......----------------_._--_.__ ._. __.._ - _._----_ .
AModel for Interdisciplinary CollaborationLaura R. Brottsteitt
Social workers have worked with colleagues from other disciplines sin(t' (Ile
early dayso( the pro(essipn; yet, they were without dear models to quia/? (hisinterdisciplinary work. The author uses multidisciplinary theoreticul
literClcure and conceptual and research pieces from social work literarure tosupport the development of such a model. First, current trends relevarlf ro
interdisciplinary practice (;lye noted to emphasize irs importance. The (,Imele.describes a two-part model. Part one of the model consists of five
components thor constitute interdisciplinary collaboration between socialworkers and other professionals: interdependence, newly creare,j
professional activities, fleXibility, collective ownership ofgoals, and (p.f!~~u Ion
on process. Part two of the model consists of four influences 011
col/aborarion: professional role, structural characteristics, 1')(!/,'sona,'
charaderistics and a history of collaboration. Implicarions for socio! wmkprocrice are discussed.
Key words: collaboration; host settings; interdisciplinary teum.<>:interprofessional collabDration; model development
SOdal workers practice in schools. ho.spital~.
psychiatric clinics, juvenile courts, prisons.police depMtments, and a rangt" of other set
tings (Abramson & R()SCIlthai. 1')95; Gibt'lman,J'»95), Current practice demands collahorationbctween social workers and the prot~ssi(ll1<llswhodOll1illat~thcst:agencies. Fur effective collabofa~
,ion, it is critical to know what constitut~sandinl1urnas col1;Ihorilti(ln.
Trends in Socia' Work Practice Relevant toInterdisciplinary CollaborationTrends in st)(jal prublcrm and profes:\ioual practice make it virlu.'I.llY jmpos~ible tu strve dicntsdft(tivdy wilhoul collaborating with professionals from \'ilrimlS di:~(iplint's. Tt.'al:her.s cU'(' les!> ableto educah: :.llIdcllts when larg<:r Ilumhers of them(ome 10 sch.jo! hungry. ;Ihll~ed, and ul,able to~pcakEnglish_ Phvsician~ a.nd nurses an' les~ ableIII mcet the Jl·mand.~of managed C<\TC without
~Issi·;t'lnce from social W(Ukl'rs., m;clIp;ltional and
physkal thcrapisb. and other" 1.· ',lli'pllrl p,lIit:ntsin the leasl expemivi.' ~~'lIil1g ..[ 1,<·,,- I'rohli.'llls are
I cOll1pollnd~d by {he lilllitOlti"I\' "t ,,,me disdplines. limited undentandillf: l,t iI,,' r(.les and t'x·perti:.e of other pro(cssion,l!s, i Ild·C;' ".'d require·IT)en t~ for :lccnuntahilhy and ,1, Idllll('1l1Jtiol1, lindcomplex dhlgnuscs anJ trCalllh:ll! IllclhoJs,
PraCtice with Children and Families:Collaboration in Schools
Trends in publk edU~Jlinn r.:qulh. llwrc collahll'I ration hetween ~dll('IIl!"'; ilnd , ....:i,ll workers to
educate "the childr~n (If today.. \1.IIlY e>;pl:rt~ .:it(,changing deJ11()grilphk~ as prl1lllpling a 11.ltilm..Jconcern with rducatioli (Br,lwll ~ Ch;wkin, 11.)':14;Har~, 1994; P,llJas, N.llridltl, ~ \l~DiIL 1q89:Schorr & Both, 199 I), 1',111:\:, ,Ill..! ",Ileagucs idclI'til'ied Il\'c key indicilhHS .1:.~\),i'Il.·d wilh poorschool performance: millvriiv I," i.d or i.'lhnkgroup identity, living in [ll)Y':1 t \ _living in a singlcparellt family, havillt! i' l'(.urly ,·,!Ia:,Il,'d m(lther,
t t ~ • ,.1 •· ..htl":·I~. ''!,'M .... :l..,.,~ ••'!.:;n.a'· ,"" ~l' "'<l.Jt l\ ••t!a.·'"., 1.1.\.297
dud IlJ\'il1~ a nOll, r n~JI~h hlilguagc had:.ground.Whereas Olle in ,"I'l!l' c hildn:1l fit the firstfou(' ofthe livcindicatMs pi I'''''r ~d1()ol performance ad~C,ldc ago, projeelL'd ligures l.'slinlate th.u ourschoolswillscrvc ".4 million mllrt! children in}l0wrl\' in 2020 th,," Ihey st'rved in 1984. 13 percent (ewer whitt' mm -Hispanic .:hil~lren, triple thenumbl.'r ()fHj~rauh: dHkln'n, and 22 percentmore black childrt'll. h ith similar upward trend...ill ~in~lc-parent Ian lilil':'>. l'llllrJy educated moth·en•. and children wirh !WIl- Engli~h langurlge ba,:kgl"l1l1lld tPl1llas l't ;11.,. ThI'S': SL.ltisti,~, indicate th'lts.:hnnb will/~cc morl' lhall~nge~and lhat theseehnncng.::~ will fI.'qulrl' l'xpl.'rtise beyond "te;,,:hillg." In Illlwf wllrd~. ,11<:rt' will be a greater needfor .:ollaboratilln bl'I\Y\'I'11 ",holll social workl'rs.IlHl teachers. A dc;trl'1' ul1tll'rslrlnding of"what"thh (oUahoration ll'ok~ Jik,'.i~ a (jrst .step in maximiling it~ ocCUrrt'fKt',
Social wmkcr" han' hern aclivl' ill the schoollinked St'rvi,-e!' mlll'I'I11I'IJ( to link health and social~ervices with. and 111(1.,;1 .11'1('11 wil'hin, school:-II Jr"foos, 1994; (hi <:. 19')·1: II.tr~. 1<)95:Prnnckamp. 1992). Thl' goal (Jf ~dlUo!·linkedse,\'kl.'~ is to JC\dnp itl1 integraled systcm ofservicesfor childrcn .\IlJ f.unilil'~ that is characterized bycollab()f.nioll. Ikni .. k ;Imll )ucrr (1996) outlined(lptimal conditillns t; If s.::Iwol-linked services under which teachers 'lnJ sodal workers work togetlt<.'1' to customi7,' 5t'l'"ke plans to increase attendance, (,l1hamc ,h:,l\kmil" performance, anddevelop creative ilk" li'r llhmaging childri:I1'~
classrO(lm beha\-iM, ~llpp()rtl.'rs of ~(hool-linkt'd~Cf\'iccs hope to adll(,\'(' ov(.'rallllyst~m.schange{Gan.lncr. 19~9}. Thl'~' hopE' that more collaboration bctwt'cn It'(\chC'r, ,Hid ~(hooJ socia.l workerseim better addres<' 1l1'1'IlS lit' students, families,~chools, and cr:llnmHnitic~. As Allen-Meares(l Y(6) said, Our s, h<wIs orten <.'f1(ouragc professional "turfism" and .111 undermining of"a coordinakJ ilppW>ll.'h til t'lIthll t'uucational opportunit}' and the tkvdppmt"llt of uur hun,an laphaJ.Tht, need to ref"ml lh.' IiJlk.~ hdwccn systems isurgl.'l1t" (p. 538). Collahoration among incihriciualprofessionals is a first 'tel' in developing c:ollahorativt· rdationshit'~ afTh)l1g nllmnul1ityconstituents, agencies, ilnd l'I,'!"c,siOlwlgwups,
Interdisciplinary Collaboration inHealth Care
W(.lfkl'rs in hl'allh Sdllll;';~ h.we ulways been expecled to coll"bm'lLl'. J Jin'd sod;.1 wvrk practke
in healtheatc Wi\S c~labJished in 1~05, when sod,lIscrvkcs were introduced at Massac:hmetts GeneralHosl'itallCabot, 1915). Tulia)', hospital soci,'llworkers see increasing numbers ofimmlgrants\people in poverty, and patients with limited or noinsurail(c, S(hilling and Schilling ( 1987) arguedthat this changing population has prompted amove from health cJrc's entrepreneurial emphasi.~
to a focus on dinic$ and trea1ment(lfspecialpOplllations, Yet, manag~d ~are policies increasingly dictate the provision of carc, and hospitalstay, hecome shorler and rarer. This requirt:'s 1'0eial workers ill medical setting... to work dose1ywith physicians, nurses, and OtllC'f medi'::ul prof\.'Ssionals to ensure that p.ltimt:'i and family members have the understanding and tools to maintllingains made in the hospital or regimens prescribedin the doctor's office when they return horne(Abramson & Mizrahi, 1996; Carroll, 19RO;Ctlwles & Lcfcowitz, 19Y1; Nening & Williams,199R~ Poole, 1995). Netting and William~ arguedthai "acrn~s thl.' professions- over thl:' leis I dCl:adc,psych(l~ocial ,lSrccts ofhcallh care have bcenvil'wed as increa~il1gly nitit:al In intervening Wilhpatients and their f,unilics" fp. 196),
Social Work Practi<:e in Mental Health
Like medical social work, sot:illl work pmctice inmental health settings began around the turn ofthe century when Elizabeth Horton was appointedas th<.' IIrst psychiatrk social worker to thl.' NewYork City Hospital Sy~tcm in 1907 (Rossi, /969).At th,ll time, sudal work and ps ·(hiatf)' wereviewed il~ having a close cotlaboratiw relationship(Deutsch, 1940), Todily, sodal workers arc entering the mental health field in increasing numbers.Indeed, m~lltal health is the largest field of concentration for j\,ISW students, and social workersare sc<;ond only to nurses in st3ffing mental healthfacilities (Lin, 1995). Social workers in mentalhcqlth senings are seeing cHen1s whose lives haveb~en a(f(;w~d by the expanding web ofSQcialproblems that kad to homdL'slmcs,~ and ethnkand language dlfferenl:t's thaI compound med.ication noncompUam:e.
More than ever psychiatrists and ps)-chQloglstsin mental health settings are he1pcdenormouslrin their tasks by social workers' contextual undersl;lTIding of the persfln-in-environmem. Clients inthe mental health system present with more complex s}'mptoms that require the t'xpertise of professionals with diwrse educational backgrounds,
Socu~{ Wor~ I Volume 48, Number 3/ July 2003-298
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Model for Interdisciplinary CollaborationDefinitionBerg· Weger •.lnd Schneider (1998) defined itltertfisciptillrlry collilbomtioll as "an interpersonal process through which members of diffcreiltdisciplincs contributcw a Lommon product otgoaJ"(p. 698). I US,";l more positive definition for thisartide whereh~' illl<:rdisciplinary coJlabor. tion isan effective intl~rpi:rsonal process lhat f.\ciIitatl.'Sthe achieveml:'l1l (If goals thalcannot be rcachC'dwhen individllill pwfl'ssionals d.ct on their ',wn(Bruner. 1991). This dctinilion reflects the wayinterdisciplinary collaboration is written .thou'tand incrc,l"ingly rl:'ft'rrcu to when compared wilhother c1ns\'!Y rdalt'd inlt'rpersonal processes suchas coopcratino, communication, coordination,and partnership (lJrllncr; Graham &. Rarter. 1999;Kagan. 1992; Mailick &. Ashley. 1980.
Components ofIntcrdisclpliruiryCollabl;>rationI used four theoretical framL'works in the development of the model. including tI multidisciplinarytheory ofccill.lboralion, ~<'fvicrs inlegration-theprogram development model dil;l:ussed most frequently ill conjunction with collahora.tion-rolelheory. and ~col()gical systcm~ thc:ory.
Through ~ll't'vil'w (If the th':lIl"cticJlliteraturcand the social work praclkt.' Iitl'r.l[ un:', 1 identifiedcomponents ()fjntcrdjc;dpljll.lr~ ,,)Il.lhor..\tionthat consistently appear. AllJwllt:h dillcrcnces exist among disciplines, this lll11dd I.- m....nnt to be ageneric depiction of the COIllf'~IIl"::I1L" ,,( tlptimumcollaboration between Suth,JI '.\'('1 k{'rs ant! otherprofessi()nals. lntt'rprolcs:;ioll<ll ,'fOU;l.SC:S amongone tlr more professionah I"rlllll (1IIl('I'I:nt disciplines engaged in work-rd.lleu ,ldivilics shouldrepresent five core COmpllTlc:nh: . If intt'rdepcndenc~,(2) newly cr~atl'd pruh:S~Il)(1,d d(ji\'itie~,
(J) flexibility. (4,) collccri\,(' \)wll~'f,hip ofgoals,ilnd (5) reflection on pmc!:S.' i Fit-:ul'1' 1L
Ifl1t.'rdcpc,u((mn' ref,'rs III th<' (}~l urrt'll<:c of andreli'!nce mlinterllCli0T1S alllUIl~ prllt....s.. ionalswhereby each is l[('pt'ndcl1\ ,m 1h\.' olhe-r h> .h':t()nl
plish his or her goa15 Jnd t.iSks. Ttl function interdependently. pro(essi'lnals 1lI11l>1 have: ,1 dL'ar un·dl'fstandillg of the distilh:ti<UJ bCTWtX'n their owntlnd their collah()ratjn~profcs~inn"ls'mlcs andlise them appropri;\h'lr. C!J;\r;KI L'ri~tk~ of interdependence include formal and inilll'm~\l time :.pellttogether. oral and written (llOlIlHlllkatiun amongprofe~sionaJ collc<lguc,. und rt'~pect for colle'lgucs'pwfessional opinions and input. ror example. in
.Figure I
Components of an Interdisciplinary Collaboration Model---- , - .,~ _ .. __ .._ _._--------_ _._._ _-_._-.---".._--
I
:N
hlt.:rdcpeudencc
~T l
F. I)
!{ ,~cwly Crt'1\lcd l'rofessiona.l Mtivjtit's ~ ..
n I. ? I .\
S g
I I c (.
Flexibility ~ 1 l'l' '\
: VI 1
Col1edive Ownership of (;0<115 1 Il..: l.)
;\ '\l
Retlection on Pro\.'cs~Ry
Br(ln~tejn / AModel for IllterdiSCIplmQrf Collabol'iJrJoJn-299
--_._ - .••....._ -
a ho~!,il,ll sl;"t1in~ ,I llll'llk.l11'r~)Ii::s$jomllpwvicle$.l ....~'-:jal worker I,jlh ,tll ,1'SI:S~ml?J1tof the patient'sm~Jk'll needs. whit h 111<.' social wl)rk~r relies untIl dl'\'e!oP an efledl\"l' discharge plan,
III th~ :iocial \'wrk litn;ltuce, frequent refer('l1Cl'j\ to the import;llh:'C of interdependence occurin writill~s about an irJll'rdbdplinary "team:' Theword tCllIII deriwd from old Engli~h and referretiIn '\1 group or ..lIlilllab 11.lrnes~cd together to draw~(IIlll.' vehicle" (llill~\.;;]II. 19BO. p. U5), Socialworkl'rs have been pall' l)( teams l1lLlrL' than allyothL'r I'roiessiollals [K;ull', 1975). A ft',ml consistsIll" IWOIJ/' more l'Wt'ls·;ion.Jls working together,Kane (141\0 i identili,'d lW,l (Olllrasting patterus of!e,llnwork. CiJimlilldl,' r,,,wl\I'llrk is charal1.erizcdby dislim:1 pwt('~Silll1<11 nIles. dc~ignated teamI('illkl'ship, 110Jlllll1""1l~ual de.:i:;ion making, andlink t·lIlpha.~is lIll ~nllq' pwce:;s. IlIll'gmliw (('ellll
work IIlllrC dosdy !'c"'mbles collabUTdtioll a~ detined in lhis articit' and iii charaderized by il beliefIh,ll group members' ,Ihililil'slo carry9ut thdriobs i" dCl'elllknl nil l'o ..:h lIther,
Frllln thdr lllrt.l·.lllillysis of literature on collahoration acTO:., dj,(il,Iilll'S. Maltl'ssich amij\hlllSCV (1992) ilkllll!'kd behaviors and attitudesIhal chanlc!,'rizc inkn1..-pclILlt'nct' as a componentni" collahoratiw pradi(t'. Thc~e include particiPitnt~' thinking that Ihey 1t.1\<: llwre to gain thanlust' by collabnf.tlion ,II"! an lmgoing tlow of communicatioll al1llln~ \.' oIl..::.)gucs.
S\lkr and 5h.llll'kr ·f 'Jl).~) aJsu a(fll'lncd interJ,'pl'nJl.'ncc as.1 Ctll;lI·lIn..·nt of cuilaborative dfon~ in their exploratory rt"~t'Mi:h, They examinedd"forts It) ((lllrLlin;\lI~ cit ildrl.'l1 \ sl'rvices across thecOlllllry to clut:id.llt' (,\..'\ors th.H make them wmk.Th.:v round th,lt "\l~( l "ful dfof\s rl'lil'd on highlydin:t;\·(, (;Ommlllli':,tll"n IIMl spnnned pmk~~lonaJ bnunJaril's..) Ili~ tinding parallels Kaganand wl1(,J~llI.'li' ( Jl)'):'> \ !>llJdy of ..emel! integrationinith\ll\'CS in i;llIr "l.lk~. ,,'hidl f"lInd that Sl.h:cess·luI colhlboralio[J:- .lllltlllg ~('rvi(c providers in pro·;.!rallh for dlildr"!1 ,\11.1 hHltilies Wl'fe char.Kll'r·11.1'<.1 \.y dt'aravcnllt··, ,Ii rl'dprodty,tnd":t'UlllllllliG,til)ll :lIllPl1t( k.:y '1L.'IOrs.
A frequently din! .Id \',1I11Jil" of teamwork isthat merging the ('~ tW!i is': and klwwlcdgc fcomdifft'rl'l1tdisdplillt:~ 1l1,lximizcJ> ':f(~ativily withh.d"y\ complex pr. ,HeJl1s ILOll:\d3Ic, Webb, Benri~f,!>. 19RO; Webb &. lll'hlldl, 1980). A relatedslIppntt tor collabol,1I II 1(1 i:> I'uutcd in the belief11t.11 rdi,mcc on \,Ih, r' lor Cl,£tJin lil~ks 'and re~nlln:~'~ "Bows wILI1".'l",ll\lfS to spend their lim~
doing what each knows and does hest (Abramson& Ruscnlhal, 1995).
Billups (19871 identified a sulid professionalidentity as an importanlcomponcnt of successfulteamwork. Maltessich and Monsey (J 9~21 foundIh3t successful col1abor~tors had dearly understood roles. Both of these qualities are precursorst(lr interdependence; professionals need to be se~
Cure in th.eir own roles to know what they can of;.fer. and, inlurn, what they can rely on lJthcrs toprovide.
N~wly crmteJ prnli~ssi(lnul actjy;til's r~rer (0 col·laborative acts. programs,Jnd structures that (an
I achil:ve more than cnuM be ilt'hicwd by the sameI prol,,~sionals acting independently. These activi
ties ll1;lximize the expertise of ~J.Lh collaboratur.Kagan (1992) identified newly created prufes
slIm,11 ,Ktj\'ities as a critical component of caBabaf;]tive work when slw defined ,(lIl,~/l()ratio'l as an;I(t hy which "an identifiablt' t1urable collaborativestrU(lUre is built" (p. 60), Mdaville and Blank(19921 echoed this. characteril'.ing col1ahoraliveinilhitiws as ([eating fundamental.:h'lllges in theway StrViCC5 are designed and deliwrl-d.Mattesskh and Moust'y (1992) identified this factor as a component of.::ollabonttion when theynotl'(llhllt collaborators creal\? unique purposesfor their endctwors that do not replicate those ofindividual proics~innaJs or professional groups.
Kagan and Neville's (1993) applicJ.li,)n (If S}'S
tems theory to servin' integTiltion emphasi7.edhow individual people anJ programs linked together have the opportunity to create that whichthey (anllot create when acting independently.Kagan androlleagues' (1995) study ofservice Inkgratioll in four 5t<lle:> found that successful collaborative effQrts involved mcdwlisms (or
"broad-based reform that :tffccts clients, prllgram:-, p(,lky, JIld organi7.ational bllreaucracy"(p. 145i. (n other words, reform invl11\'ing col·1<lbor411101\ ~xtenth beyond the individual collabor<ltors and their direct servic\.'s t(l dienl;;. Such reform may be observable in new ~tructures,
policies, and sl'rvice delivt'ry sy:;terns. These newstructures can be found in schools where tcach,'r5and social workers develop staffin-sen'ice programs ~ollabQrativeJy, The)' (all be seen in hospitals where a structure is created for medic;!! ilndsocial work interns tQ pair together to work withpatlents and flllllilies. .
Fle-tibility extends bcyondinlcrdepcndence andrefers to the deliberate occurrem:c ofrole-blurring.
Social Work I volume 48. Numbe.r 3/ July 2{J03-300
H~havior tllal ch.lrach:rii'Cs flexibility includesr~a..:hing produclive ({lI11promisl's in the t~l(C ofdisJgrcel1u!01 <Iud the illtt'filtion of role as pf()f't::~,
Silll1<lh. respond crc.1tivt.'h' to what's called for.I l(j~pke ~t)cial workers ilIl1~lr(\tc11t':tibilil)' whenl11('y use kn(lwl{'d~eg'lilll'd (rom working in teamswith nurses and physidans to answer patiems'simple tlllt'slions annut ptll1iative medical care.
Mattessitb and lvlonscy f 1992) argued thatflexihility is a critkal compimcnt of coUaborat.illnallJ noted that sULcc~sful Ct)lIaborator~ exhibita<.hlpI3bility, even under Chilnging conditions.Casc:;ludies of collahoration ,md service integralion emphasize the import,'nce of flexibility(Bord. 1~86; l.iehcrm<111, lqM; Soler &Shaufft'r,1993; Wjmpnu:imcr, Bloom, & Kr(lmer, 1990).Billups ( 1987) identifi~d tll.'xibility, espl'~'ially wilhregard lu tcam gnah.. dS a pnKl.'SS dtiu"lI:tcrilinginterJiscipli.oary tl:am 1111('ral-tions in whi(h ~odal
work~rs engage.Tosdand, Palmt'r-Gilndes, .md' Chapman
( 1980) surveyed professionals ill a variel y of Ji~,ipliTlcS and intcrdis-:iplinary teams in p~y(hiatrk
settings. Thcy foullJ one of two tnJ.ior .lfl:3.5 ofdi&\grcem~J11t~) hI.' whether learn mernbt'rsshould hav~ equal power. As a (OmpOnCIlI of collahoration, nexjhilit~ in role demands less hil"rarchical relationships. AbraOlson ,1Ild Mizrahi(1986) viewed this from a perspl'clive that did not;Itlcmpt m alter power, but rather drcunwent it.They argued that Mll:ial workers hJV(' greater success working with rhYliidans when they view theirrole as being ;1 resllurce ,lS Qppos~d to a r()\c in an"cqurdity-bascd collaborative" (p. 1). To have thekind of inlegrative t~ilOlS that Kane (' 1980) wroteabout, s.omc ddibcrate role blurring and tkxibiJity,Ire required. R()le~ laken should depend 1\(lt (lnlylHt a professional's lraihing,"but also on the ne<:d~
of the 1..1rg,tnization, siwati<ln, professional colIcagu~s, client. ami faulily.
CLllkcttvl! owmmhip o/goals refers to sharedresponsibility in Ill(' entire proce~s of rcadlinggo,tls, including .i(~ill( de:;ign, definition, Jevdopnll'nl. and achi('vcmenlo( goals. This indud,'~;1
c()mmifrncnt U1 dknh:entered citri.' when'!>)' profl'sslunais from diffl'rcnt disdplines and d.il"nt~
and their families ,Ife all activc in the process Ill'
goal all.ainmcnt. To l'llgage jn collt'ctive ()Wll~r
ship of goal..... ~·J(h professional must lakt' tesport!<ihility for his uT her pan ill suct.:ess and faihm,'and supporl "-t111lolructivc disagreement and ddiberatioOM1l011g colkagut's <lnd clients.
The mull idis.dplin.IJ v litt'I"!i .;I'<~ (In ,·I)J).lboration id('Tlulics the w\lt:d iw 0\\ Ii ('!'Slup of goals a~
d (ort component for ~U':Cl'~;;f1il .:,llIahor.ttion(BruTler, )991; ~Jaftc~~kh &- ~l"n)("r, 1992).MJttcssich and ~lOnslT implit.',l \(I1k(ti\'~ ownership of goals wh~n Iht~y nOled Iklt ~ut:'c:~)fulcol·labor.ltive efforts includt:' ck.trly ddinc:d. r.:alisti..goalSi ,1 shared vi~jon; J~ret'd'\ln mbsiun, objectives, and strategy; bmad-b;lh'd involwll1cnt indl!cision making; and collabor,lwrs with th\: ability m compromise. The !iti:r;ttun: ,m :-oerviccs integration paralJds this in rt'cognil.ing the impmtariceof clearly identified goa!:' !Kagan et OIL,1995; Soler & Shauffer, 19'.13) ,tnt! dient and f(lmBy involvement in pla1111ing 1:'I('ahurn, torem.,Cunn, Gawimki, & lvl.wbl h. 1"%; Solt'r &Si:h'lUffer).
Billups' 119~7), in hi .. alii, L: lin ~OI:ial w(Hkl'r~'
':llllaoofinion with othl:l' I'Tllk~~IP1HlJs, Jefin<:d the.:cntraJ dynami... 01 thl' illkr l'l'l il"'~~i(lOaileampro~e"s a~
il form (If (O/lSt:llSll' ;lIl1OIl}~ h'M!) memher~thai rdh,ets Iwithf..'r lIlt' l'):1 n'l11<' .,1 perfectunison nor Ih.11 of lIubridlLl.t ,~In ilid. Thh.(t'nlr<ll dynamic ml'lri.· Ofl<:1\ !l,\, 0\11 rihut~s of J
lkmt)cratk"lIy-orkllll'~1 Jl •. IW "t II\mSactiomthat makes po~~ible (re~' l·,'mll\llnication. rea·)onably full participation. ;111\1 .1 "t1l1icicntI..'"e! of agrcl'mcnl (olea,1 to oJ , • 'lIl'ert('d seril'~
oi"cl)Ucdivi.' dccisilll1s ,Hid ,L(II<"" II'. 14!lL
Billups emphasizeJ.lwtl ~lIbl\l'\I\""s~s of cot-hlhor,llionlhat .Ire parlicuLlrly II:LIl,'d to the wIle"ive uwnership of goab: i,Jt'lltil\ing and asse~s
ing problems \'0 he adJr('s~('''1, Wltjll~ goah, andd~V'dopjng action pl<lt\S; <Inti nql.ol lal ing andimplementing theaClion pl.U1 ;uld ,~ngaglng innecessary f(}lIQw-lhr(lu~h,
Abramson and RO"~lIlhal ( 1')';;-' L Mgl1c:d theimportallce of Cl~llectj\'t'o\Vnt:'t~hif' Ill'goals when;lffirming that greater it1l:lu~ivl'r,,:..~ indecisionmaking Jeild.s 10 <fa wider Il,l->t.' ul !l\\lwr.ship t)f thepro<:ess and incrcasl'd ,uPl'(l1'l lUI implementaLion" (p. 1482).ln<1 thall,ntad,h;",' ..1 interdiscipli-nary support for .:h;ln~~' h.b J hel t',T ..:hance l0Tsuccess than a so)itary dfllrl. JII ;In 1:1 hnogmphics()cio!ingl1istk ~Iud" to lltlJcr~t.l1id how "prn(t~S
shmals llnd pwfc:s,j\)J1JIs·rn·tr,linlllg learn :lhlllllbecoming a le,llll rnt:mb~'r," S.md... I 1990, p. ·1 f
examinl'd (Jnt' "Pd.ll worl.:.,,'I" ~ Je-vehlprncnt;l:. ,Iteam member llvel lime. Sh" f\HlIld Ihat it kev :ti-"
pect of !;()ciillilUtillll tu the IlJl{'rdl""lplinary I~Jm
8ronstl!In I AModel lor Iflferdiseiplmo!y CollaborowJlI-30t
.-----_..- .._.- _ .
I'fth;eSS indudcJ tlt.:- w"l'kt'r\ incrt!a~ed involvell\('nt in temn rn)(I.'''~'.'s, indudingdisc:ussions andJcci,siol1s.
Connaway 0<)7:;1. CompLOIl and Galaway( 1984), and 1\1 ailii:!, ,l11d :\~hlc}' {1981) discussedthe so..:ial worker rok of dit'ut .ldv(lcate :I," potl.'Il
tinily being in conIE'l wiTh (~)lIet.:tivc learn goakAn l"xilmple in tlw ~;;'hnol c~lUJd occur when .1
school $ocial w()rh~'r l'I'r,c;vcs a tcacher as imp.:ding the progress \"It ;\ dllid or family, How does Ihew\H'ker Jdvo.:ate I'm IllS or her .:Iient in a way thatJ(I~'s lwt compmmi,,(' J collaborative relationshipwith the teacher? In .1 1,lr!!..:r way, Dingwall (1980)cautioned thal "hettl'r tCJll1work might only incrC,lSC Ihe power lIf prof,:sslon,,1s in rl.'lation totheir dient'i3l1d IIMny \\'\luld argue thaI that imbalance wa.'i alrc;lJy 1,)<1 ~T('at"J (p. 135).lndusionof the clienl and hi~ llr lwr family in gr;r..l scLtingaml<lchi~vemenl O},'i pan ui' a definition of imcrdisciplin"rr mU"boratillll aItCOI.I.s to the importance ofthl' dienh ....oice ill .,11 .\sl'':~ to; of service delivery({,irah,11l1 & RJrkr. I '199; ~caburn el al.. 1996).
Nl'flectiotl 011 /,rn,,'s, n:f... rs h) ~ollabmators'attention 10 th<,ir prm:<"~ ,.• ( \,,'orking lllgell'wr. Thisincludes collabol ,Illlrs' thinking and talking abouttheir working r~bli'lr"lllp and proce:;s and incorporating fecdb'1Ck tl.l ~l r.:ngtht'l1 collabonltive relationships .md df":,·j i\ ~n ...ss,
S,lll"c and Shaufli'r', i 199~~) study identified~uc.:ccssful,ser\'kc: illkgr,ltilln a~ incorponning a(lIrnmitnwl1t to 'il'!f· ...\'.\lll,1tion. Hillup!i (\987)induded openly a"dr"~~ing intratt.'am conflict .lndu.~e of feedba..:k to rL'lll.'ct on wllabordtive interal:'liolls as critkal':')Jllpl1l1<.:nt:; ~)fsucccs.sful inlel'disciplimlry lcams, K.m ... ! 1'<180) defined fUtilltegm~
live 1<'0 III as OIlC' I.lht~ :dl\l";~ll~'S time for "reflectingon pnJCes5." L1St, ,\\I",II'hoO t IqH4} identifiedguidelines 1{lr Leam ,Idium ,md sp('dJled the imI'I)rtanc(' oj3 pwn:dure whereby lealllS e.lwminethe eLhical dil('rnm,l:; lh,H (Onfronlthcm and howthese'dilcfllm<ls .HI' ,II'proachl'd.
Influences on Intcnlisciplinary CollaborationInclusiun oi inllu~/ll<'~DB interdisciplinary colJ.,bor.Hion plJces till' modd in context MU'r all1odelt'xists til dl'Sd'ibt' collaboration, and if ((II·Jilbor<ltion is dCCllll'J ;oil import,lnl component ofpr,lclice, an LlnJ('r~t.lTlc1ing of whal aids and whatpre.o;cl\ls barriers ltl,.,1I.1boration is needed to inGl'.)M: its {ICCUrrCllll', :\rl'.lS noled;ls intluences oninkrdisdplill.trr .:olhlhoration indudl' professioTlal fl)le. Slnl(tltl,d l h'lractcristk~. persoll<ll
c);.iT<lcteristics, and a history of (oU.lboraI itJn(Figure 2); The presence ofeath supports inter~
disciplinary efforts, whereas t.heir ahsence pm;entsbarrien to its occurrence.
Profess;.cmal Role. A strof1~ sense of prof(::;slonal role includes holding the values ilnd ethicsof Iht' social work profession; an allegiance Lo theagcmy sl"tling; an allegiance to the sud,,' workprofession; respect fur professional colleagues; an~wlvgi,al, hulisli{' view of practke consistenlwith Ihesodal work profession; .llld a perspet.:tivethat h similar or complementary to collaborators'perspectives.
Role theory irtforms311 understanding of howsocializatioTl inlo a professional role occurs ilndhow a person is able to interact with olherl> in hisor her work, Critical issues in understanding theinfluence of professional role on .~ocial workers'.;oHaboralion with oll1<.'r5 includes the effet;t ofsocializatio1l. the 3ettlngs, and status an4 hierarchy.
filCh profession socializes it~ members diff<)rently with regard loroJc. values, and pra':licc(Abramson, 1990), and the differences among theprofession!' are compuunded by lhe high value
• each rlac,~!. on autonomy, holding the ability lobeself·directed as an "iJ~;\I" of pmfcssiunalism
I (\\l.lllgaman, 1994). This sense \)f autonomy. professional identity. and skilJ~ tkvdop through thepro.:css ofprofc$.'tion.al 80ciali7.3t ion. Understanding the socialization, and with it the roleexpct:tati(lns and heritage of a profus:;ion, arc pre·requisites for understanding a group ofprofessionals.' skills, ;3ttiludcs. and abililies to col/;Iborat~
wilh other disciplines (Lee & Williams, 1994;Waugaman)~ Sometimes, the divcn;e culture",norms, and language of each prote:ssion make theproces't of interdisciplinary coUaboratic.m resemble the- bringing together ofinhnbilclrtfS fromforeign lauds.
Social workers take on em endless numbL'r ofroles ollinlerdisdpJinarr tC'ams ,tnd in their dradi(' interdisciplinary relationships. Several studies,nole that successful teamwork may be hamperedby al1e~i3.nces that lean lQQ strongly loward awork\!rs' profession or department (Abramson.1990; \{(I,h, 1965; Kane, 1975. 1980) ~lr toostrongly IowaI'd the inlenlisdplinary team(Ahramson) 1990; Kane. 1980}. A strong sen.'>e ofpr()f~'ssional rokas prerequisite for interdisciplinary l'ollabor<Jtion involves an allegian.:c to bolh.Becaust: intcrdisdplill.ll'}' relationshiJ1s differ for adbdpline .111(1 its status in the setting,:I competent
SaciQI Work I Volume 48, Number 3I July 2003-302
Figure 2
Influences on Interdisciplinary Collaboration---_. "-"'--' .__ _- - _._ _--_ _--_._._--
Inlerdisdplin:uy Coll:loorJ.i~lll
Interdependcn( cNl.'wly Cr~aled Professional ALliviries
FlexibilityCollective Ownership tlfGoals.
Reflectioh on Pro.:css
profession.t1 role th~t (an prolIwte collaborationrequires n:dl'rol.:;11 n:spcl:l n'g;ll'dk:;s of theprnfcssi(}Jl's status in 111<;' st.'uing.
Strut'tural Chllr«cleris/;C5. $lru(\uml dlaracll~ristks rdevnnt to il1tcnlisciplinary collaborationindulll' a malhlgc.lblt Glsdoad, an agenc}' .:ullurcth.lt slIppllrlS intt:rdh,c.iplinary (ollahorillitln, aumini'itrat ivc support. professional a.u t()rJ(lOl)', andt·he ,jnl(' and space for co)Jabural ion to oelur.
Hurd (1l.JR6) reviewed the c:<periem:cs (If it
wiu\.' spt'ctrum of collaborators in human sl'l'vkes.edw:atilln. a~':ldcmia,and rnan'lgemcm ..lIld identified ~!lmt fif lhl' stnlcrural barriers to (:olhlboTilti....c;H:livity. These indude insnfficiem time fornegotiation and eXdlange, per.'ional investment,and the financial \,'olTll11itment []C'c.t:ssary tll SUS;
tain collaboration. Matlcssich and Monser (1992)found that collahmation is supporku wht:'n<lgcncy leaders advocate for it and when an adequate financial base exists,
Structural C'hara.:leri~li<:sthat inf]ucn~t' interdisl:iplinary co(J~lboration indude W~}':; th,ll anurgani'l3tjon Jnd superv isM aJl<ll:al c rcsourcc:f,
Jnd assign work that eithn 'lIl'l" 'et,. Ill' poses hal
rien; In ('ollaboration. H\lf,h~'~I!J,l l',.i1e'\gues(1973) noted that it hal. alw;l\" hlTIl Jillicult IU
separate social work .l'; a pruk~"'illl [r<tlll the or·~aniZali{)ns jn whit'h !o(Kialw"J her' pl'.l'lirc.Smalley (1965) extended lhi, '",...... ."Iying lhal"SOciill w(lrkcrsarc lrained il' \\\,,1 wilhin an illstilutional framcwnrk, :Ind 1,1 1;";ll<l' ,lIme agenLv';Of imtillilion's purpo~cs u"d>!,. I,v [he .Jicntclcscn'~'d flJr their own and t.lll' ll'nlmllnilY'~ wel·fare" (p. 63). As far b'lI:k ,h lill 1''',1('', GulicK andUrwilk ( 1937) argued that lile ':;1 , ..ltl',;t dangcr~ ti'org.Uliz,ttions' w(lrking h)pdkl W,I~ the "Ja<'K ofcO~(lrdinntionand danger pl' t'l i, I j. Hi" lhat ..().:~ LJ f',
belw{'cn departments. or ,11 lilt: r·linlS where tht'l'overlap" !.p. 3J),
The imporlan((' (If "tnl\:Ill1',li f,'ltofS in inlerdisciplinary collal!{lralioll i~ Il' .ld ill tht: S'o<;i.t1\~ork literature, HjJlup~ ( 1%7) ,It :(U('" the impur.tance ofhcinguble to mllxill1i/._ !hl'lwnetlts :Iudminimize the wnstrdinl:> lllt'Il\'!,(l1l111l:nlal andagelh."}' il1t1uel1.(e~ lin inkrJi'(l!'!IIl.llY praeti..t:,Brown (1995), in his :>()(\ill \\', '!! ,li.,"ertatioH.
BrOflSlelfll A, Model for Interdlsciplmary Colfabofawm-303
sOUghl \11 identify t:ll tnn tlMt support or posebarriers til inkrJi:,.;il'lil1<lfY ~()llab<Jralinn inhl",llh (are. He ftl1l1id tJut a sense of a commonmissioll fadlitah'd 1l11l,lboration. He also foundthaI thestruclunlll.ldlirs L1ndea/" mission, insufficient time, c),.Lcssiw wmkloi.ld, ,md lack ofadministrath'c support Wl.'fl' harriers 10 wllaboration.
Perso1lt,I ClwrlIriaislit'S, Personal characteristicsrelt" ..1111 to inlt'rdis...:iplin.lfy collaboration includethe WJys colbbOI.l\C:lr, \,it'\,\, l'acb olner as people.outside of their prpkssitloal rolt', Maltessich and:V1onsey (992) rC"I'ablllut paso»al characterislies areC.'xlrcmdy l'igniikaot (omp()nents of 5U(
(e~sful (ollaboratiw oldeavors. in studies the~'
rt>vil.'W't'd rc!evant I'l'r~t.1J1,t1 .:haracteristics In(hllkd trust, rl'~i'('(\, d r1d~rstanding, and informal(l.lITlI11U1Jic3tinn bi:l'\l'l'fl (olbborators. Maslow's( 1'105) humanist pt'r"l,.-c!iv\' 11M! undergirds ser',i~e iott>gration l'l't'orh ,tl~(} <lr~ut'd thai trust j;; acritkal hase:: tor suc.:cs"flll (ull"hofOltiQu.
Abrarmon and l\lin.lhi (1996) surn'yed socialworka:> and plJysid.lIls 'lIld found that both ofthese groups (t.'lt th.lI (1111'1boration W>\S enhancedhy rl'~pc(t. il positi\·<; '-!ll;llily uf (ommunication,and similar persp,;c1i\'cs. :\ "'cll-undt'rsl(Jud mleand quantity of COlllI11Uni..:;ltion were more valllr:dby so~iJI worker.., Whl'le;l" ~ "capable" coll<lborator and on~ whll "kept ~"'IJ infurml'J" were morehighly valued by rlt ~·..i, iall:;, Brown'.. t1995) studyIll' t:Klors: that prcwnl b;lrricr:. to or ~urrtlrl coll.tboratinn in health (.m: !clund lhat the followingpersonal chafa.cterisib Wl:r~ rdeviml to slIccessfulcoll,lhoration: pnsiti'" .lltitude:; toward collaboratllf~, n:~peCI, ;lllJ ~'l!llfllTl with cllllaboriltors' per,,()nal behaviClr,
History ofCOt/il/l,'r'lfitm. i\ history of collaboration rcfers to earli.·r ('x!wrienct's in interdisciplinary :;cttings with (l,Jk.lgU~S. This factor emergedas ,Ill indicator ~)r "1I~. \'.'>sfulwllaboralion in many(If the studi~s renewed br t\'!;ltlclisi"h dnd M(>nscy(J 992). Lonsdale .111<1 tt1lkagues (1980) nott'd tlMtlhe long tr,IJition ul 'f'<"ci,llizatlon and fragmcntali\H1 ill th ... ~Ll,i,11 ~Cl\ i',L' iJ~ a whole presents obqad6 lu ~uClO:~SfllJ ,,,Il,IL1\lr.ltiv... ['raLtice, In Olddilion, p(lsili\'~ l'x~'(:ri(,IH:es wilh inlerdisdplinary(,IIl,lht/ration in paid and internship licltings havebct-II shown 10 be lJl\k\'J wilh (urrent levels of~uc,e~:,>rul collab(ll',m"ll (Bronskin, 20(2),
Conclusion and Implications for PracticeSod'll ,~orkcrs facl' Ihl' ch,lllengt;s ofincreasiog~()cial pwhkrns su\ It ,1\ ri"ing numbers offtlmilies
ill poyerty. new immigrants, and people who areilging, and dccreasinB n'.~ources make efficientpra~liLe css\'ntial. Intl'rdisciplinary collaborationwbereby coJleagu\'s work together Jnd maximiz~
the expertise each can offer is critical. Yet, withouta model ofinterdisciptinary collaboration, itspraCtice needs to he continually redefirlcd. Themodel or interdisciplinal")' collaboration put forthdllcidatcs tht'components of this sodaIworkskilL which is noW an imperative J(wprofessiQnalpractice. A high-qualit>' level of l;oJlaboration mayoccur in an elemetitary school when a school sodell worker decides to accommodate parCllls' requests for help with their children's homework,and the s()~ial worker eHeilS teachers' input forh(lW to structure;l homework duh ((I maximizep.mkipation and results. In J rehabilitation h(lspit,l!, optimal wUabMiltion may l1ccur when anintcrdisdplinary team IIfsocial worker, do(wr,nurse. <lOd speech therapist meet:. regular!}' forcase \:(Jnft'rent'''l' that each lC)oks forward to as apJac<: to find solutions for dients lhat they havt;'been struggling with alone. In an inpJlient unit ofa communitv merit;,)l health center, collaborationoccun whel; a. tamily member ca.lls the unit with arequest that any of the professionals feel comfortable responding 10 in a way that makes the familymembers feel respected and OJ p.ut of [he team.
The second parI of the model, the influ('nceson coll.lboration, offers workers areas to p"r attention to in maximizing coll.1borative work. Forexample. if social workers led Lhat lht'ir coJlabQratiw work is not as effecLive as ther would like,they can look to areas outlined in the model suchas their supervisor's support) their colleagues' andtheir own (,)mmiUnenL to agency and profession,,md lheit personal relationships for improvement.When c(lIlaboratins withprofessioJlal:i of higherstatus, workers c-an at,knowledge this diffcf~ncc
I.Abromson & Mizrahi, 1986) and attempt to.:l.1ril)· their c()ntrihution .md unique role. Workers ':.\Il be proactive br providing intnns withposilire collahorative experiences in tidd plac.:menls ,llld allocating time for colh]borat()f~ toconfer.
As Seaburn andcoJleagUt's (1996) noted, t'Aculture ofcollaboration doe~ nl)t just happen. Itmust be formed and fashioned by many hands"(p. 23). The model put forth is intended 10 serveas.a map for the creation ofsoch a culture. Thenext step is to use this model to examine whetherinlerdlsciplinary collaboration ili being carried
Sorial Work i Volume 48, Number 3/ July 2003-304
--_._..-._..- ----------------------,
out. Ifit is, tht'll ducs it cellO wh':lt our Hlenllureand pradkc wisdom indicate and lead ttl the criti~aJ work of our pmfc:.sil)n. improving the live.. ofthe dients we: serve?
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Hlkh, E. L (1965). Tht'o/;,'\ "f itlki"pr"f,·"ion'll (ommunicatinn.ln R. IJ. Ikd. (1',1 \ ',.'. t,'(r 111ft! Ill,'5cho'1ls: COI1lTIIIlll;(',ll;')'1 dlllll.·",.,· ;" I'oIw:lIt;(J11 o:JmJsl)t'iul work (flP. llJ.l-125 L ~..;.:,.. \ ", k: SJ.liiln;l1 Assiwiatinn Clf~()ciJI Wor\.;t:TS.
Hord, S. M. (19116).;\ $}'lllhesb '111"t:~':,ll'lh on m';,lIH
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H\lgh~.sj E. G., Thllrnc, B., l)c:H:I{{!!is \. M.. {~urin.:'\.,& Willianls, n. (1973). F,f!U:d/h'li I<lT til., (lr(lj(;s~101J$
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of Chief Still.: S..:hool Offin:fs . 1'.1. i. Tomllri/lg .<ludOif
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KJt(.li1, S. L... &. Nt:vilk, P. ( I\)'1 ~" I r,rl'F,llmg ~,:n·i.'t:.\ fi"rllllrl"·/I,lIldltllllilie). Nc:'" HilIYII. ( l: 1'.1](' l1niVt'r.,itv.
J<:agaJ;.~ .. Guffin, S., Goluh. ..;,. & i', it .. h.lfd. E. (1~95).Toward S)'Slt""~': n:fiJrm: S,'r! i... IlIhgr,ulilll.for yaungchildrt1' ami theirJ;lmili,', II,". \ i. "II'", (A: NationalCenter r<~r Service Iml!E(ratl'ln
Kiln". R, A.. n915,. /l1I~l'proF'.;"""'I! ""iUf/I"tlrk. S~TilcUse.
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l IlJlcd States: Tr"Il,h, 1:;SlICS and implication.!> forIh.: weial \\Iorh:r. 111 '.-. L,)md'ilc. A. W<:!bb. & r. L.llrig~~ tEd~.); Tr'JJI·/llwJ.;; III IJr.' pasO/wi mId ,(lrI«1'l"/Ti,'fS IIntlllt.'lli, I, ,,,1',: l pp. }Ml- l51 ]. London: Per.,1 Ilia} SIKial :\eni,,', (~()ul1(iJ.
l...·~. 1>.1\.• &\VilJi.tllh, P. r.! 1'J'J41. Pmspt:ctive man,\g"lIlt'lll <lud 1"lIf~lllJdjn;\! ,an:: The dynamic chang·ing lIaluH' ofh.l1l1 .ll. II\,j " ,111 It M. C:t51ro, & M. C.lulL\ ihk" JW''I'W•.,·" ..i,':11l1 r'i~r"IJnd (vl',ibarlltil'l'{'Tlll·t;ic' (pp. 71 ..·':!·1 . Ildl'lllllll. I'A; IlrlJllks/Ctlil',
Lldll'r01an••-\. (I'JSt,), I :"lIabor,II!\'l' work. I'dt,r,uimw/I.t·"Jrr"Il{l, :/.l(:i J.·I ~i.
I in. A.M.!'. fl9'J;i1, M~·":.ll he.l1th ,',·en'i{·w.ln R. LEdwards (Ed.-in·( ~hit'n. b,rydl'lll:dit/,'Jsodiil wurK.II\lth cd.llCl>·Ri ),\1) ,R,·c. nn.17"'li4-2!lIOO).\Vashingt<}n, DC: 1'<;\\\\' l'rc~s.
I "1l~d;lIl'. S.• Wdlb, ..-\ .. ~~ Rrigg~, T, L (llJllll). Intro..llldion. In S. I.pll';d,llc:. A. I,'\'l'bh. 8: T, 1.. Briggs, hk), T'·{/I/IWIlr'. in ,lit' l't·r.'olUlI a"d $011111 ~lrv,CCS
l/llt! /'t'allh Cdr.' {pp I.X i. Lt'lllh'r1: Pcrs~mal Sod<llSt:r\,jct'~ Cmlll.. il.
~l,\ilkk. ~l. n.. I:'; .\,hl,'\, \ ..\. (l'll'l~. I'ulilks ufjnlt'rpwle"i,'nal ,ol1.lhn".lli"lI: Chulkngi.' W.ld\llJ,a.:y.Social CtlSek'Mk', l>.!. j .ll-15ll.
M.Jslow, A. ( IY651. 1· 'W'rd/ian mQJllJsrmmr,IhllllL'woo,l. II.: RKh.lI'lllrwin.
!\lallcssich. P.. & M,'I)'C;.U. (J'.N21. Collahoration:\\'lllH 11I,,1.;1';; it ,..."k I '1Ih cd.). SI. P,llit, MN:Allllwrst H, WII.I,·r I·ound.lt;on,
:--kIJ~illc. A.• & m.ml... \1. i 1'1>,1:.'). \\'111I1 il tlikc...: Sfruc
I1lmtx ;1I1i'r".I't"ll<'r f',II·I'jcr~l,iJl.' C,' 11'lIIt,','r dlil,lf<'llIIthl '~HlIi/l('; witll c, '''',(Jrtllt''hIV': $('I'l'il'(:~. W'lshinglt>ll.PC: Educal!"lt ;IIIJ IILlllltlll Savicc:s C<)Ilsortiul1I.
Ndtinl\. r. L. ~ \,Villi.HII" I·, t;. (19\.111). Cun we preI'M;: gl:ri.ltrj( S\1.:i.lt \., ,rkt-rs til colhtboratc in primarY' ~ilr(' PntdtLL": hllmlllll.~fS(1(jlllWork Edumlion, 34. 195-21 (I
P"lb.~, A. M., Natril'lI .., t;" & !vldJill, E. L (l!181:l), Thedl.ll'lgi.ng n,l!lIlL' III Ih,' 1!i-:It!I':mtaltl.'d population:'.,urrenl dinh.'lhi.,lJ<, .llid future trends. EiI'/(rHilllwlU"S"IITflJa. /,'lI>l, j ....
Pl'1l1wk.I11ll'.1\1. i 1<)92" 1'''\,>,11 d .~du)('I·linked andsdluol-hmlcJ human ,en·j.:e~ rM .:hlldren <lnd fami·lies. S,'rial H'tlfk i,; billCllti,>tl. 1-1. 115-DO.
Poole. 0.09951. Hc;drh In It L E<lwllrds.(Ed.-inLhiefl. Encycl"{'I'cllil':( $11..i/l1 work (}lJth(:d.lICD·R(l~1j (Ree nt•. Ji)ll'l/i·! 'Hll I. Washington, DC::";:\SW Prt's.
)(,)"i, ,\. i 1')(1'11. ~"Ilil pI ... \,·.,rh,l \ .....,\1' JJ allteeedent~
IIi' ~IIII1IlH\llitv 1I11'11LIi l1..:alth Ibl;orr Jlld pr<l(lkl.'. InA. ). Hindman &. .\. IJ. :,pje~cl fFd~..J. PeTspert;l't'~ inmllw/I/Ility "1i'ul,1i h",;!tl, (pp. 11-2X). Chicago:Aldin{·.
",llld" It (" (I(Nfl i , Iit" ~"':"Il w"rk.:r j'liJl:' the team:,\ 111,)1.. ott til,' ~",'UIII.lli.·1\ I'r\l\l'~$. ).l'rill{ \'\'vrk ill/f,'"/ch C.III', /.r.:: I. I· 1'1,
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Lauro R. Br(mstftin, PhD, ACSW, is assistaut professor, J)jv;~;o" ofSocil,IWork, Binghamton Ulli~
wmity, Binghult/llJtl. NY lJ902-fi(}OO; ~'-mai/:
lbronsL@binglwlltl{)f1.erlll.
Origin." nianlJ~(:ripl r~ceivt:d lull' H. 20()()Final r~visil1(l rccefvc:d OClo!ler 10.2000Accepted lJt:ccltl~er n, 2000.
SOCIal Work I Volume 48, NllIl'lbEr 3 i JulV 1003-3.06
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