1
A Continental Divide?Social capital in the US and EuropePippa Norris and James Davis
Harvard University and NORC
2Structure
I. Theoretical framework
II. Data and evidence
III. The distribution of social capital
IV. Generational trends
V. Conclusions
3I. Theories of social capital Social capital “Connections among
individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them.” Social CapitalSocial Capital
Generalized reciprocityGeneralized reciprocity Social ConnectednessSocial Connectedness
Social TrustSocial Trust Social toleranceSocial tolerance Formal membershipsFormal memberships Informal social networksInformal social networks
4Putnam’s Claims:
Social networks and trust matter for societal cooperation
Social capital has consequences for democracy
Social capital has declined in post-war America
5Declining social trust, US
2000199619931990198819861983197819751972
% "
Mo
st
pe
op
le c
an
be
tru
ste
d"
.60
.50
.40
.30
.20
.10
0.00
Note: Q. “Do you think that most people can be trusted, or that you can’t be too careful in dealing with people?” % agreeing that ‘Most people can be trusted’Source: US General Social Survey, 1974-1994
6Associational members, US 1974-94
19941991198919871984198019771974
% W
ho
are
me
mbe
rs
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
0.0
POLCLUB
UNION
SPORT
HOBBY
LIT/ART
PROF
CHURCH
Sport
Politics
Church
Note: The percent of Americans who report that they are members of a political club, a labor union, a sports club, a hobby club, a literary or art group, a professional society or a church group. These associations were selected for comparison as functionally equivalent to the list of associations included in the ESS. Source: US General Social Survey, 1974-1994
7US Trends, GSSInformal
SociabilityAssociational Membership
Social Trust
First year of series 1974 1972 1974
Latest year 2002 1994 2002
Data points 18 15 20
Number of cases 25,936 19,688 29,669
Standardized regression coefficients
Models A: Year -.025** -.008 -.070**
Models B: Year dummies -.038** -.032** -.090**
Models C:
Year
Birth cohort
-.207
.396
-.003
-.011
.000
-.153**
Source: US General Social Survey 1972-2002
8Key questions:
Has social capital eroded in Europe? Parallel social trends e.g.
Rise of TV entertainment Changing roles of women and men Suburban sprawl
Or is social capital different in Europe? Path-dependent
Role of the state Cultural traditions eg role of unions, churches etc Impact of Communism on civil society
9
II: Data and evidence
10Surveys
European Social Survey 2002 15 nations 1st release (EES-15)
Nordic Sweden, Norway, Finland
Northern Europe Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, Switzerland
Mediterranean Europe Greece, Spain, Portugal, Israel
Central Europe Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia
U.S. General Social Survey
11Age difference due to…
Linear social trends Formative experiences & social change
Curvilinear patterns Life cycle effect from early to middle age then
retirement Period effects
Decisive events eg fall of Berlin wall Contrasts by type of society
12
III: The distribution of social capital
13III: Associational membership, EES-15
21
20
15
13
12
10
8
6
6
5
5
4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Sports club
Trade Union
Consumer/automobile
Cultural/ hobby
Religious/Church
Social club
Professional/business
Other
Educational
Humanitarian/human rights
Political Party
Environmental/peace
Member Active Donate Vol-Work
Note: “For each of the voluntary organizations I will now mention, please use this card to tell me whether any of these things apply to you now or in the last 12 months, and, if so, which.” Source: European Social Survey 2002. Pooled sample. Weighted by dweight.
14Social capital in EES-15, 2002
SOCIAL TRUST SCALE
201816141210
ME
AN
AS
SO
CIA
TIO
NA
L M
EM
BE
R
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
.5
0.0
REGION
Postcommunist Europe
Southern Europe
Northern Europe
Nordic
Rsq = 0.8460
Slovenia
Sw eden
PortugalPoland
Norw ay
Netherlands
Israel
Ireland
HungaryGreece
GB Finland
SpainCzech Rep
High social capital
Low social capital
Note: The mean level of membership in 12 types of voluntary association and the mean score on the Social Trust scale by nation. Source: European Social Survey 2002 Weighted by dweight.
15
IV: Generational trends
16
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0S
oci
al t
rust
Switzerland Czech Republic Spain Finland
United Kingdom Greece Hungary Ireland
Israel Netherlands Norway Poland
Portugal Sweden Slovenia
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
So
cia
l tru
st
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
So
cia
l tru
st
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
So
cia
l tru
st
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort
Social trust by cohort of birth, ESS-15 2002
<< Older to younger >>
17
Social tolerance by cohort of birth, ESS-15 2002
<< Older to younger >>
Switzerland Czech Republic Spain Finland
United Kingdom Greece Hungary Ireland
Israel Netherlands Norway Poland
Portugal Sweden Slovenia
16.0
20.0
24.0
28.0so
c to
l
16.0
20.0
24.0
28.0
soc
tol
16.0
20.0
24.0
28.0
soc
tol
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort
16.0
20.0
24.0
28.0
soc
tol
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort
18
Informal social meetings by cohort ESS-15 2002
<< Older to younger >>
3
4
5
6
Fre
q. s
ocia
l mee
tin
gs
Switzerland Czech Republic Spain Finland
United Kingdom Greece Hungary Ireland
Israel Netherlands Norway Poland
Portugal Sweden Slovenia
3
4
5
6
Fre
q. s
ocia
l mee
tin
gs
3
4
5
6
Fre
q. s
ocia
l mee
tin
gs
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort
3
4
5
6
Fre
q. s
ocia
l mee
tin
gs
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort
19
Associational membership ESS-15, 2002
<< Older to younger >>
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Vo
l Mem
be
rs
Czech Republic Spain Finland United Kingdom
Greece Hungary Ireland Israel
Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal
Sweden Slovenia
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Vo
l Mem
be
rs
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Vo
l Mem
be
rs
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Vo
l Mem
be
rs
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cohort
20V: Conclusions
1. Major inequalities in social capital: Northern Europe v. Southern and post-Communist Europe
2. Social trust similar among young and old in many countries, but some fall by age in English-speaking and Nordic states
3. Social tolerance and informal networks stronger among young
4. Associational membership is a life-cycle effect, greatest among the middle-aged.
5. Contrasting patterns in the US and Europe
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