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Individual Determinants
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It is said that "managers, unlike parents,must work with used, not new, human being" whom others have already used first.
So when individuals enter an organization,they are a bit like used cars.
Each is different. Some have "low mileage"
with a little exposure and others are "well worn"having been driven over some rough roads.
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Determinants of Individual Behavior (contd)
Similarly, people enter organizationswith certain values & characteristicsthat will influence their behavior at
work.
The more obvious of them are:
a) Biographical Characteristics. b) Personal Characteristics.
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Biographical Characteristics
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Ability
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Number aptitudeVerbal comprehensionPerceptual speedInductive reasoningDeductive reasoningSpatial visualization
Memory
Number aptitudeVerbal comprehensionPerceptual speedInductive reasoningDeductive reasoningSpatial visualizationMemory
Dimensions ofIntellectual
Ability
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Examples of Dimensions of Intellectual Ability
Number AptitudeAbility to do speedy & accurate arithmeticE.g. Accountant
Verbal ComprehensionAbility to understand what is read or heard & the relationship of words to each otherE.g. Plant Manager (Follow corporate policies on hiring)
Perceptual SpeedAbility to identify visual similarities & differences quickly & accuratelyE.g. Fire investigator
Inductive ReasoningAbility to identify a logical sequence in a problem & then solve the problemE.g. Market researcher
Deductive ReasoningAbility to use logic & assess the implications of an argumentE.g. Supervisor
Spatial VisualizationAbility to imagine how an object would look if its position in space were changedE.g. Interior decorator
MemoryAbility to retain & recall past experiencesE.g. Salesperson
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Physical Ability
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Ability-
JobFit
The Ability-Job Fit
EmployeesEmployeesAbilitiesAbilities
Jobs AbilityJobs AbilityRequirementsRequirements
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Attitudes
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Types of Attitudes
Job SatisfactionAn individuals general attitude towards one'sown job.
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The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the Cognitive Dissonance
Theory
Explains the linkage between first attitudes and then behavior
Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused byholding conflicting ideas simultaneously
Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals willattempt to reduce the dissonance
No individual can completely avoid dissonance
However, if the elements creating the dissonance are relatively
unimportant, the pressure to correct this imbalance will be low
The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced withhigh rewards.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea8/3/2019 Atti, Values, Beliefs, Needs, Goals
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The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Desire to reduce dissonance
Importance of elements creating dissonanceAesopfable, The Fox and the Grapes
Degree of individual influence over elements
Smokers could rationalize their behavior
Rewards involved in dissonance
DissonanceAn unpleasantphysiological state ofarousal
For example, a belief in animal rightscould be interpreted as inconsistentwith eating meat or wearing fur
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fox_and_the_Grapeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fox_and_the_Grapeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fox_and_the_Grapeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesop8/3/2019 Atti, Values, Beliefs, Needs, Goals
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Self-Perception Theory
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An Application: Attitude Surveys
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Sample Attitude Survey
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Responses to JobDissatisfaction
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Beliefs
Beliefs are descriptive thought that an individual holds
about something
Beliefs are the psychological cornerstone of people
For e.g. My job pays me well is a belief because itdescribes the relationship between ones job and otheraspects of the job setting
They serve as a foundation upon which people order &
structure their lives
A persons beliefs are influenced by a wide variety offactors such as:
Self esteem
Past experience
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Beliefs may be of various types: A l : i l .
E. . i ll w
N A l : l. E. . i v l
, i l , ITv l .
A i l i :
i i i
i l l : lw i i , w , ,
w .
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Values inthe
Rokeach
Survey
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Values inthe
RokeachSurvey
(contd)
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Mean Value Rankings ofExecutives, Union
Members, and Activists
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2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 26
Dominant Work Values in Todays Workforce
SN Stage Job Entry Influence Dominant Work
Values
Terminal Values
1 Veterans(ProtestantWork Ethics)
1950 early1960s
GreatDepression W-W II.
Hard work,conservative, & org.loyalty.
Comfortable life &family security.
2 Existential 1960 1970J-F-K, TheBeatles,Vietnam War.
Quality of Life, non-confirming, seekingautonomy, & self
loyalty.
Freedom, equality(Hippie ethics).
3 Boomers(Pragmatic)
1965 1985Reagan &conservativepolicy.
Success, achievement,ambition, hard work,loyalty to career.
Accomplish & socialrecognition.
4 Generation X(Xers)
1985 2000M-T-V, A-I-D-S, I-T &Global
Village.
Flexibility, Jobsatisfaction, leisuretime & loyalty to
relationships.
True friendship,pleasure &happiness.
5 Nexters 2000 topresent
(Approximately under theage of 30)
Confident, financialsuccess, self-reliant butteam-oriented; loyaltyto both self andrelationships.
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Dominant Work Values in Todays Workforce
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Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures
Power Distance.
Individualism versusCollectivism.
Quantity of Life versus Quality ofLife.
Uncertainty Avoidance.
Long-term versus Short-termOrientation.
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Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures
Hofstedes Framework: Power DistanceHofstedes Framework: Power Distance
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Hofstede s Framework: Power DistanceHofstede s Framework: Power Distance
Low distanceRelatively equal power between those withstatus/wealth and those without status/wealth
Accept power relations that are more consultative ordemocratic
People relate to one another more as equalsregardless of formal positions
e.g. Ireland, Austria, Australia, Denmark, New Zealand
High distanceExtremely unequal power distribution between thosewith status/wealth and those without status/wealth
The less powerful accept power relations that are
autocratic or paternalistic
Subordinates acknowledge the power of others basedon their formal, hierarchical positions
e.g. Malaysia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland8/3/2019 Atti, Values, Beliefs, Needs, Goals
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Hofstedes Framework (contd)
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Hofstedes Framework (contd)
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Hofstedes Framework (contd)
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Hofstedes Framework: Uncertainty AvoidanceHofstedes Framework: Uncertainty Avoidance
Low UncertaintyAvoidance
Society does notmind ambiguoussituations andembraces them
People preferimplicit (hidden) orflexible rules orguidelines and informalactivities
Employees tend tochange employersmore frequently.
High Uncertainty Avoidance
Society does not likeambiguous situations and triesto avoid them
Measures how much membersof a society attempt to cope
with anxiety by minimizinguncertainty
People prefer explicit (open)rules (e.g. about religion andfood)
Formally structured activities,and employees tend to remainlonger with their presentemployer
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Hofstedes Framework (contd)
People value actions and attitudes that affect the future
Normative statements, protecting one's own face, respect for tradition
People value actions and attitudes that are affected by the past or the present
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Hofstedes Framework: An AssessmentHofstedes Framework: An Assessment
There are regional differences within countries
Hofstede had to make many judgment calls while doingthe research
Some results dont match what is believed to be trueabout given countries
Despite these problems it remains a very popularframework
Needs and Goals
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Needs and Goals
Needs trigger a certain behavior &influences individual motivation in
organizations. Unsatisfied needs give rise to tension & an
individual engages in behavior to satisfy
needs for tension reduction. The actual process of motivation starts with
the identification of needs.
The stronger the needs we have, the more
we are motivated to fulfill these needs.
Needs are deficiencies that ener ize us or
2 f d
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2 types of needs
Primary Needs:
Are the basic physical needs that include food,water, sex, sleep, air and reasonably comfortabletemperature.
These needs are conditioned by our social practices.
Secondary Needs:
Are social and psychological needs, including self-esteem, belongingness and affection.
They are valuable in our career making process.
These are the needs that complicate our efforts in
the organization.