-
tice during his periods of retreat, and encourages other retreatants to do the
same (jigs med gling pa Ocean 705; Jigm Lingpa Ocean 5).
In addition to prayers to benefit the animals, Jigm Lingpa also
prescribes prayers specifically meant to purify the individual who has eat-
en the meat. Again,Engaging the Path of the Buddha provides a good ex-
ample, To repair the [karmic] faults incurred by eating meat, recite the
mantra ofThe Root Tantra of Manjusri one hundred times and blow on the
bones (jigs med gling paEngaging729; Jigm LingpaEntering139).27
Thus, Jigm Lingpa offers prayers that enable a meat eater to purify both
the dead animal and himself.
Purificatory practices such as these are not limited to questions re-
garding meat, but are part of a larger program of purificatory practices
found in Tibetan Buddhism, including prayers and mantras such as those
mentioned above, the twice monthly confession that all monks must make
(gso sbyong) and the multi-day purificatory rituals known as nyngn
(smyung gnas), during which all meat is forbidden (Wangchen 181-188).
Jigm Lingpa was, therefore, drawing on common models of purificatory
practice and specifically applying them to meat.
By asking his readers to recite such prayers, Jigm Lingpa softens
his argument against meat, suggesting that although meat is bad, the reci-
26 Merely hearing these mantras pronounced is said to lead beings towards liberation,
even if they do not comprehend the meaning of the words.de kha'i shes pa ngar mnyams pas kaM ka ni dang/ tsug tor ma'i gzung/ btags grol gyis yang
snying sogs ci nus bzla/ sha la phul 'debs/ de la dmigs nas smon lam drag po gdab/27sha zos pa'i nyes pa bsal phyir 'jam dpal rtsa rgyud las bshad pa'i rig sngags / zhes tshar
rgya tsam brjod cing rus pa la hus gdab/
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 92
tation of the proper mantras and prayers can benefit the animals and so
reduce meats negativity. His followers are thus able to continue cultivat-
ing compassion and expressing concern for the welfare of animals without
fully renouncing meat. At the same time, it is important to recognize that
Jigm Lingpa does not claim that purifying meat makes it fully acceptable.
Not only did Jigm Lingpa never make such a claim, but the practice of
praying over meat before eating it serves as a constant reminder that meat
is a fault requiring purification. Such a practice, therefore, can be seen as
an attempt to bridge the tensions surrounding the consumption of meat by
recognizing its sinful nature, while also allowing those unable to fully re-
nounce it the ability to continue practicing compassion.
Jigm Lingpa was not unique in using prayer to temper the nega-
tivity associated with meat, as can be seen in theAutobiography of the ear-
ly twentieth century female lama Sera Khandro (se ra mkha gro, 1892-
1940). Sera Khandro was a lifelong vegetarian, but at age thirty she be-
came ill and was advised to eat meat for a month, thereby restoring her
strength and leading to recovery. She only ate this meat, however, after
purifying it through prayers (356). Further, once she recovered her health,
she returned to her customary vegetarian diet, indicating that despite hav-ing purified the meat through prayer, a fully vegetarian diet remained
preferable. For Sera Khandro, as for Jigm Lingpa, prayers recited over
meat could reduce meats negativity, but not negate it entirely.
In addition to offering such prayers, Jigm Lingpa was also clear
that he expected more from certain categories of individuals with regard to
eating meat than from others. Above, we saw an extended quote from
Jigm LingpasAutobiography, laying out his case that meat was inappro-
priate because the animal had previously been ones mother. Speakingabout the villagers, Jigm Lingpa reflected, They are worldly people, so
they do not recognize that all beings were their mothers. Thus they are
able to kill them. But how can we dharma practitioners eat it without in-
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93 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
curring a fault? (125).28
Jigm Lingpa was apologetic on behalf of the
villagers; their ignorance of religious norms allows them to kill the ani-
mals withoutor at least with lessfault. Religious practitioners, on the
other hand, are aware of the need to treat all beings as ones parent, and so
are unable to eat meat without fault.
In addition to arguing over the legitimacy of meat as a daily food,
Tibetan Buddhists have also debated the permissibility of using meat dur-
ing feast offering (tsok) rituals. Such feast offerings are an important part
of Tibetan ritual practice, and usually include meat and alcohol, which are
said to be purified through the course of the ritual. Tibets more strident
vegetarians, however, have often argued that meat and alcohol are inap-
propriate offerings for enlightened deities, whose minds are suffused with
compassion. The eleventh century lama Gampopa, for instance, argued
that, Harming beings, and then offering them to the Three Jewels, is like
cutting off a childs flesh and then serving it to the mother. It is useless
(Gampopa 197, 173).29
On the other hand, many authors who are otherwise supportive of
vegetarianism allow that, because the ritual purifies the negative aspects of
meat, it is permitted and even required in such offerings. Jigm Lingpa
firmly backed this view. In his commentary on the ritual cycle known as
the Collected Intent of the Lamas, he writes:
When performing many feast offerings, look at base and
dirty foods such as the five meats, five nectars, garlic & on-
ions, and impure meats such as fish and pork and [regard
them] all as offering substances. Because they are offering
28sems can thams cad kyi rang gi ma byas/ khong 'jig rten pas de ltar ma rig ste gsod nus kyang/
rang re chos pa tshos bza' nus pa'i kha na mi 'dug/29sems can la gnod pa bskyal nas dkon mchog mchod pa ni/ bui sha bcad nas ma la ster ba dang
dra ste don med
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 94
substances, all dualistic thinkingdividing things into pure
and impure, clean and uncleanmust be abandoned.30
(303)
Here again, Jigm Lingpa takes a moderate position on the use of meat,
allowing it in certain ritual contexts.
Finally, despite repeatedly critiquing meat, Jigm Lingpa never
explicitly demanded vegetarianism from his students, instead relying on
implication to induce his audience to avoid meat. We have just seen how
Jigm Lingpa, in his Autobiography, asserts that religious practitioners
cannot eat meat without fault. Asserting that eating meat is a moral faultstrongly implies that it should be avoided, but Jigm Lingpa refrains from
explicitly calling on his disciples to do so. A similar pattern is revealed in
other works with significant discussions of meat, such as Engaging the
Path of the Buddha, where Jigm Lingpa critiques meat, but never actually
mandates vegetarianism, instead offering readers prayers which can tem-
per meats negativity.
In The Chariot of the Two Truths, where Jigm Lingpa presents
one of his most extended critiques of meat, the strongest statementsagainst meat are all drawn from scriptural citations. When Jigm Lingpas
own voice is revealed, he is more moderate in his critique, repeating the
assertion that meat is bad, but never demanding a vegetarian diet. For in-
stance, he quotes theLakvatra Stra, O Mahamati, I view every sen-
tient being as like my only child. How could I grant permission to the
monks to eat my child's flesh? To say that I have allowed my monks to eat
[meat] and that I do so is not correct (348).31
A few lines later, Jigm
30tshogs kyi yo byad ni sha lnga dang/ ... bdud rtsi lnga dang/ ... sha chang/ sgog btsong/ ... nya
phag la sogs dman pa dang btsog par blta dgos pa thams cad tshogs pa yin phyir/ de'i dbang gi
zhim mngar gtsang btsog thams cad la bzang ngan dang gtsang me'i gnyis rtogs med par/31blo gros chen po/ nga'i 'phags pa nyan thos rnams ni kha zas tha mal pa'ang mi zan/ sha dang
khrag gi zas mi rung ba lta ci smos/ blo gros chen po/ nga ni sems can thams cad la bu gcig bzhin
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95 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
Lingpa speaks with his own voice, Rather than another system, where
one pretends to be a follower of the Mahyna, but actually seeks only to
eat meat and drink alcohol, those who follow after our Teacher [the Bud-
dhas] great heart-teachings seek only to save the lives of beings (349).32
As noted previously, this passage makes clear that Jigm Lingpa felt meat
is opposed to Mahyna ideals. Unlike the scriptural citation immediately
preceding it, however, Jigm Lingpa critiques meat without explicitly for-
bidding it.
Jigm Lingpas reluctance to explicitly prohibit meat among his
students, instead merely pointing out meats flaws, raises the question of
his own diet. Was he a vegetarian? The numerous passages in his works
where he critiques eating meat, denouncing it as sinful and pointing out
the negative karmic consequences of eating it, would seem to suggest that
he would not eat it himself. And yet, as we have seen, in A Wondrous
Ocean of Advice For Solitary Retreat, he mentioned eating meat during at
least one of the retreats he undertook in his late twenties.
The fact that he ate meat in his late twenties, does not, of course,
mean he ate meat later in life. For further evidence concerning the pres-
ence of meat in Jigm Lingpas diet, therefore, we must return to hisAu-
tobiography. Although this text does not mention eating meat, it also
makes no claims that he ever adopted a vegetarian diet. The many passag-
es in this work that do mention animals highlight his compassionate atti-
tude and actions towards them, leaving no doubt of his willingness to dis-
cuss such topics and his desire to be seen by readers as compassionate to-
gyi 'du shes dang ldan pa yin na/ ji ltar bdag gis bu'i sha bza' bar nyan thos rnams la gnang bar
bya/ rang gis za ba lta ci smos/ ngas nyan thos rnams la gnang ba dang/ bdag nyid kyis zos so
zhes bya ba 'di ni blo gros chen po gnas med do/ ngas nyan thos rnams la gnang ba dang/ bdagnyid kyis zos so zhes bya ba {349} 'di ni blo gros chen po gnas med do/32theg pa chen po'i gang zag tu khas 'ches nas sha chang gi bza' btung 'ba' zhig don du gnyer ba
ni lugs gzhan pa zhig las bdag cag gi ston pa thugs sde chen po dang ldan pa de'i rjes su zhugs pa
rnams kyis ni sems can gyi srog skyob pa 'ba' zhig dang du blang zhing/
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 96
wards animals. Further, other autobiographies written by Tibetan vegetari-
ans do highlight this aspect of their authors lives. Vegetarianism was rare
among Tibetans, and those who adopted this diet generally wanted this
fact to be known, as it demonstrated to others the authenticity of their reli-
gious practice. In that context, if Jigm Lingpa was a vegetarian late in his
life, when he wrote hisAutobiography, or even if he had been a vegetarian
for a period of time earlier, it seems likely that he would have mentioned
this fact. Thus, without clear evidence that Jigm Lingpa either did or did
not eat meat, we have to entertain the possibility that Jigm Lingpa him-
self may not have been vegetarian, despite his reservations about eating
meat.
And yet Jigm Lingpa clearly wrestled with this issue, on a very
personal level, as can be seen in the passage from The Tale of the Deer
quoted previously. In this text, written in the early 1760s, when Jigm
Lingpa was in his early thirties, he presents a dialogue of mutual recrimi-
nation between two figures, a hermit and a hunter.33
In the exchange, we
can see Jigm Lingpa arguing with himself over the question of eating
meat. Ultimately, the hermit wins the debate, but in the process he
acknowledges the validity of the hunters argument, perhaps reflectingJigm Lingpas own struggle between eating meat and his recognition that
by doing so he would be implicated in unethical activity.
Jigm Lingpas moderate stance on this issue contrasts with other
Tibetan advocates of vegetarianism, such as Shabkar Tsokdruk Rangdrl.
Shabkar flourished roughly fifty years after Jigm Lingpa, and his works
have been described as offering the most sweeping indictment of meat-
eating to be found in Tibetan Literature (Ricard 21). Like Jigm Lingpa,
ShabkarsAutobiography reveals a clear love of animals, and a consistentconcern for their welfare. Unlike Jigm Lingpa, however, Shabkars auto-
33 This text is undated, but Jigm LingpasAutobiography mentions that it was composed
shortly after his retreats concluded (160).
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97 Journal of Buddhist Ethics
biography states explicitly that he adopted a vegetarian diet in his early
thirties, maintained it throughout his life, and was not afraid to critique
others for eating meat. He was so well known as a vegetarian that patrons
were afraid of being rebuked if they even brought meat into his presence
(zhabs dkarAutobiography 201b, ShabkarLife 232).
In addition to his personal vegetarianism, Shabkar penned several
lengthy treatises on the topic, arguing against meat in the strongest possi-
ble terms (Ricard). Pointedly, Shabkar rejects the idea that meat can be
purified through the recitation of prayers. In The Nectar of Immortality he
compares people who recite such prayers to a cat which toys with a mouse
before killing it, concluding, Compassion like this, [reciting mantras] af-
ter the animals is killed and the meat is eaten, is like playing at prayer.
Those who do so may appear lovely in the eyes of laypeople, but when
examined, their intention and behavior and is neither suitable nor helpful
(zhabs dkarNectar594; ShabkarFood109).34
Shabkar thus rejects Jigm
Lingpas primary technique for reducing the negativity of meat, accusing
it of being mere sophistry, playing at prayer. Instead, Shabkar articulates
a strategy of strict vegetarianism as the only means to fully embrace the
ideal of compassion.
When compared with Shabkars strident rhetoric, Jigm Lingpas
moderate approach to vegetarianism is striking. Jigm Lingpa never ar-
ticulates the reasons for his reluctance to fully embrace vegetarianism, but
we can suppose that he was drawing on many of the same reasons given
by other Tibetans for the prevalence of meat in their diet: negative health
consequences, lack of other food sources, and, perhaps most importantly,
the simple difficulty of adopting a diet so strongly opposed to the sur-
rounding culture. Jigm Lingpa seemed to recognize that giving up meat is
34bsad tshar zos tshar ba'i rjes kyi snying rje de dang/ rgyags rtsed kyis 'don pa 'dra bton na skye
bo'i mi nag pa tsho'i mig sngar mdzes kyang/ bsam sbyor gang la bltas rung phan pa'i tshod na
mi 'dug/
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Barstow, Between Abstinence and Indulgence 98
a difficult step, beyond the reach of manyincluding, perhaps, himself.
Thus, he may have been reluctant to fully embrace or advocate vegetarian-
ism, despite his deeply help love of animals and his acknowledgement that
eating meat is inseparable from the death of the animal.
It is clear that Jigm Lingpa viewed meat as sinful. Even when
prayers are used to purify the meat, he never claimed that these can com-
pletely eliminate the sinful nature of meat eating, or the negative karma
which accrues from this practice. Any debate about meat in Jigm
Lingpas works, therefore, was over practical, rather than ethical or philo-
sophical, issues. As noted at the beginning of this article, meat is central to
the Tibetan diet and abandoning it was felt to be quite difficult. Jigm
Lingpa recognized and respected this difficulty. Rather than simply man-
dating vegetarianism, Jigm Lingpa tried to meet students half way, con-
sistently condemning meat but also offering strategies to offset meats
negativity. By trying to bridge the tension between Tibetan Buddhisms
compassionate ideal and the pervasive presence of meat in the Tibetan di-
et, Jigm Lingpa established a practice which allows his studentsand
himselfto practice compassion without abandoning meat.
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