WRITING AN ACADEMIC PAPER

WRITING AN WRITING AN ACADEMIC PAPERACADEMIC PAPER

GENERIC, STYLISTIC AND GENERIC, STYLISTIC AND RHETORICAL ISSUESRHETORICAL ISSUES

AN ACADEMIC PAPER ISAN ACADEMIC PAPER IS

A CODIFIED GENRE WITH A WELL- A CODIFIED GENRE WITH A WELL- DEFINED STRUCUREDEFINED STRUCURE

WRITTEN IN A FORMAL STYLEWRITTEN IN A FORMAL STYLE USED TO PRESENT A SIGNIFICATIVE USED TO PRESENT A SIGNIFICATIVE

PIECE OF RESEARCHPIECE OF RESEARCH OR TO TAKE STOCK OF A OR TO TAKE STOCK OF A

PARTICULAR RESEARCH FIELDPARTICULAR RESEARCH FIELD

STRUCTURE (1)STRUCTURE (1) TITLE PAGETITLE PAGE

SHOULD INCLUDE NAME OF THE FACULTYSHOULD INCLUDE NAME OF THE FACULTYDEGREE COURSE DEGREE COURSE TITLE TITLE YOUR NAME (AND MATRICULATION YOUR NAME (AND MATRICULATION NUMBER)NUMBER)NAME OF LECTURER WHO ASSIGNED THE NAME OF LECTURER WHO ASSIGNED THE TASKTASK

STRUCTURE (2)STRUCTURE (2)

TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSIN THE ANGLOSAXON TRADITION IN THE ANGLOSAXON TRADITION COMES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE COMES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE PAPERPAPERMUST BE CLEARLY STRUCTURED AND MUST BE CLEARLY STRUCTURED AND PROVIDE PAGE NUMBERS FOR THE PROVIDE PAGE NUMBERS FOR THE MAIN SECTIONS AND SUBSECTIONSMAIN SECTIONS AND SUBSECTIONS

AN EXAMPLEAN EXAMPLEPart 1 From Corpus linguistics to computer learner corpora Part 1 From Corpus linguistics to computer learner corpora 1111

1.1 A “Pilgrim’s Progress” from literature to corpus linguistics: a 1.1 A “Pilgrim’s Progress” from literature to corpus linguistics: a personal recollection ………………………………………….. 13personal recollection ………………………………………….. 13

1.2 Computer corpus linguistics at the beginning of the 21st 1.2 Computer corpus linguistics at the beginning of the 21st century ………………………………………………………….. 20century ………………………………………………………….. 201.2.1 The three phases of computer corpus linguistics …… 20 1.2.1 The three phases of computer corpus linguistics …… 20 1.2.2 Some key issues in computer corpus linguistics ……. 231.2.2 Some key issues in computer corpus linguistics ……. 231.2.3 The main research trends in computer corpus 1.2.3 The main research trends in computer corpus

linguistics ………………………………………………… linguistics ………………………………………………… 25251.2.4 The education of future corpus linguists ……………… 291.2.4 The education of future corpus linguists ……………… 29

STRUCTURE (3)STRUCTURE (3) ABSTRACT (OPTIONAL)ABSTRACT (OPTIONAL)

SHOULD GIVE SOME BACKGROUND SHOULD GIVE SOME BACKGROUND INFORMATIONINFORMATIONSTATE THE MAIN PURPOSE OF THE STATE THE MAIN PURPOSE OF THE PAPERPAPERGIVE SOME INFORMATION ABOUT THE GIVE SOME INFORMATION ABOUT THE METHODOLOGY USEDMETHODOLOGY USEDSTATE THE MOST IMPORTANT STATE THE MOST IMPORTANT RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONRESULTS AND CONCLUSION

STRUCTURE (4)STRUCTURE (4) INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

IT USUALLY CONSISTS OF THREE “MOVES”IT USUALLY CONSISTS OF THREE “MOVES”1) Establishing a research territory (by showing 1) Establishing a research territory (by showing that the general research area is important, that the general research area is important, interesting, problematic or relevant in some way)interesting, problematic or relevant in some way)2) Establishing a niche (by indicating a gap in 2) Establishing a niche (by indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it the previous research, raising a question about it or extending previous knowledge in some way)or extending previous knowledge in some way)3) Occupying the niche (by outlining the 3) Occupying the niche (by outlining the purposes of your research and by purposes of your research and by indicating indicating the structure of the paperthe structure of the paper))

STRUCTURE (5)STRUCTURE (5) METHODOLOGYMETHODOLOGY

GIVES DETAILS OF PROCEDURES GIVES DETAILS OF PROCEDURES FOLLOWED TO GATHER AND FOLLOWED TO GATHER AND ANALYZE THE DATA (e.g. comparison of ANALYZE THE DATA (e.g. comparison of an an ad hoc specialised ad hoc specialised corpus to the BNC corpus to the BNC to find out key words in a specific domain)to find out key words in a specific domain)always include information about the always include information about the source of your material and about the source of your material and about the procedures followedprocedures followed

STRUCTURE (6)STRUCTURE (6) FINDINGS/RESULTSFINDINGS/RESULTS

ARE USUALLY SHOWN IN THE FORM ARE USUALLY SHOWN IN THE FORM OF TABLES, GRAPHS OR DIAGRAMSOF TABLES, GRAPHS OR DIAGRAMSEACH TABLE(OR FIGURE) IS EACH TABLE(OR FIGURE) IS NUMBERED AND ACCOMPANIED BY A NUMBERED AND ACCOMPANIED BY A CAPTIONCAPTIONdon’t clog your paper with too many don’t clog your paper with too many tables. Use summary tables when tables. Use summary tables when possiblepossible

STRUCTURE (7)STRUCTURE (7) DISCUSSIONDISCUSSION

ITS MAIN PURPOSE IS TO SHOW THAT ITS MAIN PURPOSE IS TO SHOW THAT THE RESULTS LEAD CLEARLY TO THE THE RESULTS LEAD CLEARLY TO THE CONCLUSION BEING DRAWNCONCLUSION BEING DRAWNTHIS MAY INCLUDE ANY LIMITATIONS THIS MAY INCLUDE ANY LIMITATIONS THAT MIGHT CAUSE PROBLEMS WITH THAT MIGHT CAUSE PROBLEMS WITH THE CLAIMS BEING MADE (e.g. limited THE CLAIMS BEING MADE (e.g. limited size of a corpus may affect the size of a corpus may affect the significance of a result)significance of a result)

STRUCTURE (8)STRUCTURE (8)

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONRECALLS THE ISSUES RAISED IN THE RECALLS THE ISSUES RAISED IN THE INTRODUCTION AND DRAWS INTRODUCTION AND DRAWS TOGETHER THE POINTS MADE IN THE TOGETHER THE POINTS MADE IN THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SECTIONSRESULTS AND DISCUSSION SECTIONSSHOULD LEAVE A CLEAR IMPRESSION SHOULD LEAVE A CLEAR IMPRESSION THAT THE PURPOSE OF THE PAPER THAT THE PURPOSE OF THE PAPER HAS BEEN ACHIEVEDHAS BEEN ACHIEVED

STRUCTURE (9)STRUCTURE (9) REFERENCESREFERENCES

IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH THE PREVAILING STYLE IS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH THE PREVAILING STYLE IS APAAPA (American Psychological Association)(American Psychological Association)

THE SECTION IS ALWAYS AT THE END OF THE PAPER, THE SECTION IS ALWAYS AT THE END OF THE PAPER, AFTERAFTER THE APPENDIX (OR APPENDICES)THE APPENDIX (OR APPENDICES)

DETAILS ARE ORGANIZED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING DETAILS ARE ORGANIZED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING ORDER:ORDER:Surname, Name (usually only the first letter), publication date Surname, Name (usually only the first letter), publication date (in brackets) title of book (in italics), place of publication : (in brackets) title of book (in italics), place of publication : publisherpublisher

STYLE (1)STYLE (1)

ACADEMIC WRITING IN ENGLISH ISACADEMIC WRITING IN ENGLISH IS1.1. LINEAR (one central point; every part LINEAR (one central point; every part

contributes to the main line of the contributes to the main line of the argument (it. argomentazione); avoid argument (it. argomentazione); avoid digressions or repetitions)digressions or repetitions)

2.2. INFORMATIVE (its objective is to inform INFORMATIVE (its objective is to inform rather than entertain)rather than entertain)

3.3. FORMAL (encoded using the standard FORMAL (encoded using the standard written form of the language)written form of the language)

STYLE (2)STYLE (2)

ACADEMIC WRITING IN ENGLISH IS:ACADEMIC WRITING IN ENGLISH IS:4) OBJECTIVE (the main emphasis is on the 4) OBJECTIVE (the main emphasis is on the

information provided rather than on the information provided rather than on the writer or reader. More nouns and writer or reader. More nouns and adjectives; less verbs and adverbs)adjectives; less verbs and adverbs)

5) EXPLICIT (makes it clear to the reader 5) EXPLICIT (makes it clear to the reader how the various parts of the texts are how the various parts of the texts are related)related)

STYLE (3)STYLE (3)

ACADEMIC WRITING IN ENGLISH IS:ACADEMIC WRITING IN ENGLISH IS:6) “HEDGED” (generally avoids making bald 6) “HEDGED” (generally avoids making bald

claims. It is necessary to make decisions claims. It is necessary to make decisions about the about the stancestance (it. posizione) on a (it. posizione) on a particular subject or the strength of the particular subject or the strength of the claim being made)claim being made)

EXAMPLES OF HEDGINGEXAMPLES OF HEDGING

With these considerations in mind With these considerations in mind it seems it seems thatthat a description of the combinatory a description of the combinatory properties of words based on the notion of properties of words based on the notion of lexical functions (see section 2.2.2) lexical functions (see section 2.2.2) may may bebe the most adequate tool for capturing the most adequate tool for capturing the lexical relations involved in collocation the lexical relations involved in collocation production and illustrating them to production and illustrating them to learners. (Martelli, 2007: 81)learners. (Martelli, 2007: 81)

EXAMPLES OF HEDGINGEXAMPLES OF HEDGINGa) It may be said that the commitment to some of the social a) It may be said that the commitment to some of the social

and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.vsvs

a1)The commitment to some of the social and economic a1)The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.concepts was less strong than it is now.

b) Weismann suggested that animals become old because, b) Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement if they did not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.of individuals and hence no evolution.

vsvsb1) Weismann proved that animals become old because, if b1) Weismann proved that animals become old because, if

they did not, there could be no successive replacement they did not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.of individuals and hence no evolution.

LANGUAGE USED IN HEDGINGLANGUAGE USED IN HEDGING INTRODUCTORY VERBS: e.g. seem; tend; appear to be; indicate; INTRODUCTORY VERBS: e.g. seem; tend; appear to be; indicate;

suggestsuggest CERTAIN MODAL VERBS: e.g. would; could; may; mightCERTAIN MODAL VERBS: e.g. would; could; may; might ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY: e.g. often; sometimes; usually; ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY: e.g. often; sometimes; usually;

generallygenerally MODAL ADVERBS: e.g. certainly; definitely; clearly; probably; MODAL ADVERBS: e.g. certainly; definitely; clearly; probably;

possibly; conceivably (it. plausibilmente)possibly; conceivably (it. plausibilmente) THAT CLAUSES: e.g. It could be the case thatTHAT CLAUSES: e.g. It could be the case that

It might be suggested thatIt might be suggested that STRUCTURES WITH STRUCTURES WITH IT IT + + BE BE + + ADJADJ + + TO INFTO INF e.g. e.g.

It may be possible to obtainIt may be possible to obtainIt is important to noteIt is important to noteIt is useful to studyIt is useful to study

STYLE (4)STYLE (4)

ACADEMIC WRITING IN ENGLISH IS:ACADEMIC WRITING IN ENGLISH IS: ORGANIZED IN WELL-STRUCTURED ORGANIZED IN WELL-STRUCTURED

COHESIVE PARAGRAPHS (i.e. in COHESIVE PARAGRAPHS (i.e. in paragraphs where sentences are arranged paragraphs where sentences are arranged in logical order and linked together by in logical order and linked together by appropriate transition signals)appropriate transition signals)

WHY BOTHERING ABOUT WHY BOTHERING ABOUT PARAGRAPHS?PARAGRAPHS?

PARAGRAPHS ARE IMPORTANT IN PARAGRAPHS ARE IMPORTANT IN ACADEMIC WRITING AS THEY ACADEMIC WRITING AS THEY PROVIDE:PROVIDE: THE BASIC TYPOGRAPHIC UNIT IN A THE BASIC TYPOGRAPHIC UNIT IN A

LONG PIECE OF WRITINGLONG PIECE OF WRITING A COMPLETE UNIT OF MEANING WHICH A COMPLETE UNIT OF MEANING WHICH

DEVELOPS DEVELOPS ONEONE MAIN IDEA MAIN IDEA

TWO POSSIBLE LAYOUTS FOR TWO POSSIBLE LAYOUTS FOR PARAGRAPHSPARAGRAPHS

LAYOUT ONE (WITH INDENTATION)LAYOUT ONE (WITH INDENTATION)(TITLE)(TITLE)XxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx XxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

XxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

TWO POSSIBLE LAYOUTS FOR TWO POSSIBLE LAYOUTS FOR PARAGRAPHSPARAGRAPHS

LAYOUT TWO (DOUBLE SPACED)LAYOUT TWO (DOUBLE SPACED)(TITLE)(TITLE)XxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

XxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

SENSE: WHAT ARE SENSE: WHAT ARE PARAGRAPHS FOR?PARAGRAPHS FOR?

A PARAGRAPH IS A BASIC UNIT OF A PARAGRAPH IS A BASIC UNIT OF ORGANIZATION IN WRITING IN WHICH ORGANIZATION IN WRITING IN WHICH A GROUP OF RELATED SENTENCES A GROUP OF RELATED SENTENCES

DEVELOPS ONE MAIN IDEADEVELOPS ONE MAIN IDEA

UNITYUNITY IN EACH PARAGRAPH ONLY ONE MAIN IN EACH PARAGRAPH ONLY ONE MAIN

IDEA IS DISCUSSEDIDEA IS DISCUSSED IF YOU START DISCUSSING A NEW IDEA, START IF YOU START DISCUSSING A NEW IDEA, START

A NEW PARAGRAPHA NEW PARAGRAPH EVERY SUPPORTING SENTENCE IN EVERY SUPPORTING SENTENCE IN

THE PARAGRAPH MUST BE DIRECTLY THE PARAGRAPH MUST BE DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE MAIN IDEARELATED TO THE MAIN IDEA DO NOT INCLUDE ANY INFORMATION THAT DO NOT INCLUDE ANY INFORMATION THAT

DOES NOT DIRECTLY SUPPORT THE TOPIC DOES NOT DIRECTLY SUPPORT THE TOPIC SENTENCESENTENCE

COHESIONCOHESION

MUST BE AT WORK BOTH WITHIN MUST BE AT WORK BOTH WITHIN PARAGRAPHS AND BETWEEN SECTIONSPARAGRAPHS AND BETWEEN SECTIONS““It is very important to reassure your reader that It is very important to reassure your reader that you are in control of your argument. It is you are in control of your argument. It is youryour discussion, so don’t leave people to wander discussion, so don’t leave people to wander around in it like lost things. Rather, lead them around in it like lost things. Rather, lead them through each section purposefully, letting them through each section purposefully, letting them know exactly what is happening as you do it.” know exactly what is happening as you do it.” (Richard Marggraf Turley, 2000: 31)(Richard Marggraf Turley, 2000: 31)

WHICH ONE READS BETTER?WHICH ONE READS BETTER?A) A) Corpus linguistics starts from the same premises as Corpus linguistics starts from the same premises as

text-linguistics in that text is assumed to be the main text-linguistics in that text is assumed to be the main vehicle for the creation of meaning. In spite of the vehicle for the creation of meaning. In spite of the initial starting point which they share, one has to initial starting point which they share, one has to accept that the two approaches are qualitatively accept that the two approaches are qualitatively different from several point of view. We can say that a different from several point of view. We can say that a text exists in a unique communicative context as a text exists in a unique communicative context as a single, unified language event mediated between the single, unified language event mediated between the two participants. The corpus, brings together many two participants. The corpus, brings together many different texts and cannot be identified with a unique different texts and cannot be identified with a unique and coherent communicative event.and coherent communicative event.

WHICH ONE READS BETTER?WHICH ONE READS BETTER?B) Corpus linguistics starts from the same premises as B) Corpus linguistics starts from the same premises as

text-linguistics in that text is assumed to be the main text-linguistics in that text is assumed to be the main vehicle for the creation of meaning. vehicle for the creation of meaning. However,However, in spite of in spite of the initial starting point which they share, one has to the initial starting point which they share, one has to accept that the two approaches are qualitatively different accept that the two approaches are qualitatively different from several point of view.from several point of view.To begin with,To begin with, we can say we can say that a text exists in a unique communicative context as a that a text exists in a unique communicative context as a single, unified language event mediated between the two single, unified language event mediated between the two participants.participants.On the other hand,On the other hand, the corpus, brings the corpus, brings together many different texts and together many different texts and thereforetherefore cannot be cannot be identified with a unique and coherent communicative identified with a unique and coherent communicative event.event.

A SELECTED LIST OF A SELECTED LIST OF TRANSITION SIGNALSTRANSITION SIGNALS

TO INTRODUCE AN ADDITIONAL IDEA: furthermore; TO INTRODUCE AN ADDITIONAL IDEA: furthermore; moreover; in addition; as well as; another (+ noun); an moreover; in addition; as well as; another (+ noun); an additional (+ noun)additional (+ noun)

TO INTRODUCE AN OPPOSITE IDEA: having said that; TO INTRODUCE AN OPPOSITE IDEA: having said that; on the other hand; however; conversely; nevertheless; on the other hand; however; conversely; nevertheless; whereas; while; in spite of (+ noun); despite (+ noun); whereas; while; in spite of (+ noun); despite (+ noun); instead of; in contrastinstead of; in contrast

TO INTRODUCE A CONSEQUENCE: as a TO INTRODUCE A CONSEQUENCE: as a consequence, consequently; as a result; because of thisconsequence, consequently; as a result; because of this

TO INTRODUCE A CONCLUSION: in summary; to sum TO INTRODUCE A CONCLUSION: in summary; to sum up; to conclude; to summarizeup; to conclude; to summarize

CITING SOURCESCITING SOURCES One of the most important aspects of academic One of the most important aspects of academic

writing is making use of the ideas of other writing is making use of the ideas of other people.people.

In your writing, however, the main voice should In your writing, however, the main voice should be your own and it should be clear what your be your own and it should be clear what your point of view is in relation to the topic. This point of view is in relation to the topic. This means that you are expected to comment on or means that you are expected to comment on or evaluate any other works that you use.evaluate any other works that you use.

The emphasis should be on working with other The emphasis should be on working with other people’s ideas, rather than reproducing their people’s ideas, rather than reproducing their words.words.

CITING SOURCESCITING SOURCES

When the words or ideas you are using When the words or ideas you are using are taken from another writer, you must are taken from another writer, you must make this clear or you can be accused of make this clear or you can be accused of plagiarism.plagiarism.

There are two ways in which you can refer There are two ways in which you can refer to, or cite, another person’s work:to, or cite, another person’s work: by reportingby reporting by direct quotationby direct quotation

REPORTINGREPORTING

This means reporting the other writer’s This means reporting the other writer’s ideas into your own words.ideas into your own words.

You can either You can either paraphraseparaphrase if you want to if you want to keep the length the same or keep the length the same or summarisesummarise it it you want to make the text shorter.you want to make the text shorter.

REPORTINGREPORTINGA)A) INTEGRAL REPORTINGINTEGRAL REPORTING

According to Peters (1983) evidence from first According to Peters (1983) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical language acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.chunks.

ororEvidence from first language acquisition Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that lexical phrases are learnt first as indicating that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks was given by Peters unanalysed lexical chunks was given by Peters (1983)(1983)

REPORTINGREPORTING

B) NON-INTEGRALB) NON-INTEGRALEvidence from first language acquisition (Peters, Evidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983) indicates that lexical phrases are learnt 1983) indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.first as unanalysed lexical chunks.

ororLexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks (Peters, 1983)lexical chunks (Peters, 1983)

N.B. IF YOU WANT TO REFER TO A N.B. IF YOU WANT TO REFER TO A PARTICULAR PART OF THE SOURCE QUOTE PARTICULAR PART OF THE SOURCE QUOTE THE PAGE e.g. (Peters, 1983: 56)THE PAGE e.g. (Peters, 1983: 56)

DIRECT QUOTATIONDIRECT QUOTATION REASONS FOR USING QUOTATIONS:REASONS FOR USING QUOTATIONS:1)1) Quote if you use another person’s words: you must not Quote if you use another person’s words: you must not

use another person’s words as your ownuse another person’s words as your own2)2) Use quotations to support your pointsUse quotations to support your points3)3) Quote if the language used in the quotation says what Quote if the language used in the quotation says what

you want to say particularly well (but remember that you want to say particularly well (but remember that your paper should be a synthesis of information from your paper should be a synthesis of information from sources, expressed in your own words, not a collection sources, expressed in your own words, not a collection of quotationsof quotations

N.B. KEEP THE QUOTATION AS BRIEF AS POSSIBLE N.B. KEEP THE QUOTATION AS BRIEF AS POSSIBLE AND QUOTE ONLY WHEN IT IS NECESSARYAND QUOTE ONLY WHEN IT IS NECESSARY

DIRECT QUOTATIONDIRECT QUOTATION REASONS FOR REASONS FOR NOTNOT USING USING

QUOTATIONS:QUOTATIONS:1.1. Do not quote if the information is well-Do not quote if the information is well-

known in your subject areaknown in your subject area2.2. Do not use a quotation that disagrees Do not use a quotation that disagrees

with your argument unless you can prove with your argument unless you can prove it is wrongit is wrong

3.3. Do not quote if you cannot understand Do not quote if you cannot understand the meaning of the original sourcethe meaning of the original source

DIRECT QUOTATIONDIRECT QUOTATION INTEGRALINTEGRAL

Widdowson (1979: 5) states that “ there is a good deal of argument Widdowson (1979: 5) states that “ there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect.”to use language to communicative effect.”

NON-INTEGRALNON-INTEGRALAccording to one researcher, “there is a good deal of argument in According to one researcher, “there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect.” (Widdowson, 1979: 5)use language to communicative effect.” (Widdowson, 1979: 5)

N.B. USE N.B. USE […] […] TO INDICATE THAT SOMETHING HAS BEEN TO INDICATE THAT SOMETHING HAS BEEN OMITTED OR ADDED TO THE QUOTATIONOMITTED OR ADDED TO THE QUOTATION

SECONDARY SOURCESSECONDARY SOURCESAccording to Jones (as cited in Smith, 1982: 276), the …According to Jones (as cited in Smith, 1982: 276), the …

WRITING A LIST OF WRITING A LIST OF REFERENCESREFERENCES

AT THE END OF YOUR PAPER YOU AT THE END OF YOUR PAPER YOU NEED A LIST OF MATERIALS THAT NEED A LIST OF MATERIALS THAT YOU HAVE USED OR REFERRED TOYOU HAVE USED OR REFERRED TO

IT CAN BE NAMED IT CAN BE NAMED REFERENCESREFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS CITED WORKS CITED

FOOTNOTESFOOTNOTES NORMALLY APPEAR AT THE BOTTOM NORMALLY APPEAR AT THE BOTTOM

OF THE PAGE TO BE MORE READER-OF THE PAGE TO BE MORE READER-FRIENDLYFRIENDLY

SOMETIMES THEY APPEAR AT THE SOMETIMES THEY APPEAR AT THE END OF THE PAPEREND OF THE PAPER

THEY ARE ALWAYS NUMBERED WITH THEY ARE ALWAYS NUMBERED WITH ARABIC NUMBERSARABIC NUMBERS

THEY ARE USED TO PROVIDE THEY ARE USED TO PROVIDE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

APPENDICESAPPENDICES THEY APPEAR AT THE END OF THE PAPER, THEY APPEAR AT THE END OF THE PAPER,

BEFORE REFERENCESBEFORE REFERENCES THEY ARE ALWAYS NUMBERED FOR THEY ARE ALWAYS NUMBERED FOR

CROSS-REFERENCINGCROSS-REFERENCING THEY CONTAIN FULL TEXTS OR LONG THEY CONTAIN FULL TEXTS OR LONG

EXTRACTS FROM PRIMARY SOURCESEXTRACTS FROM PRIMARY SOURCES THEY MAY CONTAIN TABLES OF DATA THEY MAY CONTAIN TABLES OF DATA

WHICH ARE TOO LONG TO BE INSERTED IN WHICH ARE TOO LONG TO BE INSERTED IN THE MAIN PART OF THE PAPERTHE MAIN PART OF THE PAPER

WRITING A LIST OF WRITING A LIST OF REFERENCESREFERENCES

THERE ARE MANY REFERENCES SYSTEMSTHERE ARE MANY REFERENCES SYSTEMS THE HARVARD SYSTEM (the most common system, THE HARVARD SYSTEM (the most common system,

but there is no definitive version and most universities but there is no definitive version and most universities have their own)have their own)

THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) STYLE (the one used in most papers on (APA) STYLE (the one used in most papers on linguistics)linguistics)

THE MODERN LANGUAGES ASSOCIATION (MLA) THE MODERN LANGUAGES ASSOCIATION (MLA) STYLE (used mostly in papers on literature)STYLE (used mostly in papers on literature)

THE GIBALDI STYLE (same as above)THE GIBALDI STYLE (same as above)

SOME EXAMPLES: BOOKSSOME EXAMPLES: BOOKS ONE AUTHORONE AUTHORSmith, F. (1978) Smith, F. (1978) ReadingReading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. TWO AUTHORSTWO AUTHORSFromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983) Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983) An introduction to language. An introduction to language. London: London:

Holt-Saunders.Holt-Saunders. EDITED COLLECTIONSEDITED COLLECTIONSMartelli, A. & Pulcini, V. (Eds) (2008) Martelli, A. & Pulcini, V. (Eds) (2008) Investigating English with Investigating English with

Corpora. Studies in Honour of Maria Teresa Prat.Corpora. Studies in Honour of Maria Teresa Prat. Monza: Monza: Polimetrica.Polimetrica.

SELECTION FROM EDITED COLLECTIONSSELECTION FROM EDITED COLLECTIONSBaker, M. (1993) “Corpus linguistics and translation studies – Baker, M. (1993) “Corpus linguistics and translation studies –

implications and applications”, in M. Baker, G. Francis and E. implications and applications”, in M. Baker, G. Francis and E. Tognini-Bonelli (Eds) Tognini-Bonelli (Eds) Text and Technology: in Honour of John Text and Technology: in Honour of John SinclairSinclair, pp. 233-252, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, , pp. 233-252, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins,

SOME EXAMPLES: PERIODICAL SOME EXAMPLES: PERIODICAL ARTICLESARTICLES

ONE AUTHORONE AUTHORPrat, M.T. “Lexico-grammatical errors in Prat, M.T. “Lexico-grammatical errors in

Italian EFL university students’ written Italian EFL university students’ written productions: a corpus-based project”, productions: a corpus-based project”, English StudiesEnglish Studies 2006, pp. 171-181 2006, pp. 171-181

JOURNAL ARTICLE IN PRESSJOURNAL ARTICLE IN PRESSJohns, A.M. (forthcoming) “Written Johns, A.M. (forthcoming) “Written

argumentation for real audiences”. argumentation for real audiences”. TESOL TESOL Quarterly.Quarterly.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This set of slides has mainly been drawn This set of slides has mainly been drawn

from from www.uefap.com/writing

USING ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC USING ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSESPURPOSES

(A guide for students in Higher Education)(A guide for students in Higher Education)By Andy GillettBy Andy Gillett

School of Combined Studies, University of School of Combined Studies, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UKHertfordshire, Hatfield, UK