(WRITTEN ACADEMIC ENGLISH)

(WRITTEN ACADEMIC ENGLISH)(WRITTEN ACADEMIC ENGLISH)

UNIVERSITY OF MUHAMMADIYAH PROF. DR. HAMKA UNIVERSITY OF MUHAMMADIYAH PROF. DR. HAMKA

By Dr. Tri Wintolo Apoko, M.Pd.

FEATURES OF FEATURES OF ACADEMIC WRITINGACADEMIC WRITING

It is formal in an impersonal or objective It is formal in an impersonal or objective style (often using impersonal pronouns and style (often using impersonal pronouns and phrases and passive verbs)phrases and passive verbs)

Cautious language is frequently used in Cautious language is frequently used in reporting research and making claimsreporting research and making claims

Vocabulary appropriate for particular Vocabulary appropriate for particular academic context is usedacademic context is used

It often contains references to other writer’s It often contains references to other writer’s publications, sometimes including publications, sometimes including quotationsquotations

ACADEMIC STYLESACADEMIC STYLES Written academic English will not normally contain:Written academic English will not normally contain:

1. Contractions1. Contractions2. Hesitation Fillers2. Hesitation Fillers3. A number of phrasal Verbs3. A number of phrasal Verbs4. Personal pronouns4. Personal pronouns

Academic styles should cover:Academic styles should cover:1. Passive verb tenses1. Passive verb tenses2. Using introductory2. Using introductory3. Modal verbs3. Modal verbs

PARAPHRASINGPARAPHRASING

By Changing the Vocabulary (Verbs/Nouns)(Verbs/Nouns) By Changing the Verb Form (from Active to (from Active to

Passive)Passive) By Changing the Word Class (e.g. from verb to (e.g. from verb to

noun phrase)noun phrase) By Synthesis (to combine two/more pieces of (to combine two/more pieces of

information from other writers)information from other writers)

She examined the difficulties that … . She examined the difficulties that … . becomesbecomes

She investigated the problems that She investigated the problems that … .… .

Johns (1987:115) analyzed the students’ Johns (1987:115) analyzed the students’ difficulties and … . becomes difficulties and … . becomes

The students’ difficulties were analyzed by The students’ difficulties were analyzed by Johns (1987:115) and Johns (1987:115) and … .… .

The reports were completed in May … . The reports were completed in May … . becomesbecomes

The completion of the reports in May The completion of the reports in May ensured that the students had time to ensured that the students had time to revise before their examinationrevise before their examination

Johns and Dudley (1985:75) touched on Johns and Dudley (1985:75) touched on the problems created by the lecturers’ the problems created by the lecturers’ use of colloquial words and phrases … use of colloquial words and phrases … This use of informal language was also This use of informal language was also noted by Jackson and Bilton (2006:115) noted by Jackson and Bilton (2006:115) who investigated geology lectures given who investigated geology lectures given in English …in English …

REPORTING VERBS COMMONLY USED IN REPORTING VERBS COMMONLY USED IN PARAPHRASES & SUMMARIESPARAPHRASES & SUMMARIES

ObservesObserves Has observedHas observed ObservedObserved Points outPoints out RemarksRemarks SaysSays AffirmsAffirms ArguesArgues AssumesAssumes BelievesBelieves ClaimsClaims ConcludesConcludes ExplainsExplains FindsFinds ImpliesImplies MaintainsMaintains SuggestsSuggests reportsreports

AddsAdds AgreesAgrees ClarifiesClarifies CommentsComments ConsidersConsiders ContradictsContradicts DemonstratesDemonstrates DeniesDenies DescribesDescribes DeterminesDetermines DisagreesDisagrees DiscussesDiscusses EmphasizesEmphasizes InfersInfers MaintainsMaintains RecommendsRecommends RejectsRejects viewsviews

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

It is needed to show that the writing is finishedIt is needed to show that the writing is finished A variety of ways in making a conclusion:A variety of ways in making a conclusion:

In short, …In short, …In a word, …In a word, …In brief, …In brief, …To sum up, …To sum up, …In conclusion, …In conclusion, …On the whole, …On the whole, …Altogether, …Altogether, …In all, …In all, …

Or:Or:Therefore/thus/on this basis/given this, it can/may be Therefore/thus/on this basis/given this, it can/may be concluded/deduced/infered that …concluded/deduced/infered that …

EXAMPLEEXAMPLEDEFINISI SINTAKSISDEFINISI SINTAKSIS Menurut Verhaar, sintaksis adalah tata bahasa yang membahas hubungan Menurut Verhaar, sintaksis adalah tata bahasa yang membahas hubungan

antar-kata dalam tuturanantar-kata dalam tuturan1. E. Sapir dalam R. Lado menyatakan bahwa tata . E. Sapir dalam R. Lado menyatakan bahwa tata bahasa sering kali diartikan sebagai definisi-definisi tradisional yang diberikan bahasa sering kali diartikan sebagai definisi-definisi tradisional yang diberikan kepada bagian-bagian kalimat/tuturan (kepada bagian-bagian kalimat/tuturan (part of speechpart of speech) yang tidak ) yang tidak menunjukkan faktamenunjukkan fakta2. .

Hartmann dan Stork mengemukakan sintaksis adalah cabang tata bahasa Hartmann dan Stork mengemukakan sintaksis adalah cabang tata bahasa mengenai studi perhimpunan kata-kata dalam kalimat-kalimat dan alat mengenai studi perhimpunan kata-kata dalam kalimat-kalimat dan alat hubungan seperti tertib kata atau infleksihubungan seperti tertib kata atau infleksi3. Mario Pei dan F. Gaynor . Mario Pei dan F. Gaynor menambahkan bahwa sistaksis adalah studi dan aturan-aturan dari hubungan menambahkan bahwa sistaksis adalah studi dan aturan-aturan dari hubungan kata-kata satu sama lainnya sebagai pernyataan gagasan dan sebagai bagian-kata-kata satu sama lainnya sebagai pernyataan gagasan dan sebagai bagian-bagain dari struktur-struktur kalimat; studi dan ilmu bangunan4.bagain dari struktur-struktur kalimat; studi dan ilmu bangunan4.

Dari pernyataan yang dikemukakan di atas dapat dirumuskan bahwa sintaksis Dari pernyataan yang dikemukakan di atas dapat dirumuskan bahwa sintaksis adalah studi perhimpunan dan hubungan antar kata, frasa, dan klausa dalam adalah studi perhimpunan dan hubungan antar kata, frasa, dan klausa dalam bentuk kalimat atau tuturan.bentuk kalimat atau tuturan.

1 J.W.M. Verhaar. 1 J.W.M. Verhaar. Asas-asas Linguistik UmumAsas-asas Linguistik Umum. (Yogyakarta: UGM Press, 1996), p. 161.. (Yogyakarta: UGM Press, 1996), p. 161.2 Robert Lado & Charlos C. Fries. 2 Robert Lado & Charlos C. Fries. Linguistik di Pelbagai Budaya : Linguistik Terapan untuk Linguistik di Pelbagai Budaya : Linguistik Terapan untuk

Guru BahasaGuru Bahasa. Diterjemahkan oleh : Soenjono Dardjowidjojo. (Bandung : Penerbit Ganaco . Diterjemahkan oleh : Soenjono Dardjowidjojo. (Bandung : Penerbit Ganaco NV, 1979), p. 59.NV, 1979), p. 59.

3 R.R.K. Hartmann & F.C. Stork. 3 R.R.K. Hartmann & F.C. Stork. Dictionary of Language and LinguisticsDictionary of Language and Linguistics (London : Applied (London : Applied Science Publishers Ltd, 1976), p. 231. Science Publishers Ltd, 1976), p. 231.

4 Mario Pei & Frank Gaynor. 4 Mario Pei & Frank Gaynor. Dictionary of Linguistics.Dictionary of Linguistics. (New Jersey: Little Field, Adams & Co., (New Jersey: Little Field, Adams & Co., 1975), p. 39.1975), p. 39.

QUOTATIONS & QUOTATIONS & REFERENCINGREFERENCING

They are included to show that you have They are included to show that you have read around the subject & are aware of what read around the subject & are aware of what has been written about ithas been written about it

They are also used to demonstrate support They are also used to demonstrate support for your own ideas, points of view, and for your own ideas, points of view, and findings, and to show examples or evidencefindings, and to show examples or evidence

When you include quotations, they should When you include quotations, they should be acknowledged with correct reference be acknowledged with correct reference conventions and listed at the end of your conventions and listed at the end of your writingwriting

BASIC WAYS OF USING BASIC WAYS OF USING QUOTATIONSQUOTATIONS

Quotation Marks (inverted commas)Quotation Marks (inverted commas)They are put around the author’s actual They are put around the author’s actual words, which are then incorporated in the words, which are then incorporated in the text.text.

The indented QuotationThe indented QuotationIt starts further from the margin than the It starts further from the margin than the other lines, and it may be in a different type other lines, and it may be in a different type size or style; the quotations marks are size or style; the quotations marks are usually omitted. This is normally used for usually omitted. This is normally used for longer quotations (three or more lines)longer quotations (three or more lines)

Academic writers need to be cautious in Academic writers need to be cautious in their claims. In this respect, vague their claims. In this respect, vague language is important as “it allows claims language is important as “it allows claims to be made with due caution, modesty, to be made with due caution, modesty, and humility” (Hyland, 1994:241)and humility” (Hyland, 1994:241)

Jordan (1977: 240) also draws attention Jordan (1977: 240) also draws attention to the necessity for being careful:to the necessity for being careful:

A feature of academic writing is the A feature of academic writing is the need to be cautious in one’s claims need to be cautious in one’s claims and and statements. In other words, you statements. In other words, you may may indicate your certainty and indicate your certainty and commitment in commitment in varying degrees.varying degrees.

REFERENCESREFERENCES

At the end of an essay, arranged in alphabetical At the end of an essay, arranged in alphabetical order (A-Z) of the author’s surname or the name of order (A-Z) of the author’s surname or the name of organization.organization.

If more than one author has the same surname, If more than one author has the same surname, they should appear in alphabetical order of the they should appear in alphabetical order of the initial of the first name.initial of the first name.

If more than one reference is given by the same If more than one reference is given by the same author, the earlier dated reference will appear first.author, the earlier dated reference will appear first.

If two or more references by the same author If two or more references by the same author appear in the same year, they will be labeled in appear in the same year, they will be labeled in sequence with letters (a, b, c, etc.) after the yearsequence with letters (a, b, c, etc.) after the year

Beard, R.M. and J. Hartley (1984). Beard, R.M. and J. Hartley (1984). Teaching Teaching and Learning in Higher Educationand Learning in Higher Education. London: . London: Harper and Row.Harper and Row.

Leech, G. and J. Svartvik (2002) Leech, G. and J. Svartvik (2002) A A Communicative Grammar of English. Communicative Grammar of English. Essex: Essex: Pearson Education Limited.Pearson Education Limited.

Northedge, A. (1990). Northedge, A. (1990). The Good Study Guide.The Good Study Guide. Milton Keynes: The Open UniversityMilton Keynes: The Open University

Smith, F. (1982). Smith, F. (1982). Writing and the Writer. Writing and the Writer. London: Heinenmann Educational.London: Heinenmann Educational.

FOOTNOTESFOOTNOTES

A Footnote is a note at the bottom (or A Footnote is a note at the bottom (or foot) of a page in a book or journalsfoot) of a page in a book or journals

It is used to explain a word or other It is used to explain a word or other item, or to add some special item, or to add some special information or a reference.information or a reference.

LATIN WORDS & LATIN WORDS & ABBREVIATIONSABBREVIATIONS

c.c. circacirca About, approximatelyAbout, approximately

e.g.e.g. exempli gratiaexempli gratia For example, for instanceFor example, for instance

et alet al et aliiet alii And othersAnd others

etcetc et ceteraet cetera And the rest, and all others, and so onAnd the rest, and all others, and so on

i.e.i.e. id estid est Which is to say, in other words, that isWhich is to say, in other words, that is

viz.viz. videlicetvidelicet Namely, that is to say, in other wordsNamely, that is to say, in other words

LATIN WORDS & LATIN WORDS & ABBREVIATIONSABBREVIATIONS

ibid.ibid. ibidemibidem In the same place (used to In the same place (used to refer again to a text just refer again to a text just referred to)referred to)

loc. cit.loc. cit. loco citatoloco citato In the places already In the places already mentioned (+ author’s name)mentioned (+ author’s name)

op. cit.op. cit. opere citatoopere citato In the work already In the work already mentioned (+ author’s name mentioned (+ author’s name and page reference)and page reference)

FOOTNOTEFOOTNOTE

George Leech and John Svartvik (2002). George Leech and John Svartvik (2002). A A Communicative Grammar of English. Communicative Grammar of English. Essex: Pearson Education Limited., p. 56Essex: Pearson Education Limited., p. 56

REFERENCEREFERENCE

Leech, G. and J. Svartvik (2002). Leech, G. and J. Svartvik (2002). A A Communicative Grammar of English. Communicative Grammar of English. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.Essex: Pearson Education Limited.