Academic Writing--- Publish Able Research Paper

Cover Page

An Introduction to Academic Writing:

Publishable Research Paper

Xu Xiwen

2006, 08

Course Outline

Objectives of the Course To help students

1. develop a critical understanding of genres and conventions of academic writing, and raise awareness of and practice skills in critical reading, skill in searching and assessing various research materials and sources;

2. acquire the ability to use the discourse patterns of academic English and develop competence in structuring papers effectively, including skills in formulating an effective thesis, writing an effective introduction and conclusion, developing arguments and producing effectively-focused and coherent paragraphs;

3. improve competence in conveying a professional tone, and learn to use techniques for incorporating quotations and sources, including using the first person appropriately and in using parallel structure, active voice, and other techniques to write with clarity, precision and concision;

4. become familiar with and practice discipline-specific academic papers, including summaries, abstracts, proposals, applications and recommendations, reports and research papers;

5. develop competence in using formats of in-text documentation and final bibliography, including APA (American Psychological Association) format and MLT ( Modern Language Association) format.

Textbooks and Readings

Course materials include in-class course readings, handout of samples and additional on-line course support readings.

Course Topics and Assignments

• Introduction to Academic Writing Nature of Academic Writing: Three types of writing --- arguments, narratives, and descriptive writing; differences in rhetoric and academic writings Genre analysis: Title; Author’s name; Abstract; Key words; Body; (or) Acknowledgements; References; (or) Appendix; (or) Biodata Body: Introduction(Literature Review); Materials and Experiments (Data); Results (Findings); Discussion; Conclusions; (or) Implications Argumentation and Search of Secondary Sources: documenting sources and critique of other writers, Critical reading skills and skills in using search engine such as Google, Baidu and other academic search engines;

Topic assignments: 1. Find out and print one typical sample of your discipline-specific paper 2. Make a genre analysis

• Common Patterns of Development: Patterns of academic English sentence structure: cause and effect; comparison and contrast; classification, definition and exemplification Paragraphing: topic sentence and thesis; transitions; coherence and meta-discourse Topic assignments: 1. Outline and practice the patterns of sentence structure 2. Practice the development of a topic sentence and thesis 3. Outline the natures of meta-discourse

• Voice, Authority and Plagiarism

Acknowledging and incorporating sources: conventions and techniques for documenting and quotations, avoiding plagiarism Audience and professional tone: active and passive expressions, the first person expressions, identifying the audience and tone in the introductions, the conclusions, the discussions and the implications Topic assignments: 1. Practice documenting and quotations in one discipline-specific paper 2. Sample analysis of the audience and tone in one typical research paper

• Argumentative Development and Practice

How to write an abstract and a summary: differences and requirements; organizations and practice How to develop a proposal: identifying the thesis, the arguments, the literature review and the research questions; analysis and practice How to write an introduction, make a discussion and draw a conclusion: becoming familiar with the requirements of English academic practice Topic assignments: 1. Practice writing: introduction, conclusion, discussion, and implication in your discipline-related papers 2. Write a research proposal in your own discipline

• Discipline-Specific Academic Writing Report writing: types of reports ---proposal report, feasibility report, investigation report, and laboratory report; organizations and quality criteria of report writing; analysis and practice

Applications and recommendations: features of letter writing; structures and sample analysis of application letters; C V and resume; and recommendation letters Research papers: types of research papers; format of a research paper; sample analysis and writing process

Topic assignments: 1. Write one proposal report 2. Practice CV and resume 3. Sample analysis of one research paper

• Editing and Formatting Formats of the publications in English academy: APA (American Psychological Association) and MLT (Modern Language Association)

Editing a research paper: sample analysis, practice the use of Punctuations, Abbreviation Assessing strength and weakness: Check through the organization, the presentation and the logic of long sentences;

Topic assignments:

1. Identify the format errors in Punctuations, Abbreviation 2. Write and organize one of your own reference

Course Evaluation

Criteria: students enrolled are required to finish in-class assignments, pre-reading assignments and after-class readings, students’ assignments will be evaluated. Final grades will include the attendance, in-class assignments and final test.

Content Table

Chapter 1 Introduction

Writing for academic purpose in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context

concerns how non-native students, in terms of international communications or publications,

meet the requirements of the Western academic community. While much of the emphasis of

current graduate writing course has been laid on non-native students’ errors in vocabulary or

grammar, the course tries to present typical writing styles, preferences, attitudes and beliefs

towards effective academic writing in English, particularly traditional rhetorical patterns

within the research report writing format.

1. Research Paper Format

Although different languages and their cultures have different “rules” for presenting,

explaining, and organizing ideas in writing, it is necessary to follow the research report

format in order to meet the requirements of academic research and international publications.

A publishable research paper in English is supposed to include Abstract (executive summary)

followed by Key Words or Index Terms, Introduction ( literature review), Research

Methodologies and Procedures, Results and Findings, Discussion and Conclusion,

References ( Bibliography) or Appendixes (if any).

The following chart is to describe the general functions and fundamentals of different

parts of a publishable research paper:

Items Functions Fundamentals

Abstract

(Executive Summary)

• To frame the writer’s idea • To identify the writer’s

contributions • To orientate the effective

reading of colleagues

• Conceptional description (the scope)

• Procedures and methodology • Main findings, conclusion and

implications or suggestions

Key Words or Index Terms To concentrate readers Terms to generalize research concerns

Introduction

( Literature Review)

• To make a theoretical orientation

• To review previous research • To present arguments and

hypothesis

• The purpose and background of present study

• The scope and focus to develop the study

• Problems, argumentation and hypothesis

Research Methodologies and Procedures

• To specify the methods and procedures conducting the present study

• To present data collections and treatment

• Theoretical framework or models and research design

• Experimental apparatus and procedures

• Descriptions of data treatment

Results and Findings

• To outline the main findings and results

• To interpret or comments on the most important results

• Figures ( graphs, tables and diagrams)

• Generalization of the results • Comments or explanations of

the results

Discussion and Conclusion

• To compare the results with previous studies and the original hypothesis

• To develop the hypothesis and speculations

• To present the limitations and implications of the study

• A brief review of original hypothesis and other researchers’ findings

• Highlights or further explanations of the findings of present study

• Limitations of the study • Suggesting implications

References

( or Bibliography)

• To indicate the scope and offer the index to replicate or extend the present study

• To keep consistency of publications

• Following one of two main types of reference formats:

• APA (American Psychological Association );

• 2) MLA (Modern Language Association

.

2. Some basic skills in effective academic writing

A well-organized research paper needs to be unified and coherent. In the parts of the

Introduction and Discussion, paragraphing skills involve the techniques of opening a

paragraph, of how to develop fully a thesis or argument and state clearly the findings of the

study.

Technique one--- Exemplification

Exemplification is a very common technique used in various academic writing

practices. It is most frequently used to support a statement or argument by providing facts,

evidence, or data. The following samples are to show how different skills in making

examples are used in acceptable research papers.

( Presenting by Time Sequence and Change in Tendency)

The use of optical links for the transmission of RF (analog) signals has continued to

expand for more than 15 years. Perhaps the first widespread commercial application of

analog optical links was the distribution of cable television (CATV) signals. Although

perhaps not as large in dollar sales, antenna remoting has been an important application in

both commercial and military markets. More recently, RF-over-fiber has been a growing

application area for analog optical links.

( Presenting by direct indication expressions)

Initially naive “link design” merely consisted of connecting the optical output of a

diode laser to the input of a photodiode. However, the RF performance of such links was

often modest at best, and terrible at worst; typically one would obtain from such a “design” a

link loss of 40 dB and an NF of 50 dB, which severely limited the applications of such links.

To address these shortcomings there has grown up over the last 15 years or so the

field of link design, which is closely related to, but distinct from, device design. A dramatic

early example of the power of link design was the work of Cox et al. , who were able to

Sample 1

Sample 2

achieve RF gain from link components that otherwise would have resulted in substantial link

loss

There have been at least two other outgrowths of link design. One outgrowth has been

to highlight which device parameters will have an impact on link parameters and to quantify

that impact. For example, reductions in the threshold current of a diode laser have no impact

on link gain, whereas increases in slope efficiency have a major impact. Another outgrowth

of link design has been the ability to establish the limits on link performance. Such limits

have proven useful in providing a “calibration” on the progress in link performance that has

been made relative to the ultimate progress that at least theoretically should be achievable.

( Presenting by detailings)

During the last decades, attempts have been made to enhance X-rays yield from

plasma focus by adjusting different parameters such as capacitor energy, operating voltage,

circuit inductance, nature and pressure of working gases, material and shape of electrodes,

proper election of anode length and insulator, preionization before initial discharge in

addition to normal operating conditions.

Technique Two--- Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast are often used to develop and organize paragraphs in the

parts of Literature Review, Results and Findings or Discussion. Comparison deals with the

similarities existing between two objects, results or ideas, while contrast deals with the

differences existing between them. Making comparison and contrast is to present the readers

the weak and strong points between two ideas or results and eventually to reveal writer’s

attitude and suggestion, or support writer’s preference for one over the other.

Sample 3

( For organizing the literature review)

By comparing the first two topologies, we see that the first one has considerable

higher crosstalk. But this topology contains only one filter and the second topology contains

two filters, one in front of and one behind the switch. From the calculations in function of the

component parameters we see that both topologies are limited by the filter. We can conclude

that the mechano-optical space switch performs better than the switch based on gates (even

better performance is mentioned in literature), but in both cases the total crosstalk is limited

by other components.

( For developing a conclusion)

Although it is common to refer collectively to such links as “RF” or “analog” optical

links, this may lead to confusion when the modulation consists of a digital signal that is

modulated onto an RF carrier. Thus, it is perhaps more technically precise to define analog

optical links as ones where the optical modulation depth is sufficiently small that we may use

incremental or small signal models of the various link devices. This is in contrast to

“digital” optical links in which the optical modulation depth approaches 100%. .

( For developing a summary)

To summarize the manner in which the desire for greater analog link gains affects (or

ought to affect) opto-electronic component design, we have shown that the slope efficiency

of a single directly modulated laser cannot yield a link gain of greater than 0 dB. By contrast,

the slope efficiency of an external modulator can theoretically be increased without bound to

yield very high gains (as shown in Fig. 2) by reducing V and increasing P, although some

practical limitations on the optical power do come into play.

Sample 1

Sample 2

Sample 3

Technique Three--- Classification and Definition

Classification is a writing technique of grouping ideas, concepts, results, etc.,

according to their similarities and differences, while definition explains limits and specifies.

By classifying, we can establish classes of the subjects and distinguish the like subjects from

the unlike ones so that we can reveal and demonstrate the informational facts. In

classification, we must apply some principles consistently to the subjects so as to keep the

logical order. On the other hand, by definition, we may capture the essence, set the boundary,

and refine the characteristics or qualities of an idea or a concept.

Classification and definition are frequently followed by other techniques, including

exemplification, comparison-contrast, cause-effect, ect. (See the Sample 1 in the technique

one Exemplification.)

( Classification by grouping and examplication)

According to Employee Relocation Council (ERC), upwards of half a million workers

relocate annually for job-related reasons. Recent estimates indicate that cost of the relocating

employees is $ 45,000 per home-owning employee, with companies spending billions of

dollars annually on job-related moves (ERC, 1994). In addition to being a costly investment

for organizations, relocation can pose psychological and financial costs to relocated families.

These costs can be related to difficulty adjusting to the new location and leaving

established social support networks and the negative financial consequences of moving,

such as higher costs of living in the new area and the spouse’ loss of employment (Fisher &

Shaw, 1994; Luo & Cooper, 1990). To help employees and their families cope with these and

other stresses associated with moving, most organizations offer some sort of relocation

assistance (Brett, Stroh, & Reilly, 1990). This can include, among other services, family

visits to the new area, real estate assistance, spouse employment assistance, cost-of-living

Sample 1

adjustments, and information on school systems in the new location (Brett et al., 1990; ERC,

1993, 1994).

( Definition and Classification by grouping and presenting cause-effect)

With these limitations in mind, this study is an initial attempt to uncover the issues

facing those employees and spouses who have recently moved and those who are

contemplating future decisions to relocate. Specifically, we explore two main issues. First,

because the spouse’s perspective has been virtually ignored in relocation research, we

systematically compare employees’ and spouses’ perceptions of the need for relocation

assistance. We are interested in determining whether there are differences in the relative

importance attached to specific relocation services between employees and spouses. The

second objective is to explore whether there are differences in perceived need for assistance

across a variety of material and parental status variables. This focus includes comparing

male and female employees, single-income and dual-income couples, as well as couples with

children living at home. Although there are other comparisons that could be made, these

analyses will provide an initial glimpse into the issues facing individuals in a variety of

marital and family arrangement.

( classification for contrasting and comparison)

To understand the major stressors facing employees and spouses who are

contemplating relocation, the research on domestic relocation, international relocation, and

work-role transitions was reviewed. From this research, three broad adjustment-related

issues were identified: work-related adjustment, general adjustment, and interaction

adjustment. Variables were then identified that may be useful in facilitating adjustment to a

pending move. Finally, relocation services deal with general and interaction adjustment were

identified.

Sample 3

Sample 2

Technique Four--- Cause and Effect

The chain of cause-and –effect frequently used to explain the relationship existing

two or more concepts or ideas. This technique is commonly used to develop a logical

paragraph in any part of an academic writing format. As for the arrangement of such a

paragraph, it may start from the effect first and then the causes; the reverse order, however, is

also preferred when one cause leads to various effects. Comparing the following samples:

( Focus on the cause) In total one can conclude that the number of fibers can be increased without penalty if

the performance of the switch is increased (gate or space switch). The number of

wavelengths can be increased but requires higher suppression of other channels (filters or

demultiplexers) or regeneration (wavelength converters). Realistic systems require a large

number of wavelengths compared with the number of fibers. Therefore, very good filters are

required to reduce the crosstalk. If wavelength converters are used, the requirements for the

filters are less strict.

( Focus on the effect)

At the combiner after the gates, N signals are combined coming from different input

fibers. During normal operation one of the N gates is in the on-state and all the others are in

the off-state. Because of the non-perfect blocking of the gates in the off-state, some of the

power is leaking through the gate. That effect also results in crosstalk.

( Focus on causes) In Fig. 4, there is a wavelength converter between the filter and the combiner. The

input of an additional wavelength converter consists of one channel carrying the signal under

Sample 1

Sample 2

Sample 3

study and M-1 suppressed channels. This leads to crosstalk because the output of the

wavelength converter depends on the total input power (but the converter has also some

regeneration effect). At the output of the wavelength converter there is only one channel. The

wavelength converter is used in contra directional mode. Due to this effect, the combiner at

the end of the OXC adds no crosstalk because the M input fibers of the combiner carry only

one channel, each with a different wavelength.

Explicit way of using above mentioned techniques could be identified by the

transitional expressions which also help achieve the coherence of paragraphs. The following

expressions are most frequently used in academic writing papers:

• Exemplification

such (…) as, as follows, as an example, in particular, particularly, especially;

take ( consider) … as an example, for example, for instance;

generally, in general, on the whole, in many cases

• Comparison and Contrast

by comparing …, in comparison with, similarly, likewise, just as, almost the same as;

be similar to, resemble, have …in common, compare … with;

in contrast to/ with, otherwise, instead, on the contrary, unlike, nevertheless, however;

be different from, differ from, the differences lie in…, stands opposition

Tips for using the techniques

• Classification and Definition

be categorized as, fall into, be classified as, be divided into, there are …kinds / groups

/categories/ types of..

be defined / named / known as, the definition of …is ; … is widely accepted as the

definition of

• Cause and Effect

therefore, so, as a result, accordingly, hence, thus, consequently;

because (of ), as a result of, since, as, due to, on account of, now that, given,

so as to, so that, result in, have an effect on, the effect on …is

3. Cultural differences in academic writing

Non-native student writers may frequently turn to their own culture and language in

their writing of academic papers in English. According to Matthews (2002), problems may

develop when these students’ concepts of “effective” writing clash with those of Western

professors or colleagues. Their writings are frequently judged as “illogical”, “lacking focus”,

“poorly organized”, or “inadequately developed” because the rhetorical pattern does not meet

the expectations of the Western academic community.

Helen Fox (1994) in her book “Listening to the world: cultural issues in Academic

Writing” has noted that cultural differences, learned from early childhood, affect the way the

non-native students write, “for writing touches the heart of a student’s identity, drawing its

voice and strength and meaning from the way the student understands the world” (p vi).

Matalene (1985) suggested that in contrast with the post-Romantic Westerners who

“subscribe to Aristotle’s dictum” (p. 790), Chinese writers seem to follow some of the

fundamental principles of the underlying rhetorical values in Chinese traditional culture (say

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism), and seem to appeal to history and to tradition and to

the authority of the past, and always rely on idioms, clichés, and set-phrases.

The following chart is to contrast typical writing styles, preferences, attitudes and

beliefs between English and Chinese and between the Western academic community and

Chinese traditional scholars (Matthews, 2002; Matalene, 1985).

Characteristics of effective academic

Writing in English

Characteristics of effective writing

in Chinese 1. Language is viewed as a tool to transmit information, to accomplish a purpose

Language is viewed as a tool for engaging the emotions through beautiful language Language is used to create a social Experience

2. Language is viewed as a means for record keeping and documentation

Language has a role as an art form and as a religious phenomenon ; it is viewed as a conduit in which emotional resonance is stressed

3. Focus on informational value of writing; therefore, factual accuracy is stressed

Focus on aesthetic(poetic, artistic, emotional)value of writing; therefore, imagery, creative metaphors, analogies, and story-telling are used

4. Information is expected to be specific, Precise, accurate, and relevant

Information is expected to be highly philosophical

5. Preference for clear, direct communication patterns; messages are expected to be specific and detailed, avoiding ambiguity or uncertainty

Preference for more indirect communication patterns, including ambiguous or circular messages

6. Focus on clarity, simplicity, and getting to Focus on the richness and beauty of the

the point language Focus on thee ability to repeat ideas in a variety of ways in order to keep the reader’s attention Use of digression: the writer links the point under discussion the other issues to show his/her wide range of knowledge

7. Style issues focus on improving the clarity and accuracy of the writing

Style issues focus on improving the emotional or aesthetic value of the writing

8. One theme is favored Multiple themes are favored 9. Because the backgrounds, experiences, and values of people in this heterogeneous culture are quite diverse, explicit background information and extensive

Because the backgrounds, experiences, and values of people in traditional, homogeneous cultures(such as Arab and Asian cultures)are shared, explicit background information and extensive elaboration are not generally needed

10. Writers organize ideas hierarchically(with main ideas supported by subpoenas)and often use subordination in their writing

Writers organize their ideas through coordination and parallelism

11. Stress on linear development—points are organized sequentially, with a beginning and an end

Organization is not stressed; the broader picture many be presented without explaining or connecting details

12. Direct, explicit statement of controlling or main dies(s) at the beginning of a report, essay, research paper, etc.

No direct statement of main idea(s), with readers expected to infer the writer’s point Writers supply facts, examples, and support throughout the beginning and middle sections of the paper, with the controlling idea then introduced in the last paragraph(s) In the first section, writers in introduce and discuss a topic; in the next section they introduce a new topic, which needs to have only an implied connection the preceding topic; in the final section, they introduce yet another opinion or topic, which does not necessarily have any connection the what precede it

13. Explicit signals—such as transitions—are often necessary to show logical links between ideas; writers have the responsibility to make the connections clear

Explicit signals are not necessary; writers shows respect for the reader’s intelligence to make inferences and to understand the links between ideas which are only suggested in the text

14. The “burden of meaning” falls on the writer—referred to as “writer responsible”

The “burden of meaning” falls on the reader—referred to as “reader responsible”

15. Writers clearly link examples to generalizations

Writers provide a series of concrete examples to make a point, but may not state the point or relate the examples to each

other;’ the writer expects the reader to make inferential bridges among the statements—showing respect for the reader’s knowledge, scholarship, and intelligence

16. Heavy use of deductive reasoning(general to specific)

Heavy use of deductive reasoning(specific to general)

17. Arguments are supported by logical, analytical reasoning-requiring specific evidence such as facts, examples, statistics, etc.

Arguments are supported by intuitive reasoning—a single anecdote may constitute adequate evidence for a conclusion

18. Focus on building arguments in a logical, step-by-step process

Focus on building to an emotional climax

19. Emphasis on ability of writers to argue persuasively in favor of a particular point of view or take an informed stand on a controversial issue; questioning and challenging authority is accepted and encouraged

Emphasis on ability of writers to present a balanced discussion of both sides of an issue—without taking a strong, personal issue—without taking a strong, personal stand; respect for authority is encouraged

20. Emphasis on the value of individuality and originality of ideas; writers want to receive credit for their own unique ideas

Emphasis on the value of traditional wisdom and the knowledge shared by the culture Reliance on memorization and manipulation of set phrases and textual forms to emphasize group values over individualistic goals

21. The belief that individual authors own words and ideas, which requires writers/researchers to give credit to each author for his/her words and ideas

The belief that educated, knowledgeable readers will recognize the source of the information; students learn to write by imitating the work of great writers, even including the exact words of the original author without citing the source

Chapter 2 Voice, Authority and Plagiarism

Research paper writing involves adequate sources beyond the knowledge the readers

and writers have acquired. So citing reference materials is something common in research

paper writing. Meanwhile, based on the relevance materials, the researchers need express

their own voice in an acceptable way and build up their own thoughts and viewpoints into the

papers.

Citing references appropriately may help strengthen the persuasive power of the

paper, to show the authoritativeness of the documents and the effectiveness of the

argumentation. In this chapter, the focus will be on 1) some techniques to show the writer’s

voice; 2) basic methods to cite reference materials; 3) how to avoid plagiarism.

Some techniques to show the writer’s identity

To show the author’s attitude towards previous research or present argument, and

present the researcher’s contribution to a research paper, the writer is supposed to be

objective and avoid the use of spoken words, over-simplified statements and monotonous

expressions.

Technique One --- Consistent use of formal tone

Section 1. Voice Yourself

Influenced by the first language, many second language (L2) writers may be confused

about the use of spoken and written expressions. A research paper should convey a concise

and objective tone within the academic community. So it is necessary for a L2 writer to

acquire some skills of consistent use of formal tone in the academic writing. The repeated use

of the following expressions may reduce the consistency of the objective tone.

• In this (such a) case ( way), I think (believe, argue) that …

• As discussed (mentioned, analyzed) above, my study has confirmed (demonstrated,

shown) that…

• Basically ( Actually; Practically; Apparently; Particularly), the study shows that …

• Based on … (on the basis of …/ according to …), we can (may) conclude that…

• Besides (furthermore, in addition), the present study suggests (shows, proves)

that …

• As a conclusion (ending of the paper), I would argue (suggest ) that…

• Because of ( Owing to, due to…) …, we know ( the fact is) that…; So ….

Study the following abstract, and try to make the underlined parts better

In our study, we investigate condensation phase transitions of the symmetric conserved-

mass aggregation (SCA) model on random networks (RNs) and scale-free networks (SFNs)

with degree distribution P (k)~k− r. In the SCA model, masses diffuse with unit rate, and unit

mass chips off from mass with rate ω. The dynamics conserves total mass density ρ. Then, in

the steady state, on RNs and SFNs with r >3 for ω ≠ ∞, we numerically show that the SCA

model undergoes the same type of condensation transitions as those on regular lattices.

However, the critical line ρc (ω ) depends on network structures. On SFNs with r ≤3, the

fluid phase of exponential mass distribution completely disappears and no phase transitions

occurs. Instead, the condensation with exponentially decaying background mass distribution

always takes place for any nonzero density. For the existence of the condensed phase for r ≤

Sample 1

3 at the zero density limit, we investigate one lamb-lion problem on RNs and SFNs. Besides,

we numerically show that a lamb survives indefinitely with finite survival probability on RNs

and SFNs with r ≤ 3, and dies out exponentially on SFNs with r ≤ 3. The finite lifetime of a

lamb on SFNs with r >3 ensures the existence of the condensation at the zero density limit

on SFNs with r ≤ 3, at which direct numerical simulations are practically impossible. In

addition, at ω = ∞, we numerically confirm that complete condensation takes place for any

ρ > 0 on RNs. Together with the recent study on SFNs, the complete condensation always

occurs on both RNs and SFNs in zero range process with constant hopping rate.

Study the following conclusion, and try to make the underlined parts better

As a conclusion, we have investigated 2.3–3.9 kJ Mather-type plasma focus for x-ray

emission in the presence of preionization caused by β source and without preionization. The

preionization, besides improving the shot to shot reproducibility, enhances the x-ray emission

about 25% for argon filling and about 17% for hydrogen filling. Further, the pressure range

of x-ray emission is broadened. With Pb insert a maximum x-ray yield of about 46.6 J is

estimated at 23 kV charging voltage. We also found that at optimum condition, the system

with 3.3 kJ input energy generated x rays with efficiency of 1.4%. In particular,

degradation of x-ray yield is observed when charging voltage exceeds 23 kV. Pinhole images

reveal that the x-ray emissions from the anode tip are dominant, apparently by the impact of

electrons’ bombardment.

Technique Two --- Proper use of tenses

Generally speaking, most frequently used tenses are: the present future, the present,

the present perfect and the past tenses. Proper use of these four tenses in different parts of an

Sample 2

accepted paper may strengthen writer’s academic attitude and objective tones. The following

examples show the most frequently used patterns.

The present future tense frequently used in the Introduction and of a research report

+

Or

The present perfect tense frequently used in the Abstract, Introduction and Discussion of a research report

that / how …

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

several approaches to improving…

a new method for analyzing …

a theory that attempts to explain…

new equations for expressing…

This paper will present

This paper will propose

This paper will evaluate

This paper will discuss

This paper will argue

In this paper, we will propose

This report will present evidence to show

In this report, we will attempt to show

+

+ Or + Topic

or

The past tense may be used in any part of a research report

+ Or + Topic

or

that or the Topic

has been carried / conducted on

has been devoted to

has been performed / focused on

have been published / done on

Much / Little research

Little / No attention

Many / Quite few studies

Several experiments

Many investigators have reported

Several researchers have found

Few / Many researchers have explored / examined / investigated

A number of wirters / authors has discussed

+

Pattern 3

examined / explored / showed

reported / noted / proposed

pointed out / observed / suggested

considered / studied / indicated

The study The paper Lee (2003) Rubinstein [ 4 ]

Pattern 4

The present tense may be used in any part of a research report

Technique Three --- Proper use of the Modal Verbs

The use of modal verbs in a research report may convey the researchers’ attitude and

belief towards the present study to the readers or colleagues. A convincing description or

introduction of an experiment can build up the persuasiveness of a paper. In practical

academic writing, non-native writers are always confused about the proper use of the modal

verbs, including the most frequently used modal verbs “ will / would” , “could / should”,

“may / might”. The following sample is from the part of Materials and Procedures of a

research paper.

Research Topic

Normally, a device will be assigned a single talk and single listen address to perform the essential tasks. It may be useful to design a device with multiple talk (or listen) addresses to facilitate system requirements. A device could be assigned two talk addresses (for example, one to output raw data and the other to output processed data). Care should be given to minimize the use of such multiple addresses as later system configurations may be restricted due to excessive use of primary addressing capability.

The purpose of this paper is to identify

The aim of the present study is to obtain /observe

The report presents / describes

The paper discusses / proposes

+

will / would

The use of “will” is to show the highest probable degree of a statement while the use of “would” spells a conditional high probable degree.

• Taking the measurement error of 3 mm, equal to the slice thickness, and the partial

volume averaging effect into consideration, the calculated differences will not be

significant.

• Applying phase correlated attenuation correction will thus, most likely, lead to a

more accurate correction and fewer introductions of motion artifacts. A great

advantage of an improved attenuation correction would be the possibility of

autosegmentation for delineation of tumors based on the SUV.

• Otherwise, for example, the time dependence of P(mo±1,t) in the sum would lead to

the change of P(mo , t) in time.

• Given the respiration cycle length (3–6 s), a moving tumor will most likely not be

imaged at its average position in a multislice CT scan.

• The measurement of a single bed position with PET on the other hand takes about 5

min, and will represent several full respiratory cycles. On a PET image, a moving

tumor will thus be smeared out around its average position.

• However, in the imaging of moving lung tumors, not all the attenuating tissues will

move to the same degree as the tumor.

• The benefits of phased attenuation correction will largely depend on the relative

contribution to the attenuation by moving tissues as compared to the more stationary

tissues and might thus not be as striking as suggested by the results presented in

this paper.

The use of “could” presents some degree of uncertainty of a statement while the use of “should” tells a high degree of certainty.

• According to oceanographical surveys conducted near the present area [12,14,15],

the present specimens could be transported in various directions by the complex

currents if their migration is passive.

• For the existence of an infinite condensate in the steady state, the two masses should

aggregate again in the finite-time interval. If not, unit mass continuously chips off

from the infinite aggregation, which will finally disappear.

• Conversely, aerosol concentration in the atmosphere could be estimated by

monitoring lightning activity globally.

• Hence the probability of finding two walkers at the same node should depend on the

second moment (k2 ).

• For the formation of an infinite aggregation of masses at the zero density limit, unit

mass chipped off from the infinite aggregation should aggregate again with the

aggregation within the finite time interval.

could / should

may / might

The use of “might” presents uncertainty of a statement while “may” is frequently used to show certain degree of probability.

• No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval

system or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

• But there is a significant increase in the x-ray emission with argon as compared with

hydrogen. The possible reason might be the higher stopping power of argon as

compared to hydrogen. Hence more efficient preionization condition may be created

by the β source in presence of argon gas.

• The degradation may be due to enhanced Pb vapors emitted from the anode tip with

increasing charging voltage.

• we anticipated that A might interact with the cell membrane and to form stable ion

channels.

• Therefore, we anticipated that the damage to the cell induced by the action of the A

channels might continue despite the absence of A in the media.

Some basic methods to cite reference materials

To cite reference materials properly is a basic requirement of academic paper writing

in English. There are two different styles of references: APA and MLA, which will be

Section 2. Bridging up Authority

discussed in the later chapter. In this section, we will introduce three basic methods with

focus on the in-text citation.

1. Quoting

When citing reference materials, the writer may directly quote from the original

sources. In such case, the writer should make sure that the quotation is exactly the same as

the original, accurate in every aspect including the punctuations. As for a short quotation, the

writer should make it a natural part of the whole paper and credit the source of the quotation.

The following introductory words or phrases are frequently used to introduce the

quotations:

• According to ( the name of the author), …

• …, (the name of the author) writes / says, …

• Just as ( the name of the author) mentioned / suggested / noted , …

• ( The name of the author ) maintained / admitted / claimed / holds / argued that …

Long's (1996) interaction hypothesis proposes that feedback obtained during

conversational interaction promotes interlanguage (IL) development because interaction

"connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output

in productive ways" ( Long, 1996, pp. 451–452). Gass and Pica have made similar

arguments for the efficacy of interactional feedback.

Sample 2

Sample 1

Shurmer mentioned “the fundamental dilemma is that while strong legal protection

of IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) can exacerbate the difficulties of reaching standards

agreements” [3]. Warren-Boulton argued “copyright is the appropriate form of protection

for intellectual property only when the likelihood of an unwarranted grant of monopoly is

extremely low” [4]. Farrell suggested “the intellectual property tradeoff should be tilted

more towards efficient diffusion - when the innovation is subject to network effects” [5].

Smoot discussed in favor of the IPR protection “if society truly believes it needs the

technology, it could be always appropriate it by eminent domain by paying its worth” [1].

Helen Fox (1994) has noted the impact that cultural differences have on the writing

of international students:

2. Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing refers to the citing skill to put others’ words or ideas into your own

words on the basis of the writer’s thorough and accurate understanding of the original

materials. In other words, the writer should explain the related concepts or ideas what you

have read and keep the exact meaning by using your own words. Paraphrasing is frequently

Sample 3

“These differences, learned from early childhood, affect the way students interact

with their professors and classmates, their attitudes toward the books they read and

the problems they are called upon to solve. They affect how students give oral

presentations, from short critiques of articles they’ve read to dissertation defenses.

They affect how students understand assignments, how they study, and how they

comment on their classmates’ paper. But most of all, these affect the way they

write.”

used in research paper writing because it not only deepens the writer’s understanding of the

original materials but also enhance the expressiveness of the citation.

In order to convey the exact meaning of other researchers’ work, the writer should

build up a context or a discussion topic to indicate the paraphrasing parts. There are two

typical patterns in APA format to paraphrase other researchers’ work ( See the Samples 1 and

2 ):

• Pattern One: The name of the author (s) found / concluded / suggested that…

• Pattern Two: the exact concepts or idea cited or outlined (the name of the

researchers, the time)

When citing other researchers’ work, the writer should not use too many direct

quotations. In effect, the better approach to cite is to use both quoting and paraphrasing

interchangeably if necessary ( See the Sample 3)

While there has been relatively little research that directly (and experimentally)

addresses the connection between children's interaction and their L2 learning outcomes,

several interesting studies have examined different aspects of children's general interactional

processes. For example, Scarcella and Higa (1981) found that adult native speakers did

more negotiation work when conversing with younger learners, and suggested that younger

learners were less active participants in conversations with native speakers. However,

Hirvonen (1985) concluded that child speakers were able to modify their speech when

addressing child learners, and to differentiate between their peers who are native speakers

and those who are non-native speakers. Cathcart-Strong (1986) also observed that young

children used various communicative strategies to obtain large amounts of modified input

Sample 1

from their peers, and that child learner productions involved a wider variety of

communicative acts and syntactic structures when the child had control of the activity they

were engaged in. Damhuis (1993) analyzed various input and production features while

children were engaged in different kinds of activities in the classroom, arguing that the

children's play activities produced more input and production opportunities favorable to SLA

when there was no teacher involved. Hamayan and Tucker (1980) found that teachers

exhibited a tendency towards more explicit correction of errors made by learners than those

made by native speakers, and that they corrected errors more explicitly and frequently if they

were made by younger learners than by older learners. Ellis and Heimbach (1997) found

that children varied in terms of their individual ability to negotiate meaning, and negotiated

more with teachers when they were in a group situation than individually. Patterson and

Kister (1981) found that several of the young children in their study (below the age of 7)

failed to negotiate meaning when they did not understand, making the important point that it

is obviously important to distinguish between `young children' (i.e. up to 7 years) and `older

children' (i.e. 7–12 years).

Research on interaction has described the different types of interactional

modifications that take place and has sought empirical evidence for the impact of interaction

on comprehension ( Loschky and pica), production (Gass and Swain), and L2 development

( Ellis and Mackey; for review see Gass et al., 1998). There is a move in current

interactionist research to explore the specific nature and contribution of different

interactional features on L2 learning ( Mackey et al., 2000). However, despite the fact that

there is general agreement that age differences can affect SLA outcomes ( Birdsong, 1999),

most of the existing interaction research has focused on adult learning. The current study

examines the effect of interactional feedback on children's second language development.

Sample 2

Sample 3

An important exception is Oliver's research into conversational interaction between

age-matched children. Oliver (1998) investigated interactions between children aged 8–13

years in 96 dyads. Like Ellis and Heimbach (1997), she found that many children can and

do negotiate for meaning, and use a variety of negotiation strategies. Oliver claims that

although children are less developed cognitively, socially, and linguistically, they are still

"aware of their conversational responsibility and attempt to work towards mutual

understanding" (p. 379).

3. Summarizing

In any academic paper with a literature review, to summarize the documents related

to the paper is an essential skill. To make such a summary, the writer needs to summarize

the main points of others in his own words based on his accurate understanding of the

original. Similarly, when the writer intends to illustrate his viewpoints by using others’

authoritative thoughts, he has to summarize the main ideas of others as brief as possible

whether he may quote directly or indirectly from the original. The detailed information of

summary writing will be discussed in the next chapter. Here by following samples shows

how to build up authority by summarizing.

Sample 1 shows how to indicate the source of the document including the author and

the original work. Sample 2 and Sample 3 present how to combine the direct quotation with

the summarizing.

A recent study by Mackey et al. (in press) focused on adult versus child differences

in the amount of interactional feedback, the nature of the feedback, and modified output

produced in response to the feedback by adults and children. Forty-eight dyads, evenly

divided among adults and children between 8 and 12 years old, and learner-native speaker

Sample 1

and learner-learner pairings, engaged in task-based interactions. Among children, learners

were more likely to produce modified output in response to feedback from learners than from

native speakers. Significant differences were also found between adult and child dyads,

although only among learner-learner dyads, and only for the nature of and response to

feedback, although not for the amount of feedback provided. Their study suggests that

learners may encounter different linguistic environments depending on interlocutor type (i.e.

learner vs. native speaker) and learner age.

Noam Chomsky, arguably the greatest linguist of the twentieth century, once

commented that, “When we study human language, we are approaching what some might

call the ‘human essence’, the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique

to man” (quoted in Fromkin & Rodman, 1993, p. 3). Although human beings are unusual

creatures in many ways, perhaps we are most unusual in our possession of language.

Animals communicate, to be sure, but none – at least as far as we can tell – communicate

using anything like human language (see Akmajian, Demers & Harnish, 1992, pp. 31-76;

Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2003, pp. 3-30; O’Grady & Dobrovolsky, 1996, pp. 583-

620; Wallman, 1992).

Language may indeed be central to being human, but that does not, of course, mean

that human beings – even otherwise well-educated human beings – are particularly

knowledgeable about language (see Bauer & Trudgill, 1998; McWhorter, 2001; Pinker,

1994; Wardhaugh, 1999). In her book The Language Imperative, Suzette Haden Elgin

observes that:

Sample 2

Sample 3

Whether quoting, paraphrasing or summarizing, a writer should acknowledge the

sources properly. Plagiarism is the dishonest use of the ideas or words taken from other

authors without any acknowledgement. Consciously or unconsciously, the writer is to

commit the plagiarism whenever he uses a source in any way without indicating that he has

used it. The following approaches may help acknowledge the sources of the original.

• Put quotation marks around the words or phrase.

• Separate the quotation, paraphrase or summary of the original source from the

writer’s text.

• Using the transitional expressions such as “according to …” , “ based on the work

of …”

It is all too easy to underestimate the power of language . . . because almost

every human being knows and uses one or more languages, we have let that

miracle be trivialized . . . We forget, or are unaware of, the power that

language has over our minds and our lives; we use that power ourselves as

casually as we use the electric power in ourhomes, with scarcely a thought

given to its potential to help or harm. We make major decisions about

language on the most flimsy and trivial B and often entirely mistaken B

grounds. (2000, p. 239)

Section 3. Plagiarism

Here are some common ways of plagiarizing a source:

• Coping some words or phrases without mention of the author’s name or quotation

marks.

• Confusing the original author’s ideas with the writer’s own without indicating the

source.

• Citing, paraphrasing or summarizing other authors’ work with the detailed source

information omitted.

1. Proper use of the Imitation Strategy

As a second language (L2) learning strategy, the imitation strategy is one of most

important strategies to follow the L2 writing traditions and format. The proper use of it

may help L2 writers build up the genre knowledge of academic writing in English and

access the practical skills to make an argumentation in L2 writing.

Generally speaking, genre knowledge of a research paper refers to knowledge of the

formats and elements of a paper and the functions of each part in the paper ( See the table

in Section one of the first chapter).

On the basis of the genre knowledge, a L2 writer may use imitation strategies

• to brainstorm the main idea and arguments of a research paper

Genre Knowledge

• to draft the paper following traditional organizations with focus on the main idea

of each part rather than sentence patterns.

• to get comments or feedback of colleagues

• to redraft, edit and format the whole paper

Academic paper writing calls for critical thinking. In specific, a writer should convey

his own opinion on his subject by making a claim or statement called arguments. To make an

effective argument, the writer should avoid universal statements with such words as always,

never, all, none, everyone, no one.

The qualified statements to make an effective argument can be categorized by three

qualities:

• whether they are verifiable, evaluative, or advocatory claims;

• whether they are specific or, if non-specific, whether the qualification

strengthens or weakens the claim;

• whether they serve as conclusions, premises, or support in an argument.

2. Proper use of Internet sources

Internet source provides us an immediate access to the colleagues’ academic papers

on an international basis. As such, the use of Internet sources may also cause the issue of

Argumentation

plagiarism. In particular, the Internet search engines like Google ( in English) and Baidu ( in

Chinese) has improved the process to access others’ academic work. However, it is worth

noting that there is a high likelihood of committing plagiarism behind the convenience.

So the following points should be kept in mind when the Internet source is cited:

• To identify the author’s name and the specific information of the paper such as the

issue of the periodical, the page number before you document the material.

• To indicate the name and other necessary information as required in APA or MLA

formats, avoid copying any statement with no author mentioned in the Internet source.

• To use quotation marks when quoting anything from another author, whether a word

or phrase.

• To separate the summary of other author’s opinion from your personal viewpoints

when summarizing another author’s words

• To clearly acknowledge the ideas you paraphrased when paraphrasing another

author’s work.

Chapter 3 Genre Analysis

of Publishable Research Paper

Generally, a publishable research report in English as introduced in Chapter One

includes Abstract, Introduction, Research Methodologies and Procedures, Results and

Findings, Discussion and Conclusion, References or Appendixes (if any). In this chapter, we

will discuss in length the genres to these parts of a publishable paper. The genre analysis

covers the definition / classification, the function, the essential elements and samples of each

part of a publishable paper. At the end of each section, tips for practical writing will be

introduced.

A summary is a shorter version, in your own words, of what you have read. The

summary captures all the most important parts of the original, but expresses them in a much

shorter space. Summary writing is not only a common skill in writing any research paper

with a literature review, but also a valuable learning process.

On the other hand, a research paper abstract, also called executive summary,

concentrates on the research findings and what might be concluded from them. Abstract

appears at the very beginning of a published paper and helps readers save time deciding

Section 1. Summary and Abstract

whether or not read your paper, thus they are important to determine how many people may

read your paper.

Both summary and abstracts should aim to be informative (for example, it should

include the main findings of the study) rather than merely indicative, meaning that they

indicate the kind of research that was done. The following samples show the different

process of writing a summary and an abstract.

Summary Writing

Original text

At a typical football match we are likely to see players committing deliberate fouls, often

behind the referee's back. They might try to take a throw-in or a free kick from an incorrect

but more advantageous position in defiance of the clearly stated rules of the game. They

sometimes challenge the rulings of the referee or linesmen in an offensive way which often

deserves exemplary punishment or even sending off. No wonder spectators fight amongst

themselves, damage stadiums, or take the law into their own hands by invading the pitch in

the hope of affecting the outcome of the match. [100 words]

Summary

Unsportsmanlike behavior by footballers may cause hooliganism among spectators. [9 words]

An abstract of a published paper

The Effect of Peer and Teacher Feedback on Student Writing

Trena M. Paulus

Indiana University

Sample 1

Sample 2

Although teacher and peer feedback, together with required revision, is a common component of the process-approach English as Second Language (ESL) writing classroom, the effect that the feedback and revision process has on the improvement of student writing is as yet undetermined. The researcher analyzed 11 ESL student essay in detail: categorizing the types and sources of revisions made according to Faigley and Witte’s (1981) taxonomy of revisions, evaluating the first and final drafts of students’ essays, and recording students’ verbal report during revision. While the majority of revisions that students made were surface-level revisions, the changes they made as a result of peer and teacher feedback were more often meaning-level changes than those revisions they made on their own. It was also found that writing multiple drafts in overall essay improvement.

1. Features and Elements

Features of summary and abstract:

• Brevity: to covey in as few words as possible the essential information contained

in the text you have read (for summary writing) or written (for your own paper).

• Objectiveness: to state objectively other’s or your own ideas and main points in

the paper.

• Integrity: to confine the summary or abstract to a single paragraph with limited

words and necessary elements of information.

• Concise: to define terminally the scope, results and conclusions of a study,

identify the author’s (or your own) contributions in the research paper, and

indicate in simplest terms the significance of the paper.

• Consistency: to be consistent with the other parts of the whole paper, and never to

include what has not been mentioned in the paper.

• Concentration: to omit such elements of information as figures, tables, or

literature references in a summary or abstract, to avoid repeating the unnecessary

elements that conventionally appear in other sections of the paper.

• Completeness: to include what the writer has done and what he has achieved

within the scope of the topic, such as the research theories, research methods,

investigations and results and conclusions, and to differentiate his paper work

from others by stressing this paper’s contribution.

Typical Elements of a summary of a research paper ( See the sample 1)

• Who --- who has done the study

• What--- in what kind of context or scope of the study

• When--- the time order of similar studies

• What --- what research approaches have been used and what has been found

and implied.

A number of studies in intact classrooms have examined the characteristics of

interaction between teachers and children. For example, Wong-Fillmore (1982) observed

interactions in four bilingual kindergarten classes with native and non-native speakers of

English at varying levels of proficiency. She found individual differences in the English

learning outcome of the learners, noting that classroom organization, for example, open

versus teacher-centered classrooms, influenced the access of the child learners to exposure to

input. In open classrooms without any teacher-directed activities, more effort was required

for the learners to gain access to input for language learning.

Typical Elements of an abstract and their order ( See the sample 2)

• Study context: background information

• Purpose and scope: principle activities of the study and the scope.

• Methodologies: information about the methodology used in the study

• Results: the most important results of the study.

• Conclusions and implications: a statement of conclusion, implication or

recommendation if necessary.

Sample 1

Interactional feedback and children's L2 development

Alison Mackey , , a and Rhonda Oliver , b

a Department of Linguistics, ICC 460, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA b School of Education, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia 6050, Australia

Received 2 May 2002; revised 14 June 2002; accepted 17 June 2002.

Abstract

The relationship between interactional feedback and second language learning has been the focus of much recent research. Studies have examined the type and effectiveness of interactional feedback in a range of different settings and contexts. However, most of the existing research has focused on adults, despite the fact that there is general agreement that age plays an important role in second language learning outcomes. In the current study, we explored the effects of interactional feedback on children's L2 development in a pretest/posttest design. Twenty-two child ESL learners carried out communicative tasks that provided contexts for targeted forms and interactional feedback to occur. The children interacted in dyads with adult native speakers. During a 3-day treatment period, the experimental group (n=11) received interactional feedback in response to their non-target-like production of question forms, while the control group (n=11) interacted, but did not receive feedback. Results showed that the experimental group improved more than the control group in terms of question formation. This study that children developed following interactional feedback just as adults have been shown to. Interestingly, the children's interlanguage seemed to be impacted by feedback relatively quickly, while similar studies with adults have demonstrated more delayed effects.

2. Approaches to summary and abstract writing

How to Summarize

• The summary should concisely and accurately capture the central meaning of the

original. It should be expressed - as far as possible - in your own words. Note that it is

not enough to merely copy out parts of the original.

Sample 2

• The question will usually set a maximum number of words. If not, aim for something

like one tenth of the original. [A summary which was half the length of the original

would not be a summary.]

• Read the original quickly, and try to understand its main subject or purpose.

• Then you will need to read it again to understand it in more detail.

• Underline or make a marginal note of the main issues. Use a highlighter if this helps.

• Look up any words or concepts you don't know, so that you understand the author's

sentences and how they relate to each other.

• Work through the text to identify its main sections or arguments. These might be

expressed as paragraphs or web pages.

• Remember that the purpose [and definition] of a paragraph is that it deals with one

issue or topic.

• Draw up a list of the topics - or make a diagram. [A simple picture of boxes or a

spider diagram can often be helpful.]

• Write a one or two-sentence account of each section you identify. Focus your

attention on the main point. Leave out any illustrative examples.

• Write a sentence which states the central idea of the original text.

• Use this as the starting point for writing a paragraph which combines all the points

you have made.

• Remember that it must be in your own words. By writing in this way, you help to re-

create the meaning of the original in a way which makes sense for you.

How to write abstract effectively

• As a short, concise and highly generalized text, an abstract should be written in

formal and academic language. The most frequently used tenses are the present, the

past and the present perfect. Besides, the passive voice and the third person are often

preferred.

• Serving as a useful tool in searching for information, helping readers identify the

basic content of a document more quickly and conveniently, an effective abstract

should be as concise as possible, without any detailed information or comment on the

research.

• An abstract may directly influence the paper acceptance to a learned journal, so

specific expressions to present the main points in the abstract are more favored over

general ones. Also, direct description of what the paper has explored is more

acceptable.

• In terms of its form, an abstract should cover all the major aspects dealt with in the

paper. In particular, the primary terms used in the paper should be defined within the

scope of the study.

• An abstract will be more widely read than the paper itself, thus producing wider and

deeper academic influence than the full text of the paper. An effective abstract should

be well organized and can reflect every aspect of the whole paper.

3. Tips for abstract and summary writing The following three steps to draft a summary or an abstract are frequently used:

• Step One: Introduction---to define the context, the argument, the purpose of the present study

• Step Two: Contents of the study --- to outline the main participants, the methods and

the procedures of the study.

• Step Three: Results, findings and conclusion --- to present the most important results

and related findings, and give suggestions of further study.

Introduction: the frequently used sentence patterns

To define the context and argument of the present study:

• This paper describes / presents …( the argument) within…( a theoretical context) • Although ( the research subject)…, ( the related problem) …is as yet undetermined.

Step One

• (The research subject)…, however, ( the related problem)…remains unsolved.

• ( Previous studies) have examined …, ( the related problem) is that…, despite…

• (Problems in certain research area) are…, yet (the present solution) has frequently

been questioned, because…

• While ( the debate on certain research subject) seems to…, (the present agreement) is still problematic.

To present the purpose of the present study:

• The purpose / intention of this paper is…

• The primary goal / aim of this research is…

• The overall objective of this study is…

• In this paper / study, we aim at…

• The work / investigation presented in this paper focuses on …

Contents of the study: the frequently used formats To introduce the main participants or materials

• The present study has investigated …by using / analyzing…( participants / materials) • In this study, we inquired / examined / evaluated … ( participants / materials)

• The experiments / investigations of the present study involved…( participants /

materials).

• In contrast with ( previous studies or conclusions)…, the study has focused on … ( participants / materials)

To present research methods and procedures

• The method / approach used in the present study is…

Step Two

• The experiment / investigation in the paper is conducted by adopting … • The procedure the present study followed can be briefly described as… • The experiment / study consisted of the following steps: … • Included in the experiment were… • Based on the idea that…, we conducted the present study, categorized …, and

evaluated.

Results, findings and conclusion: Some useful sentence patterns

• The results of the experiment indicate/ suggest that…; it is also found that…

• It is concluded that…; the results also imply the further study into…

• The investigation / experiment varied by.... And the results also revealed that…

• These findings of the research have led the author to the conclusion that…

• The data / results obtained appear to …, thus we may conclude that …

• As a result of the current experiments, we concluded that…

The introduction of a research paper functions as a theoretical orientation to the

whole paper (also called the research background), a review of previous studies, a transition

Step Three

Section 2. Introduction Writing

to the arguments and hypothesis of the present study. In some cases, the importance of the

present exploration and the organizations of the paper are also included in the introduction.

2.1 Construct and Steps

The typical introduction of a research paper involves the following steps ( See the

Sample 1 and Sample 2 ) :

• Step One: Research background --- it may involve a theoretical scope and support

of the present study, a research focus or subject of current research tendency in a

specific discipline, and a definition of research problems in a specific area.

• Step Two: Literature review --- it presents a series of studies relevant to the present

study subject, a further focus on the problematic points of previous experiments

(investigations), solutions or findings.

• Step Three: Argumentation/ Hypothesis --- it points to the research gap: the

problems or arguments on the basis of the presentation of the previous studies, most

frequently followed by the present researcher’s hypothesis and assumptions.

• Step Four: Present study --- it introduces the focus, the purpose, the main

procedures of the present study.

Or

• Step Five: Theoretical role of the present study --- it is a transition of the previous

studies to the present study, or an experimental and theoretical comparison of

previous findings or solutions with the present one.

• Step Six: Organization of the paper --- it outlines how the paper will be organized or

how the present study is designed and presented in the paper.

To compare the formats and steps of the Introduction of the following two samples, then

identify each step used in the two Introductions.

Critical Thinking Pedagogies and the Development of L2 Students’ Critical Thinking Ability in Academic Writing

Introduction

In the field of second language (L2) writing, there have been considerable discussions about the development of culturally diverse L2 students’ critical thinking ability. Critical thinking is frequently seen in Western tertiary context as a necessary component of academic writing in subject guide-lines, assessment criteria and in written feedback on student’s assignments (Woodward-Kron, 2002). The widely accepted assumption in the current debate over critical thinking pedagogies (Atkinson, 1997) is based on extensive investigations of ESL students’ difficulties with argumentative /analytical writing assignments (Ballard and Clanchy, 1991; Fox, 1994; Pally,1997, 2001; Spack, 1997; Stapleton, 2001;Woodward-Kron, 2002). However, disagreements arise about whether critical thinking pedagogies should be adopted in the L2 writing classroom, and how ESL students could be guided towards critical thinking in academic writing. To uncover the underlying reasons why ESL students are faced with so many problems in academic writing, many researchers have offered the cultural explanations (Ballard & Clanchy, 1991; Fox, 1994; Matthews, 2002; Zamel, 1997); some have further explored the framework of critical thinking pedagogies (Benesh, 2001; Pally, 1997, 2001); while others relate critical thinking to the Western social practice tacitly incorporating an ideology of individualism which L2 learners may have serious trouble accessing (Atkinson, 1997; Ramanathan and Atkinson, 1999). With the focus of the debate on whether L2 learners need the pedagogical scaffolding towards critical thinking skills in academic writing, however, these researchers fail to address how the larger L2 student population has succeeded in acquiring or learning the critical thinking skills and accessed the Western academic writing conventions, and to what extent current L 2 writing instructional approaches could facilitate this process. The analysis of critical thinking pedagogies in the present paper will focus on the gap between the Western educational expectations of critical thinking and the reality of L2 learner’s ability to use critical thinking in the analytical /argumentative/ academic writing. These three terms are used interchangeably to refer to the most important component of academic writing related to critical thinking skills (cf. Atkinson, 1997; Atkinson & Ramanathan, 1995; Fox, 1994; Pally, 2001; Ramanathan & Atkinson, 1999; Spack, 1997). Hereafter, academic writing is merged with analytical writing and argumentative writing.

Sample 1

Then, on the basis of the review of different positions of the importation of critical thinking skills into ESL classroom, I will argue that the conclusive stances on ESL critical thinking pedagogies fail to address the whole issue of L2 students’ struggles to meet Western academic writing standards. The paper further calls for more empirical studies focusing on a wider range of factors which may facilitate L2 students’ development of critical thinking ability and on a wider range of perspectives of teaching critical thinking. Finally, it is suggested that further studies on ESL students’ development of critical thinking ability need to aim at how the large number of L2 student writers succeed in adjusting themselves to Western academic writing conventions and in using critical thinking skills in their academic writing.

Interactional feedback and children's L2 development

Alison Mackey , , a and Rhonda Oliver

1. Introduction

1.1. The interaction hypothesis

Long's (1996) interaction hypothesis proposes that feedback obtained during conversational interaction promotes interlanguage (IL) development because interaction "connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways" ( Long, 1996, pp. 451–452). Gass and Pica have made similar arguments for the efficacy of interactional feedback. Research on interaction has described the different types of interactional modifications that take place and has sought empirical evidence for the impact of interaction on comprehension ( Loschky and pica), production ( Gass and Swain), and L2 development ( Ellis and Mackey; for review see Gass et al., 1998). There is a move in current interactionist research to explore the specific nature and contribution of different interactional features on L2 learning ( Mackey et al., 2000). However, despite the fact that there is general agreement that age differences can affect SLA outcomes ( Birdsong, 1999), most of the existing interaction research has focused on adult learning. The current study examines the effect of interactional feedback on children's second language development.

1.2. Age differences and SLA

As discussed in a recent paper on the effects of age on interactional structure (Mackey et al., in press), the literature is divided in terms of the specific nature of age-related differences, as well as the sources of differences between adult and child learners of second language. However, research indicates that age seems to affect the rate of acquisition and the end state of second language acquisition. The evidence suggests that while older learners learn language, particularly grammar, more quickly ( Ervin; Harley; Krashen; Long; Snow and Snow), younger learners seem to attain a more native-like command of second languages

Sample 2

( Johnson; Johnson; Oyama; Oyama; Patkowski and Singleton). While some researchers have argued in favor of a critical period, or a defined cut-off point beyond which native-like attainment is impossible ( DeKeyser and Johnson), others have claimed that second language learning is subject to a sensitive period, beyond which the ability to learn a second language gradually declines ( Bialystok; Bialystok; Birdsong and Birdsong). While the specific role of age in second language acquisition is not yet clearly understood, researchers generally acknowledge that there are differences between child and adult SLA. It is therefore not appropriate to apply findings about adult second language learning to children without adequate empirical research. In the current study, we explore the topic of interaction and L2 development of children in the 8–12 year-old range.

1.3. Children's interactional processes

While there has been relatively little research that directly (and experimentally) addresses the connection between children's interaction and their L2 learning outcomes, several interesting studies have examined different aspects of children's general interactional processes. For example, Scarcella and Higa (1981) found that adult native speakers did more negotiation work when conversing with younger learners, and suggested that younger learners were less active participants in conversations with native speakers. However, Hirvonen (1985) concluded that child speakers were able to modify their speech when addressing child learners, and to differentiate between their peers who are native speakers and those who are non-native speakers.Cathcart-Strong (1986) also observed that young children used various communicative strategies to obtain large amounts of modified input from their peers, and that child learner productions involved a wider variety of communicative acts and syntactic structures when the child had control of the activity they were engaged in. Damhuis (1993) analyzed various input and production features while children were engaged in different kinds of activities in the classroom, arguing that the children's play activities produced more input and production opportunities favorable to SLA when there was no teacher involved. Hamayan and Tucker (1980) found that teachers exhibited a tendency towards more explicit correction of errors made by learners than those made by native speakers, and that they corrected errors more explicitly and frequently if they were made by younger learners than by older learners. Ellis and Heimbach (1997) found that children varied in terms of their individual ability to negotiate meaning, and negotiated more with teachers when they were in a group situation than individually. Patterson and Kister (1981) found that several of the young children in their study (below the age of 7) failed to negotiate meaning when they did not understand, making the important point that it is obviously important to distinguish between `young children' (i.e. up to 7 years) and `older children' (i.e. 7–12 years).

A number of studies in intact classrooms have examined the characteristics of interaction between teachers and children. For example, Wong-Fillmore (1982) observed interactions in four bilingual kindergarten classes with native and non-native speakers of English at varying levels of proficiency. She found individual differences in the English learning outcome of the learners, noting that classroom organization, for example, open versus teacher-centered classrooms, influenced the access of the child learners to exposure to input. In open classrooms without any teacher-directed activities, more effort was required for the learners to gain access to input for language learning.

Other observational studies of child second language learners in classroom contexts have been carried out by Lyster; Lyster and Lyster. The children in their classrooms were 4th- and 5th-grade learners of French. Lyster and Ranta (1997) found that recasts were the most widely used form of feedback provided by teachers to children. Examining whether or not recasts can lead to students' uptake or repair in the third turn, Lyster and Ranta suggest that recasts led to few student-generated forms of repair. In a later study, Lyster (1998b) focused on the discourse context in which recasts occurred, concluding that recasts serve more than one discourse function and they tend to occur in a similar context to non-corrective repetition in the interactions between teachers and students. Ellis et al. (2001) also examined the rate of uptake in a similar classroom situation, adopting a different operationalization of uptake. Ellis et al. (2001) concluded that uptake occurred in 73.9% of the focus on form episodes where it was possible, noting that amounts were higher and more successful in student-initiated focus on form episodes.

The primary focus of the majority of studies involving children's interaction has been interactional patterns between children and adults, mainly their teachers. Intact classes, small groups, and dyads have all been studied. Relatively little research has focused on child-child conversations, especially in relation to children's L2 development. An important exception is Oliver's research into conversational interaction between age-matched children. Oliver (1998) investigated interactions between children aged 8–13 years in 96 dyads. Like Ellis and Heimbach (1997), she found that many children can and do negotiate for meaning, and use a variety of negotiation strategies. Oliver claims that although children are less developed cognitively, socially, and linguistically, they are still "aware of their conversational responsibility and attempt to work towards mutual understanding" (p. 379). A recent study by Mackey et al. (in press) focused on adult versus child differences in the amount of interactional feedback, the nature of the feedback, and modified output produced in response to the feedback by adults and children. Forty-eight dyads, evenly divided among adults and children between 8 and 12 years old, and learner-native speaker and learner-learner pairings, engaged in task-based interactions. Among children, learners were more likely to produce modified output in response to feedback from learners than from native speakers. Significant differences were also found between adult and child dyads, although only among learner-learner dyads, and only for the nature of and response to feedback, although not for the amount of feedback provided. Their study suggests that learners may encounter different linguistic environments depending on interlocutor type (i.e. learner vs. native speaker) and learner age. Oliver's (2000) study also compares the interaction of both adults and children with age-matched peers and with their ESL teacher in terms of the provision and use of negative feedback in the interactional patterns of children and adults in teacher-fronted lessons and pair work contexts. In Oliver's study, the children were ESL learners, aged 6 to 12, paired with native age peers. Oliver found differences in the patterns of interaction according to the age of the learners and context of the exchanges. Finally, Van den Branden (1997) examined the effects of negotiation on child learners' output, showing that children who had been pushed in negotiations subsequently produced a greater quantity of output, provided more essential information and displayed a greater range of vocabulary than learners who had not been pushed, although they did not improve in terms of grammatical accuracy or syntactic complexity. Van den Branden suggests, however, that his study "provides a clear indication of the potential effects of negotiation on language acquisition, as

well as empirical evidence for the effects of negotiation on subsequent output production" (p. 626).

In summary, the interaction hypothesis (described in Long, 1996) has made important predictions about the contributions of various features of interaction to second language development. Although generally supportive, most of the empirical tests of the interaction hypothesis have been conducted with adult language learners. Interestingly, however, studies of child language learners and child-adult comparisons, while generally not focusing on developmental outcomes, have indicated that the patterns and immediate outcomes of interaction may be different for children and adults. It is therefore a crucial next step to examine if and how interaction also facilitates second language development for children, as it has been shown to do with adults. It is the goal of this study to begin to address this question.

1.4. Research question

In order to further our understanding of the role of the interaction in SLA and of the possible effects of learner age on SLA, the present study investigated the effects of interactional feedback on children's interlanguage. Specifically, in adult-child dyads we provided interactional feedback on non-targetlike question forms to children, in an attempt to answer the following research question:

Does interactional feedback, including negotiation and recasts, facilitate second language development in children?

This question led to the following prediction:

Child ESL learners who take part in conversations with interactional feedback will develop more than child ESL learners who take part in conversations without such feedback.

Polio and Gass (1997) have called for more replication in the field of SLA. The interaction literature shows a clear gap in terms of child learners. Thus, the design of the study partially replicates that of Mackey (1999), in which it was found that interactional feedback facilitated the development of ESL questions in adult learners of ESL.

2.2 Sentence Patterns To follow the steps discussed above, research paper learners can use some typical

sentence patterns to introduce research background or literatures, to provide the main

purpose, arguments and the organization of the paper. Note that the following sentence

patterns may be the alternative approach to the development of the Introduction in some

practical writings.

2.2.1. Research Background

Aim: to narrow the scope, to locate the research subject by widely accepted facts in a field. Typical Sentence Pattern: S1 [Facts] + S2 [ detailed information] + (however), S3[ research focus]

Because of the thermally unstable nature of acrylonitrile (AN) copolymers, generally

containing about 85 mol% or greater AN when no stabilizer is present [1], they are processed

in the presence of toxic, organic solvents, commonly including dimethlyl formamide (DMF)

and dimethylacetamide (DMAC). Viscosities for these materials generally become suitable

for melt processing when temperatures of approximately 220 8Care approached [1].However,

at 220 8C a rapid reaction that produces intramolecular cyclic structures with intermolecular

crosslinks takes place, rendering these high AN content copolymers intractable prior to

extrusion into fiber form [2]. The crosslinking reaction can be slowed by the presence of a

stabilizer, such as boric acid, particularly for relatively low molecular weight AN copolymers

containing between 85–90 mol% AN [3]. Acrylic fibers from high molecular weight AN

precursors, especially containing greater than 90 mol% AN, are typically solution processed

at low solids content (7–30 wt% polymer) using toxic organic solvents [4].

2.2.2. Literature Review:

Aim: A summary of a series of relevant studies. Typical Sentence patterns: (for the techniques see Section One Summary Writing) A: Focus on the researchers Several researchers have found / suggested / examined / explored / studied…

Example

B: Focus on previous studies A number of studies / articles in literature have presented / shown / suggested…

Numerous patents and journal articles have been published regarding melt processing

of polyacrylonitrile copolymers using a plasticizer [5,8–16]. The majority of studies

focused on the use of water to plasticize an AN homopolymer (or copolymer) for melt

extrusion. Coxe [8] showed that water plasticizes AN copolymers and permits melt

processing at reduced temperatures, but Porosoff [13] showed that the extrudate needed to be

passed through a pressurized solidification zone to prevent foaming of the fiber. Studies have

shown that the removal of water from the precursor fiber is quite difficult, and as a result the

stabilized and carbonized fibers could not be produced without formation of a microporous

structure at the fiber core [5, 16]. To permit removal of the water from the fibers, a process

was developed combining acetonitrile, methanol, and water to plasticize AN copolymers and

melt process them into carbon fibers [10,11]. The addition of acetonitrile and methanol

lowered the boiling point of the water and facilitated its removal from the fibers. However,

approximately 25–45 wt% plasticizer was necessary for processing, and it still required

recovery because of the hazardous nature of acetonitrile, which degrades into cyanide at

relatively low temperatures. As a result, the process provided no economic benefit over the

solution process once commercial production outputs (greater than 2 ￡ 106 lb per year) were

reached.

Optical wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) networks are very promising due to

their large bandwidth, their large flexibility and the possibility to upgrade the existing optical

fiber networks to WDM networks [1]–[8]. WDM has already been introduced in commercial

systems. All-optical cross connects (OXC), however, have not yet been used for the routing

Example 1

Example 2

of the signals in any of these commercial systems. Several OXC topologies have been

presented in the literature, but their use has so far been limited to field trials, usually with a

small number of input–output fibers and/or wavelength channels [9]–[20], [27]–[36]. The

fact, that in practical systems many signals and wavelength channels could influence each

other and cause significant crosstalk in the optical cross connect, has probably prevented the

use of OXC’s in commercial systems [21]–[23], [26], [31], [41], [42].

3. Argumentation / Hypothesis: Aim: a presentation of research gap or the main purpose of the present study. Typical Approaches:

A: By means of research questions (see the Sample 2 in this section “Interactional feedback

and children's L2 development” )

B: [findings or conclusions in the previous studies] + however, [ the problematic point] +

So / therefore, the possibility of / the possible [research focus] or …

After binning the CT and uncorrected PET data into corresponding phases, the tumor and

tissue positions on PET and CT match more closely. Therefore, an additional advantage of

phase binning is the possible reduction of motion artifacts introduced to the PET scan during

CT-based attenuation correction. Applying phase correlated attenuation correction will thus,

most likely, lead to a more accurate correction and fewer introductions of motion artifacts. A

great advantage of an improved attenuation correction would be the possibility of

autosegmentation for delineation of tumors based on the SUV. For radiotherapy of lung

cancer patients, the ultimate goal is to adapt the margins needed in delineation of the tumor

to the actual movement of the tumor in each patient. The aim of the current study is to

show the potential of respiration correlation of PET with retrospective binning and of phased

attenuation correction in RC-CT/PET scanning.

Example

4. The (present /current )study:

Aim: a transition of the aim or the focus of the present study, sometimes followed by

the organizations of the paper.

Typical Sentence Patterns:

• The aim of the present / current study is to …[ See the above example]

• In this paper, the focus is on …

• In this paper, we investigate / examine / explore…

• The paper start from …; Then, …(the organization)

• The outline the paper is as follows….

In this paper, we investigate the effect of network structures on the condensation

transitions of the SCA model using random networks (RNs) and scale-free networks (SFNs).

As we shall see, on RNs and SFNs with the degree exponent r >3, the SCA model undergoes

the same type of condensation transitions as those in a regular lattice across a critical line ρc

(ω) in the ρ - ω plane with the exponent т =5/2. However, on SFNs with r ≤3 where one or

several nodes, so-called hub nodes, have a finite fraction of links, the fluid phase completely

disappears and the condensation with exponentially decaying background mass distribution

takes place for any nonzero density. The outline of this paper is as follows. In Sec. II, we

introduce the SCA model on complex networks. The condensation transitions on RNs and

SFNs are discussed in Secs. III and IV. To understand the condensation on SFNs with r ≤ 3,

we discuss lamb-lion problems on SFNs in Sec. V. In Secs. VI and VII, we discuss the SCA

model at ω = ∞ and the effect of diffusion of masses on average mass distribution on degrees,

respectively. Finally, we summarize our results in Sec. VIII.

Example

This part is quite differently named in different research disciplines. It may be

followed by subtitles related to the research methods and materials. The following titles refer

to the same section of a research paper (See the Sample 1):

• Research set-up and diagnostics

• Protocol for … (for example, networked measurement and control system)

• Experimental

• The study

• Research Design

• Method and Procedures

• Research method and materials

This part should mention:

• The experimental apparatus and materials used in the study • The explanation of the details of the experimental procedures

• The outline of the original study • The reason why the materials, apparatus and approaches were used • The special experimental conditions or settings • The details of the special methods used • The approaches to data collection and analysis

Section 3. Method and Materials

The typical tense used in this experimental procedure is the past while the present is

more frequently used in the introduction of the materials. Sometimes, the present tense is

used in this whole part so as to keep a objective tone. For example,

• The SILL is a self-scoring, paper-and-pencil questionnaire which consists of a

series of statements.

• A high-voltage probe is used to record the transient high voltage across the focus

tube.

• A questionnaire was used to elicit information about reported language learning

strategy use, including patterns of use.

• . This measure was the 50-item version of the Strategy Inventory for Language

Learning (SILL) for speakers of other languages learning English (Oxford, 1990).

• SILL data were analyzed for mean reported frequencies of use across all levels,

and by elementary and advanced level students.

The passive voice is most frequently used to keep the tone more objective. For

example,

• In addition to the measures described above, the main instrument in this study was

designed for measuring the frequency of language learning strategy use.

• Entering students were also given an oral interview by a senior member of staff

familiar with the levels within the school.

• The camera is mounted in the radial position, viewing the plasma region as well

as tip of the anode.

• While fixing the β source, it is ensured that the source remains below the knife-

edged cathode surface so that the field emission from here is not affected.

Sample 1

5. The study 5.1. Overall design of the study

The study had three phases, one of which is reported here. In part A, a questionnaire was used to elicit information about reported language learning strategy use, including patterns of use. In part B, selected students from the school were interviewed to explore in more detail individuals’ patterns of strategy use. Part C consisted of a classroom-based study and included a longitudinal dimension as well as teachers’ perspectives on language learning strategy use. Parts B and C will be reported elsewhere. 5.2. Research setting

The setting for the current study was a private English language school for international students in Auckland, New Zealand. Over the period of the study (one year), the population of the school averaged around 100. English courses at the school were spread over seven levels: elementary, mid-elementary, upper elementary, pre-intermediate, mid-intermediate, upper intermediate and advanced. The school did not accept total beginners, so even the lowest level (elementary) had some English ability and usually scored between 80 and 90 out of 200 on the Oxford Placement Test (for details, see below). The top level students (advanced) were still usually well below native speaker level and typically scored 140–150 on the Oxford Placement Test. 5.3. Participants

Part A of the study involved 348 students, aged 14–64, from 21 different countries: Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, China, Thailand ,Switzer land, Germany, Russia, Czechoslovakia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Tahiti, Portugal ,Argentina, France, Brazil, Spain, Italy, Denmark, Poland. The majority of the students were from Japan (N=219) and other Asian countries (91%). There were 114 male students and 234 females. There were 172 younger students between the ages of 14 and 23, and 176 between the ages of 24 and 64. The majority of the students (74%) were in their twenties. The socioeconomic status of these students was generally high.

Participants’ levels ranged from elementary to advanced (seven levels, as explained in Section 5.2). Some were new arrivals at the school, while others had been there for several months (see data collection section). Arriving students were given the widely used, commercially available Oxford Placement Test or OPT (Allan,1995 ),consisting of a grammar section and a listening section. The OPT is completed in about an hour and produces a score out of 200 which can be related to a suggested placement framework. The OPT 140 lower threshold for placement at advanced level, for instance, is deemed an “independent user”, whereas the OPT 90 upper threshold for elementary level is deemed a “minimal user”. In the 100-item grammar test, which takes about 50 min to complete, students must select one of three options (for instance: “In warm climates people like/likes/are liking sitting outside in the sun”). The listening test, which takes about 10 min, consists of 100 sentences played on a tape to which the student must listen and choose from two possible answers. The pairs are selected so that either alternative is logically and

grammatically possible so that students cannot guess the answer without listening (for instance: “Will you get me some soap/soup at the supermarket?”).

Entering students were also given an oral interview by a senior member of staff familiar with the levels within the school. The interviewer noted the ability to communicate effectively and fluently and to understand and answer questions with appropriate vocabulary and grammatical accuracy. The results of this assessment might influence the decision regarding placement as suggested by the OPT result. If questions remained regarding appropriate placement, a written task might be added. In subsequent weeks students were given regular tests based on the work covered in class, according to which they might be promoted. The level at which a student was working at any particular time, therefore, depended on a combination of the OPT score, the oral interview assessment, possibly an assessment of written competence, and the results of later adjustments and testing following placement. These multiple factors involved in assigning students to a particular level are typical of many language school contexts. 5.4. Instrumentation

In addition to the measures described above (which were not part of the study per se, but which were used for placement purposes only) the main instrument in this study was designed for measuring the frequency of language learning strategy use. This measure was the 50-item version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) for speakers of other languages learning English (Oxford, 1990). The advantages and disadvantages of any type of self-report questionnaire, including self-report strategy questionnaires, have been debated in the research literature (for instance, Cohen, 1998; Dorrnyei, 2003; Ellis, 1994; Guetal.,1995; Turner,19 93)because of factors such as inability to remember accurately, lack of self-awareness by students, varying interpretations of terms, and the effects of cultural background on response patterns. However, their value for obtaining quantitative data is also recognized by many of the same researchers (Cohen,1998; Dornyei,2003; Ellis, 1994; Oxford,1990 ).

The SILL is a self-scoring, paper-and-pencil questionnaire which consists of a series of statements such as ‘‘I review English lessons often’’ to which students are asked to respond on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never or almost never) to 5 (always or almost always). The SILL was chosen for this study because it is “perhaps the most comprehensive classification of learning strategies to date” (Ellis,1994, p.539) and has been widely used. Its Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients range from 0.89 to 0.98 in various studies. Concurrent and predictive validity have been found when relating SILL results to measures of proficiency, motivation, learning styles, and other factors (for details, see Oxford,1996 and Oxford and Burry-Stock,1995 ). 5.5. Data collection procedures

SILL data were collected from 348 students over a period of a year as part of normal classroom routines aimed at getting a wide-ranging sample of students to reflect on their learning and to raise awareness of strategy options. An initial block of 69 questionnaires was gathered during a school-wide strategy awareness raising exercise and involved all students studying there at the time. The remaining 279 questionnaires were collected in the course of a

special Study Skills class held during the students’ first week at the school in order to provide orientation to the school’s facilities (such as the self-access room) and to raise awareness regarding how to study (as distinct from the usual focus on what was studied). 5.6. Data analysis procedures

SILL data were analyzed for mean reported frequencies of use across all levels, and (in order to highlight differences in language learning strategy use by higher and lower level students) by elementary and advanced level students. The data were also analyzed for significant relationships (Pearson correlation), and significant differences (Student’s t). In addition, a univariate regression analysis was carried out to determine the amount of variance in course level accounted for by strategies reportedly used by the most proficient groups of students at a high frequency level, that is, a mean of 3.5 or above (Oxford, 1990).

II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND DIAGNOSTICS A. Plasma focus facility The experiments are carried out on a conventional Mather-type plasma focus system. The central electrode is made of a copper rod 110 mm long and 18 mm diameter, which is slightly tapered towards the open end. This tapering is found to be suitable in enhancing the charged particles and x rays from the focus region. In one experiment, a hole of 14 mm diameter and 15 mm deep is drilled in the copper rod and filled with Pb. The β source is not mounted during the experiment with the Pb inserted anode. Six copper rods each of 9 mm in diameter arranged in a circle of 50 mm inner diameter around the anode formed the cathode. A Pyrex glass sleeve of 23 mm breakdown length is used to separate the anode from the cathode base at the bottom. Further details about the plasma focus device have been reported elsewhere. A 12.5 μF single capacitor, charged at 19–25 kV, giving a peak discharge current of about 190–245 kA, powered the device. Schematic of the electrodes is illustrated in Fig. 1. B. Preionization A mesh-type radioactive β source (28Ni63) having endpoint energy of 67 keV with strength of 0.4 mCi is placed in symmetry around the insulator sleeve to produce preionization, as indicated in Fig. 1. While fixing the β source, it is ensured that the source remains below the knife-edged cathode surface so that the field emission from here is not affected. C. p-i-n diode x-ray detector A two channel X-ray spectrometer consisting of Quantrad Si p-i-n diodes having 100 mm2

active area and 125 μm active layer thickness masked with suitable absorption filters, is used

Sample 2

to obtain information concerning the x-ray emission in different shots. For the study of Cu K α line emission the selected Ross filter pair consists of 20- μm-thick Co and 17.5- μm-thick Ni foils. The Co filter has the absorption edge at 7.71 keV and allows transmission of x rays in the 4–7.71 keV window. The absorption edge of Ni filter lies at 8.33 keV and allows transmission of the Cu K αline of 8.05 keV. The thickness of the two filters is adjusted to achieve almost equal transmission curves over the entire photon energy range, except within the narrow spectral region between their K-absorption edges. Thus subtracting the signal recorded by p-i-n diode masked with Co filter from the signal of the p-i-n diode covered with Ni filter corresponds to the Cu K α line radiation. The detectors are placed along the periphery of a 19±0.1 cm circle concentric to the anode axis, and elevated at 1.5±0.1 cm from the anode tip. Transmission curves of filters and computed sensitivities of p-i-n diodes along with the filters for each channel are displayed in Fig. 2. The data for absorption coefficients are taken from the Handbook of Spectroscopy. During the experiment with Pb insert, a set of Mo (10 μm), Ag (50 μm), and Pb (55 μm) covers three p-i-n diode detectors. The transmission curves and the detectors’ response along with corresponding filters are presented in Fig. 3. D. Multichannel pinhole camera For time-integrated analysis a pinhole camera equipped with 200- μm diameter multipinhole apertures is used. The pinholes are masked separately with 10- μm-thick Co and Ni filters. The camera is mounted in the radial position, viewing the plasma region as well as tip of the anode. During the experiment with Pb insert, the filtration foils of different materials and thicknesses are used. The film holder can move or rotate freely in the box and record five snaps without disturbing the vacuum. The pinhole images are recorded on Fuji medical x-ray film. E. Electrical diagnostics A high-voltage probe is used to record the transient high voltage across the focus tube. Current is measured at the base plate of the plasma focus electrodes by a Rogowski coil. A four channel 200 MHz Gould 4074A digital storage oscilloscope is deployed to record electrical signals. The Results section of the paper presents the most important findings of the study in

both figures (such as graphs, tables and diagrams) and written texts. It is always followed by

researchers’ comments or interpretations of these findings. The figures show the complete

Section 4. Results

and detailed findings of the study in numerical terms and data while the accompanying text

focuses readers on the most important points of the results. An effective introduction of

results should present:

• An outline of the results based on the data in the figures (See the Sample 1), • A statement of the most important findings of the study ( See the italicized parts

in Sample 1& 2),

• Comments on or explanations of the results ( See the underlined parts in Sample 2 & 3)

The typical sentence patterns to outline the data from the figures are: • Fig. 2 / Table 1 shows the influences of … on …

• As Fig. 2 shows, the influences of …

• As shown in Table 2, the effect of …

• Data in Table 1 shows that the influences of …

• The effect of … on … is shown / summarized in Fig. 2.

• The effect of … on…has… ( Fig. 2)

3. Results

3.1. Developmental stage increase

In order to be designated as having a sustained increase in stage, a participant had to produce at least two different question forms at a higher level in at least two tasks on at least two of the posttests. This sustained stage increase analysis can be seen in terms of individuals who changed stage. The results of sustained stage increase for each group, in terms of the number of participants who increased developmental stage, are summarized in Table 5. As can be seen, 8 out of 11 child learners in the interaction and feedback group showed sustained development, whereas only 3 out of 11 learners in the interaction control group showed this sustained development. This difference was significant according to Fisher's

Sample 1

exact test table probability, which was 0.0211 (P<0.05). Fig. 1 graphically represents a summary of sustained development for each of the groups.

The typical statements of the most important findings are:

• As can be seen / found, the first group of … while the second…. The main difference

was ...

• The probability (the results) in Case 1 was / showed greater … than those of Case 2, but there was little difference in …

• These results suggested that the effect of … was either close to or slightly lower than

that of … The method to calculate x-ray emission in certain energy window has been reported elsewhere in detail. The variation of the x-ray yield for 20 shots at 25 kV charging voltage for optimum argon filling pressure with and without β source is depicted in Fig. 4. The shot to shot variation of energy radiated in the form of x rays is much less and the peak value of x-ray yield is more reproducible with β source as compared to without β source for argon as well as hydrogen. This suggests that the β source improves the stability of the system. It is considered that the improvement is mainly due to the increase in the uniformity of the current sheath.

The comments or explanations in the Results section may involve i) a generalization

of the results; ii) an explanation of possible reasons for the results; and iii) a comparison or

contrast with results from previous studies. The typical sentence patterns are:

• These findings accord with / are consistent with those of …

• These changes (data) suggest that the possible reason is …

• There is …( a general statement) …, the possible reason is that …

• It is considered / found that…, these may suggest the reason why….

Sample 2

It is evident from Figs. 5–8 that the characteristic radiation emission first increases

with the filling gas pressure, attains the maximum value at the optimum pressure, and then

decreases with further increase in the filling gas pressure. The optimum pressure for the

highest emission in case of both the gases shifts towards higher values with increase in the

charging voltage. It is also found that the optimum pressure with and without β source is

different for each working gas at the same charging voltage. If one compares the Cu K α

and total x-ray emissions for hydrogen and argon fillings, it is found that the Cu K α and

total x-ray yields are two times with argon as compared to the hydrogen filling. In the

presence of preionization, there is an increase in characteristic as well as in continuum x-ray

emission. But there is a significant increase in the x-ray emission with argon as compared

with hydrogen. The possible reason might be the higher stopping power of argon as

compared to hydrogen. Hence more efficient preionization condition may be created by the

β source in presence of argon gas. This preionization prior to pulse discharge plays an

important role in the breakdown phase of the plasma focus device due to the reduction of

current sheath lift-off time. It is found that β source broadens x-ray emission pressure

range, enhances x-ray emission, and improves shot to shot reproducibility.

As the ending part of a research paper, the Discussion and Conclusion section should

directly point out the writers’ explanation and speculation of the results. It aims to answer the

following questions:

Sample 3

Section 5. Discussion and Conclusion

• Do the results of the present study accord with the original research design? If not,

why?

• According to these results, what conclusion or inferences may be made? And why?

• Do these results or theoretical analysis accord with the ones of other researchers? If

not, why?

• Is there any suggestion of further study or research methodology to identify or

provide disproof for the results?

• Do these results support or disagree with the present assumptions or theories?

• Are there any practical applications of these results? What are they?

To answer these questions, the writer may focus the readers on the researcher’s

contribution by presenting i) a contrast or comparison of the most important findings in the

present study with the original hypothesis or the assumption, ii) an explanation or a

speculation of the findings, iii) claims of the limitations and implications of the study, and iv)

a suggestion of further study or possible applications of the most important results. Given the

close relationship between the Results section and the Discussion and Conclusion section, the

Discussion part sometimes is put as a separate part in between the Results section and the

Conclusion section (See the Sample 1).

IV. DISCUSSION

This phantom study showed that phased attenuation correction of RCPET images compared to non-RC attenuation correction leads to a more accurate localization of the tumor, an improved tumor volume definition, and a more precise determination of the activity concentration; in particular, the maximum activity concentration. Respiration correlated scanning and phased attenuation correction will therefore offer new and more precise information of the tumor, thus providing a better basis for radiation treatment planning.

Sample

With information of tumor motion, internal margins can be determined for each patient individually and adapted to the actual movement in each direction. Moreover, with respiration correlation and phased attenuation correction, an SUV determination is more reliable and thus better suited for use in tumor characterization and automatic delineation. To achieve good image quality in RCPET imaging in patients, an optimal acquisition time and number of bins should be further investigated by a patient trial.

In Fig. 4, the image with non-RC attenuation correction shows that the maximum activity is clearly misplaced. In clinical practice, such a motion artifact could result in a mislocalization of the tumor. Moreover, the average maximum activity concentration found in the sphere is lower than in the data that was corrected with phased CTs. In a recent study with a gated prospectively binned PET protocol, Nehmeh et al.15 compared attenuation correction with a non-RC CT to RCCT. They found that phased attenuation correction led to an improved match of CT and PET data of up to 41%, while maximum SUV was increased by a maximum of 16%. Pevsner et al. found an underestimation of the activity concentration in the sphere between 19 and 75%.

In the current study, the difference in average maximum activity concentrations between the two attenuation correction methods reached up to 31%, with an average of about 17% for the two experiments combined. It must be kept in mind, however, that in our experiments the spheres were simply placed in air, and little actual attenuation occurred. One could argue that the difference between phased and non-RC attenuation correction might therefore be even bigger in the presence of more attenuation. However, in the imaging of moving lung tumors, not all the attenuating tissues will move to the same degree as the tumor. The correction of attenuation that was caused by less mobile tissues will therefore not improve distinctly with the use of phased attenuation correction. The benefits of phased attenuation correction will largely depend on the relative contribution to the attenuation by moving tissues as compared to the more stationary tissues and might thus not be as striking as suggested by the results presented in this paper.

The volume of the sphere is greatly underestimated in non-RC CT images in this study, up to 46% deviation from the true volume. Others have found volume deviations between minus 35% and plus 79% in non-RC CT in comparison with RCCT.15,21 This large range, both underestimating and overestimating the volume, emphasizes again the importance of using corresponding RCCT images for attenuation correction.

Volumes determined from the respiration correlated CT and PET images both show only minor deviations from the true volume, 1.9% and 1.4% on average for the respective modalities. This good result demonstrates the accuracy of both the phase binning process and the phased attenuation correction.

Various publications have reported a decrease in tumor volume when using gated PET as compared to non-RC scanning, regardless of their attenuation correction methods. The volumes determined in the current study from the non-RC data confirm that in PET smearing appears with a non-RC scanning protocol (Table III). When the motion amplitude is smaller than the sphere’s diameter, as was the case in Experiment 1 with a 2.5 cm amplitude, non-RC PET data showed an average maximum activity concentration that was 7% higher than the average maximum activity concentration found with the RCPET data. This high average maximum activity concentration was found in the center region of the motion, where some part of the sphere was present in every phase. In the 3.9 cm amplitude experiment, the average maximum activity concentration found in the non-RC data

was 75% lower than found with RCPET. Since the volume is determined with a threshold of 34% of the maximum activity concentration, the threshold value is set too low and will thus cause an even bigger overestimation of the PET volume than smearing alone. The difference in the ratio between the sphere diameter and the motion amplitude thus can explain the relatively bigger overestimation of the PET volume with the non-RC PET scan in Experiment 2, which had a deviation of 370% from the actual volume as compared to a deviation of 156% in Experiment 1. The motion amplitudes found with RCPET and RCCT (Table II) correspond well with the actual displacement. Taking the measurement error of 3 mm, equal to the slice thickness, and the partial volume averaging effect into consideration, the calculated differences will not be significant. This suggests an accurate phase binning for both modalities.

The CT and PET phases in Experiments 2 and 3 (motion amplitudes of 3.9 and 4.8 cm, respectively) show good correlation. The determinations of the sphere center in Experiment 1, however, indicate that a slight phase shift was still present. Because the respiratory signals were recorded with different devices, the starting point of the first phase bin in CT and PET was determined with different software. For both systems, the maximum amplitude of the respiratory signal was set as the starting point. Differences in the respiration measurement techniques of the two systems may have caused the resultant phase shift. Synchronization of both modalities with a single device for respiration correlation will most likely dispose of this resulting phase difference. V. CONCLUSION

Valuable information is lost when scans, either CT or PET, are not correlated with respiration. Appropriate attenuation correction is at least as important. Phased attenuation correction not only gives a more accurate overall correction, but perhaps even more important, it provides a better match of PET and CT and results in a more reliable SUV and tumor volume. Combining RC-CT/PET scanning with phased attenuation correction will result in images with less smearing, less motion artifacts, and thus in improved volume estimation and localization and quantification of the activity concentration. In future studies, the feasibility of phased attenuation correction in RC-CT/PET for lung cancer patients will be examined.

5.1 Typical sentence patterns to present the contrast or comparison of the findings with the original hypothesis or the assumption

To make an effective contrast or comparison of the results of the present with the

original hypothesis or assumption in this section, the writer usually needs start from a

reference to the main purpose or hypothesis of the study, followed by a review of the most

important findings, then show the differences or the matching degree between them,

sometimes followed by possible reasons about the differences or the inferences. The

following are the typical sentence patterns:

• This research investigated the differences between ……. The results (or data) show

that …; The possible reason is…

• The aim of this research was to propose a novel methodology which…. In the

present study, it was found that …; because…

• This study attempted to investigate whether there are differences in…. However, the

findings show that….; it is found that ( the fact ) results in…

• This paper has proposed a detailed assessment of …. The results presented above

show that…This suggests that…

• This study has presented a specific method for measuring…; It is considered that ….;

The results, however, show that …

• In this paper, we have reported the significant effect of…; The mismatches between

the original assumption and the results presented in the study suggest that…;

Therefore…

• In this paper (study), the differences between ( the significant effect of)… were

investigated (has been reported). The results demonstrate that…

• We originally assumed that …; The results in this study show that …; The reason

why… is that…

• It was originally assumed that …; The differences between … are …; This suggests

that…

• Existing theories suggested that …; The results, however, show that…. This

evidence led us to (infer that) …. Thus,

• We originally hypothesized that the effect of …; The data in the present study show

that …; The possible reason may …

5.2 Typical sentence patterns to present a further explanation of the results

The detailed results and the followed explanations have been presented in the Results

section. A further explanation, however, is an important support for the conclusions. It could

be both specific to the present study and general to a series of studies in one area. When it

functions as a specific explanation for the present study, the past tense is frequently used. In

contrast, when it is for a general explanation of a series of studies, the present tense is

preferred. The most frequently used modal verb in either of them is “may” as shown in the

following sentence patterns.

For the present study:

• It may be that the error in Equation caused the inaccuracy of …

• It is possible ( likely, unlikely ) that an erroneous value was attributed to ( due to)…

• One reason for this could be that inadequate use of …increased …

• These results can be explained by assuming that the increase ( decrease) in …

resulted in …

For the general

• This inaccuracy seems to show ( indicate ) that the materials used are …

• This rapid increase ( decrease ) in …is attributed to …

• The enhancement in … may be caused by…

• It is likely ( unlikely) that the inaccuracy is attributed to ( due to)…

• One reason for this can be explained by assuming that the inadequate use of …

increases …

5.3 Typical sentence patterns to make conclusions or inferences

The conclusions and the inferences should be made based on the results and the study

itself. Any overstated conclusion and general inference may confuse the readers thus lessen

the persuasiveness of the paper. Compare the following two examples:

• A: The findings are comparable with previous research in that interactional feedback

may lead to L2 development in children, as it has been shown to do with adults.

• B: The findings are comparable with previous research in that interactional feedback

led to L2 development in children, as it has been shown to do with adults.

• A: In the current study, the feedback seemed to lead to more immediate inter-

language destabilization and restructuring, and the effects of interactional feedback

on L2 development appeared to be earlier than has been reported in adult studies.

• B: In the current study, the feedback led to more immediate inter-language

destabilization and restructuring, and the effects of interactional feedback on L2

development were observed earlier than has been reported in adult studies.

The typical sentence patterns are:

• These results indicate (suggest, show, imply ) that…

• The data reported here imply (suggest, indicate, confirm ) that…

• Our conclusion is that…

• Therefore we may infer that…

• These findings support the hypothesis that …

• Our data provide the evidence that …

• It appears ( seems, suggests ) that…

5.4 Typical sentence patterns to imply the limitations of the present study

The limitations of the study may refer to different aspects of the research design.

They could be the research methodology, the results of the study, the theoretical models, or

the limitation of the samples. To present different aspects of limitation may need different

tense in the writing. For example, the present tense is to show the limitations of the research

methodology, model or data treatment while the past tense is frequently used to present the

limitations of what has been done in the experiments.

• The proposed model in this study is based on the reviewed three simplified

assumptions.

• Our analysis neglects several potential important conditions.

• The method for one of this research design presented here is accurate, but cannot

implemented in real time applications.

• The number of the participants in this survey was relatively small.

• Only three groups of samples were tested in the current study.

• Other elements which may cause this change were assumed as the constant in the

formula.

When there is any condition or effect which may influence the results, the present tense

and modal verbs “may” or “might” are frequently used. For example,

• Tests on this parameter with other kind of participants might yield different results.

• The findings may be valid if above-discussed conditions are changed within the

accuracy limits.

• An experiment employing different TM Scanning approaches might produce

different results.

Sometimes, writers may start with “we” and use “admit” or “ recognize” to directly

present the limitations of the research methods or results. For example,

• We recognize that the method adopted in current study does not cover the variety

and complexity of melting rate and heat transfer due to vibrating motion of heating

wall.

• We readily admit that a single short test on this parameter may not fully identify

the performance of the new type compressor.

5.3 Typical sentence patterns to suggest the practical applications or further study

A publishable research paper should function as a transition from the previous studies

to the further research or practical applications of the results. Thus, it is necessary for a

research paper to recommend or suggest a further research study or practical use. In practice,

the following sentence patterns are frequently used.

• A further experiment should be conducted with …[ a new research method] in order

to generalize the effect of …[ the results in current study]

• Future research could explore the possibility to apply …[ a new aspect of the theory]

to …

• In the future, the effect of …[ the unsolved problems of this study] will be examined.

• Another interesting topic would be to examine how …[ the other aspect of the present

study]

• An important direction for further work might be to study …[ the unsolved question

in the study] as it operates in practical tasks.

• The generality of …[ the identified effect in the present study] could be assessed in

studies using other types of …[research materials or procedures]

• The results in the study may lead to the development of effective methods for …[ the

practical applications]

• The results presented in this paper should ( may) be useful in …[ a practical area]

such as …

• Further studies should focus on the practical use of …[ the results] into …[ a practical

area]

To present a direct suggestion or recommendation, a writer may introduce what he or

his study is going to do (or doing) on the same topic, or use “ we suggest that …” and we

recommend that…”. For example,

• We suggest that a series of similar studies be conducted with …[ other research

methods]

• We recommend that these experiments be replicated using a wider range

of …[ different materials or procedures]

• In the future, we will investigate the effect of …[ the results in present study] in a

series of studies.

• Researchers of this paper are now conducting experiments with …[ other research

method]

Chapter 4

Reference Styles Different journals may use quite different reference styles. The researchers need

know well about the reference styles before they submit their papers so as to avoid wasting

their time on re-formatting their papers. As Nature (424,127; 2003) noted, the improper use

of a journal specific formatting style may cause the high likelihood of a submitted paper

being rejected, thus waste the researchers more time on re-formatting citation lists and

resubmitting elsewhere. Generally, two reference styles, APA (American Psychological

Association) style, MLA (Modern Language Association) style are widely used reference

formats of in-text documentation and final reference list. APA format is most frequently used

in some papers of Social and Natural Sciences while MLA is used in many papers of Liberal

Arts. Besides, the citation approach to listing by order is also frequently used in some

journals of Sciences and Technologies.

APA-Style References includes two types: in-text documentation, which is cited in

text with an author-date citation system and final bibliography reference list, in which

references are listed alphabetically. Although the edition of APA style may be modified

every year, the typical citation system is the same. The following presented here is the typical

format ( For the details, see Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association).

Section 1. APA-Style References

1. In-text Documentation: Author-date Citation System

Quoting directly or indirectly within the text, the writer must provide the source of

documented information. The source should be cited entirely clear without duplication and

unnecessary clutter. APA journals use the author-date method of citation; that is, the surname

of the author (do not include suffixes such as Jr.) and the year of publication are inserted in

parentheses in the text at the appropriate point.

1.1 Direct or Indirect Citation of One or Two Authors’(’s) work

If you summarize the author’s work in your text, cite only the year of publication in

parentheses immediately after the author’s name. Otherwise, place both the name and the

year, separated by a comma, in parentheses; include only the year, even if the reference

includes month and year. When you refer to a work by two authors, cite both names each

time the reference appears. Within the parentheses use an ampersand (&), but within you text

spell out the word and. For example,

• Oliver (1998) investigated interactions between children aged 8–13 years in

96 dyads.

• Oliver's (2000) study also compares the interaction of both adults and

children with age-matched peers.

• Despite the fact that there is general agreement that age differences can affect

SLA outcomes ( Birdsong, 1999), most of the existing interaction research

has focused on adult learning.

• Ellis and Heimbach (1997) found that children varied in terms of their

individual ability to negotiate meaning.

• Children varied in terms of their individual ability to negotiate meaning (Ellis

& Heimbach, 1997).

When your documentation contains a direct quotation and includes the name of the

author, place the year of publication and page number on parentheses. Abbreviate the word

page or pages(p. Or pp.). The year of publication follows the name of the author’ the page

number follows the end of he quotation.

• As Bill Johnston (2003) has recently argued, “English language teaching . . .

is not merely a matter of training students in a particular set of skills.

Rather, …with values, and these values … with dilemmas and conflict” ( p.

ix).

• This is actually a far more complex matter than it might at first seem, since

linguistic human rights are “preeminently social, in that they are only

comprehensible in relation to a group of other human beings with whom the

language is shared and from which personal and cultural identity is achieved”

(MacMillan, 1982, p. 420).

• Hoffmeister and Bahan (1996) have argued, internationally recognized

language rights are “almost universally violated when it comes to signed

language minorities” ( p. 422).

• Noam Chomsky, arguably the greatest linguist of the twentieth century, once

commented that, “When we study human language, we are approaching what

some might call the ‘human essence’, the distinctive qualities of mind that are,

so far as we know, unique to man” (quoted in Fromkin & Rodman, 1993, p.

3).

If quoted section appears in different authors’ work, whether quoting directly or

indirectly, you should provide all the sources you could identify. The alphabetical order of

the surname is used and the surnames and the years of publication are separated by

semicolons within the parentheses. For example,

• However, the researcher's input was pre-modified using the system outlined in

such studies as Gass and Varonis (1994) and Pica (1992).

• In other words, to what extent, and in what ways, are language rights human

rights? Also relevant here is the related question of whether linguistic human

rights apply only to the individual, or whether there are rights which are

“group rights” (see Coulombe, 1993; Tollefson, 1991, 1995, 2000).

• It is interesting in this respect that many states in the U.S. have passed

legislation, or at least considered legislation, that recognizes American Sign

Language (see Pelletier, 2005; Wilcox, 1988; Wilcox & Wilcox, 1997).

• This having been said, the concept of group rights is itself somewhat

problematic, potentially leading to an apartheid-style mandate of ethnic

obligation, even as the alternative of linguistic imperialism looms large (see

Durand, 2001; Maurais & Morris, 2003; Pennycook, 1994, 1998;

Phillipson, 1992; Reagan, 2001b, 2002a; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1994;

Tollefson, 1995, 2000, 2002; Tonkin & Reagan, 2003).

1.2 Quotation of One Work by Multiple authors

When a work has three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first time the

reference occurs; in subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author

followed by “et al.”. For example,

• Critical discourse analysis has featured prominently as a powerful research

methodology in recent issues of Critical Inquiry in Language Studies (see, e.g.,

Albakry, 2004; Dirsmith, Samuel, Covaleski & Heian, 2005; Mantero, 2004;

Martínez-Roldán, 2005; Pandey, 2005), addressing a wide range of issues. …, For

example, Dirsmith et al. (2005) claimed that…

• There has been a growing interest in and concern with issues of language rights, as a

subset of more general human rights, at the international level in recent years (see,

for instance, Breton, 1993; Hassanpour, 1999; Kontra, Phillipson, Skutnabb-

Kangas & Várady, 1999).

• Robert Phillipson, Mart Rannut and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas argue that, “The

history of human rights shows that the concept of human rights is not static. It is

constantly evolving in response to changed perceptions of how humans have their

fundamental freedoms restricted, and the challenge to the international community to

counteract injustice” (1995 , p. 16). …, According to Phillipson et al. (1995), …

When a work has Six or more Authors, cite only the surname of the first author

followed by “et al” (not underlined and with a period after “al”) and the year for the first and

subsequent citations. In the reference list you should provide the initials and surnames of

each author. For example,

• As discussed in a recent paper on the effects of age on interactional structure

(Mackey et al., in press), the literature is divided in terms of the specific

nature of age-related differences, as well as the sources of differences between

adult and child learners of second language.

• Ellis et al. (2001) concluded that uptake occurred in 73.9% of the focus on

form episodes where it was possible, noting that amounts were higher and

more successful in student-initiated focus on form episodes.

If two references with six or more authors shorten to the same form, cite the surnames

of the first authors and of as many of the subsequent authors as are necessity to distinguish

the two references, followed by “et al.” For example,

• Kontra, Phillipson, Skutnabb-Kangas, Tim, Várady and Woods , (1999)

• Kontra, Phillipson, Sussan, Thypody, Woerdy and Woods , (1999)

The In-text quotation should be:

• Kontra, Phillipson, Skutnabb-Kangas, et al (1999)

• Kontra, Phillipson, Sussan, et al (1999)

When you cite works by two or more authors with the same last name, use initials to

identify the authors in the text even if the dates of publication differ. For example,

• Other observational studies of second language learner strategies in classroom

contexts have been carried out by R. Scollon (1994), R. Scollon and S. W.

Scollon (1994).

1.3 Quotation of Some Special Sources

A. To quote the work identified by title

When a work is noted in the reference list by title alone, a shortened version of the

title is used to identify the work parenthetically in the text. Within the text, whether in

parentheses or not, titles are presented differently from the way they are in the reference list.

All words are capitalized, except conjunctions, short prepositions, and articles; the title of a

book, report, brochure, or periodical is underlined; and the title of an article of chapter

appears within quotation marks. For example,

• According to the administering office of TOEFL---the Educational Testing

Service (ETS) in the United States, there is “much added value” in the

Computer-Based TOEFL Test (ETS Bulletin, 2003, p.3).

• The negative washback of CET affected the learning process in a wide range

of stakeholders involved in “College English” (1998) and “ College Core

English” (1996).

B. To quote the work with the groups as Authors

When citing a work by a group author, you use the name of the corporation or

organization as the author. If a well-known abbreviation of the name of a corporation author

is cited in subsequent parenthetical references or on the text itself (for example, you may use

NSF for National Science Foundation), your first reference to the group or organization

should include the abbreviation you intend to use.

• The challenges that face policy-makers with respect to the general problem of

language rights for the deaf are, in large measure, the same as those that they face in

dealing with the needs and desires of any minority community. ( TESOL News

Letters, 2002, P. ii)

• The Symposium (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages

[TESOL] Canada, 2005) stressed that…; The TESOL Canada Symposium

(2005) suggested ….;

C. To quote Classical Works When a work has no date of publication, cite in text the author’s name, followed by a

comma and n.d. for “no date.” When a date of publication is inapplicable, such as for some

very old works, cite the year of the translation you used, preceded by trans, or the year of the

version you used, followed by version. When you know the original date of publication,

include this in the citation.(Aristotle, trans. 1931); James(1890/1983)

D. To quote from the secondary sources

When the source of a direct or indirect quotation is a secondary source, refer to the

source you actually used within parentheses and in the reference list. For example,

• Darwin’s metaphors (as quoted by Gould,1989)…

• The theory of Reheating System ( as quoted by Hypolsa, 2000)…

E. Specific Parts of a Source

To cite a specific part of a source, indicate the page, chapter, figure, table, or equation

at the appropriate point in text. Always give page numbers for quotations. Note that the

words page and chapter are abbreviated in such text citations:

• In short, as Karabel and Halsey observed in the late 1970s, “Teachers and

pupils do not come together in a historical vacuum: the weight of precedent

conditions the outcome of ‘negotiation’ over meaning at every turn” (1977, p.

58).

• As David Corson argued, “Neither schools nor the people within them are

willing dupes of power forces that are outside their control . . . the discourses

of power that exist within schools can be used to improve the human

condition, to oppress people, or to do almost anything in between.” (1999, pp.

24-25)

2. Reference List In APA style, the list of sources is entitled “References”. References cited in text

must appear in the reference list; conversely, each entry in the reference list must be cited in

text. Make sure that the in-text citation and reference list entry are identical in spelling and

year. Failure to do so can result in considerable time wasted on formatting citation after a

manuscript is set in type.

2.1 The Construct of Reference List

An effective reference list should follow the following rules:

• Elements of Each entry: author, year of publication, title, and publishing data. For

example:

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire.

Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

• The list must be double-spaced, and arranged in alphabetical order. Entries should

start with a paragraph indent (Start on the fifth space). For example,

Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language. London:

Longman.

Fettes, M. (1992). A guide to language strategies for First Nations communities. Ottawa:

Assembly of First Nations.

• Alphabetizing names: to arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the

first author. For example,

Fromkin, V., & Rodman, R. (1993). An introduction to language (5th ed.). Ft. Worth, TX:

Harcourt Brace.

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. (2003). An introduction to language (7th ed.). Boston:

Heinle.

Georgakopoulou, A., & Goutsos, D. (1997). Discourse analysis: An introduction. Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press.

• One-author entries by the same author are arranged by year of publication, the earliest

first. For example,

Janks, H. (1991). A critical approach to the teaching of language. Educational Review 43: 191-

199.

Janks, H. (1997). Critical discourse analysis as a research tool. Discourse: Studies in the Politics

of Education 18: 329-342.

• On-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname.

For example,

Gass, S.M. (1997). Input, Interaction and the Second Language Learner. , Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, Mahwah, NJ (1997).

Gass, S.M., Mackey, A. and Pica T. (1998). The role of input and interaction in second language

acquisition: an introduction. Modern Language Journal 82 (1998), pp. 299–307.

Gass S.M. & Varonis, E.M. (1994). Input, interaction, and second language production. Studies

in Second Language Acquisition 16 (1994), pp. 283–302.

• References with the same first author and different second or third authors are

arranged alphabetically by the surname of the second author, and so on. For example,

Fromkin, V., & Rodman, R. (1993). An introduction to language (5th ed.). Ft. Worth, TX:

Harcourt Brace.

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. (2003). An introduction to language (7th ed.). Boston:

Heinle.

• Works by different authors with the same surname are arranged alphabetically by the

first initial.

Johnston, B. (2003). Values in English language teaching. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

Johnston, S. (1993). Language choice, language identity: A sociolinguistic study of deaf college

students. Burtonsville, MD: Linstok Press.

2.2 The Forms of Reference List

In APA style, different sources may use quite different forms in the reference list.

There are some common acceptable abbreviations in the different forms of the reference list:

Chap. Chapter Ed. Edition 2 nd ed. Second edition Ed. (Eds.) Editor(Editors) Trans. Translator(s) & and

P. (PP.) page(pages) Vol. Volume vols. Volumes No. Number pt. Part tech.Rep. Technical Report Suppl. Supplement

In general, the reference sources can be classified into two types: periodicals and non-

periodicals. Periodicals include items published on a regular basis: journals, magazines,

scholarly newsletters, and so on. And non-periodicals include items published separately:

books, reports, brochures, certain monographs, manuals, and audiovisual media. For a basic

entry, they can be presented as follows:

Periodical

Author, A. A., Author, B.B.,﹠Author, C.C.(1994). Title of Article. Title of Periodicals, XX,

XXX-XXX.

Nonperiodical:

Author, A.A.(1994). Title of work. Location: Publisher.

For articles from periodicals: The basic entry for an article in a periodical

begins with the last name(s), followed by the initials (not the entire first names), of all

authors, The year of publication follows in parentheses; For magazine and newspaper articles,

give the month and day. Next comes the title of the article, not enclosed in quotation marks;

the italicized title of the periodical, the volume number. A period follows the author, the date,

the title of the article, and the end of the entry. The name of the periodicals, the volume

number, and the page numbers are separated by commas. Only the first work of the article

title, the first word of the subtitle, and proper names within both are capitalized. All words

except articles and prepositions are capitalized in the title of the periodical. The abbreviation

p.or pp. is used in references to daily newspapers but not to journals. For example,

Article by One Author

Smith, J. (2006). The title of the article. The title of Journal, 1, 101-105.

Article by Two Authors

Makoni, S., & Pennycook, A. (2005). Disinventing and (re)constituting languages. Critical

Inquiry in Language Studies, 2, 137-156.

Journal paginated by Issue

Reagan, T. (1996). Bilingualism and the dual culture of the deaf. South African Medical Journal

86 (1), 797-799.

Magazine Article

The entry for an article in a magazine or newsletter with a volume number includes the month and day (if any), as well as the year, the volume, and the pages. For example,

Douglasa, S. (2005, Nov.14th ). The language rights of the deaf.. Science of Psychology, 38(2),

1829-1840.

Newspaper Article

Entries for articles in newspapers are constructed according to the principles for

magazines, except that the volume number is omitted and the abbreviation p. or pp. is used to

indicate page(s). For example,

Sussan, G. (2006, June, 20th ). Gas crisis in the world. New York Times, P. B12.

For articles from non-periodicals: including books by one author, edited books and

work cited in another work. The entry for a book begins with the last name of the author,

followed by a comma and the initials of the author’s first names, followed by periods. The

date of publication appears in parentheses, followed by a period. Only the first word of the

book title, the first word of the subtitle, and proper names within both are capitalized. The

entire title is italicized and followed by a period. Facts of publication include the city of

publication and, if the city might be unfamiliar to readers or confused with another location,

the name of the state. Use U.S. Postal Service abbreviations for states. The name of the

location is followed by a colon and the name of the publisher. The entry ends with a period.

The names of university presses are spelled out. For example,

Spring, J. (2001). Globalization and educational rights. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

Two or More Authors

For a book by more than one author, list he names of all the authors. Use commas to

separate surnames and initials. Place an ampersand(﹠)before the name of the last author. For

example,

Tollefson, J., & Tsui, A. (Eds.). (2004). Medium of instruction policies: Which agenda? Whose

agenda? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Edition other than the first

Identify an edition other than the first within parentheses following the title with

capitalized “In” and the number of the edition in serial from(2nd, 3rd,4th, etc.) or, if it is a

word, abbreviated (Rev. Ed. eds). Use parentheses to the page numbers. For example,

.Sussan.G.(2002). Second language acquisition (3rd ed.) New York: Harp& Row

Reprinted Work

The entry for a reprinted work indicates the original date of publication within

parentheses. For example,

Darwin, c. (1964). On the origin of the species: A facsimile of the first edition (In trod. Ernst

Mayer). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1859)

Edited Volume

Indicate that a book is an edited volume by pacing the abbreviation for editor(Ed.) or

editors (Eds.) within parentheses in the author position. For example,

Stanton, D.C. (Ed.). (1987).The female autograph: theory and practice of autobiography from the

tenth to the twentieth century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Chapter or article in edited book

In a reference to a chapter or article in an edited book, place the name of the author of

the chapter in the author position. The second part of the entry identifies the book in which

the article appears. The name(s) of the editor(s) (are) not inverted. The page numbers for the

individual chapter or article appear in parentheses after the title of the book. For example,

Tollefson, J. (2000). Policy and ideology in the spread of English. In J. Hall & W. Eggington

(eds.), The sociopolitics of English language teaching (pp. 7-21). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters

Technical and Research Reports

Entries for technical and research reports should follow the basic format for a book

entry. The identifying title, series, or number of the report, if any, should be placed in

parentheses immediately after the title. The name of the agency publishing the report should

not be abbreviated as an acronym, even if it is well known. For example,

Woods, D. (1999). Educational and training opportunities in sustainable agriculture (U.S.

Department of Agriculture). Beltsville, MD: National Agriculture Library.

Unpublished paper in process or presented at meeting

For an unpublished paper in process, present by “in press” within parentheses; If it is

presented at a conference or symposium, indicate the date of the presentation within

parentheses after the name of the author and identify the conference as fully as necessary

after the title. If the name of the city is well known, the name of the state may be omitted;

otherwise, include both city and state. For example,

Mackey, A., Oliver, R., Leeman, J. (in press). Interactional input and the incorporation of

feedback: an exploration of NS-NNS and NNS-NNS adult and child dyads. Language Learning

(in press).

Leeman, J. (2003, October). A study on Adult learners’ incorporation of feedback. Paper

presented at the 36th Annual Conference of Canadian TESL, Toronto, ONT.

McDonough, K. (2001). Exploring the Relationship Between Modified Output and L2 Learning.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgetown University, Washington, DC.

Electronic Media

The citation for an electronic source, including E-journals and CD-ROM, should

provide sufficient information to permit your reader to locate the material. Because electronic

sources can be easily altered or erased, it requires more information than you normally need

for print sources. The minimum information for an electronic source includes the author, if

any; the date; the title of the section you used; a description of the medium—On-line

Journals, CD-ROM, diskette, etc. ---placed within brackets; the title of the entire source

underlined; a statement about availability of the product; an the method or path used to

retrieve the material. APA does not place a period at the end of an electronic address. For

example,

Woods, D. (1997). Decision-making in language learning: A lens for examining learner strategies.

The Language Teachers Online [On-line], 21 (10). Available:

http//langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/oct/woods.html

Taylor, J., Eignor, S. and Kirsch, B. (1998). The relationship between computer familiarity and

performance on computer-based test tasks. RR-61[On-line]. Available: www.toefl.org/rrpts.html

Similar to the APA style, Modern Language Association (MLA) format presents

parenthetical citation within the text. Citation within the text provides such information as the

name of the author and the page number(s), to orientate readers to the accompanying

bibliographical entries. According to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, a

list of works cited in the text should be supplied and located at the end of a publishable

research paper in alphabetizing entries.

1. In-text Documentation

Unlike APA format, MAL requires the name of the author and the page numbers

rather than the year of publication presented in the in-text citation section, whether in the

form of direct quotation, paraphrase, or summary. The documentation should be entered in a

way that makes the identity of the source entirely clear while avoiding duplication and

unnecessary clutter. Most parenthetical citations do not include the intervening comma.

When the author’s name appears in the introduction the material, you need not repeat the

name within parentheses, as the following examples indicate:

• Recently, there has been a wide discussion about the development of genetic

algorithm ( Woods 189).

• Woods’ series of studies have proposed a new method to explore the genetic

algorithm (189-190).

1.1 To quote from authors less than four

Section 2. MLA-style References

When citing the resources with the author named in the text, you should put the page

number at the end of the cited section. For example,

• Helen investigated a group of non-native graduate writers and presented their

“encounters” in her book Listening to the World (2).

When you cite from the author not named in text, the initial name of the authors

should be included in the parentheses. For example,

• Several scholars have studied recent developments in academia in the context of the

history of university teaching (e.g., Graff).

• Modern literary studies have their origin in classical studies (Graff 19-35).

When you cite an entire work by the name of the author alone or by author and title,

you do not need a parenthetical reference, a reader will be able to find bibliographical

information by looking up the author’s name in your list of works cited. For example,

• Slade’s revision of Form and Style incorporates changes made in the 1995 edition of

the MLA Handbook.

When you have more than one author with the same last name, include the first initial

in subsequent references. For example, use the subsequent references ( H. Jansen 43) and ( S.

Jansen 112) to distinguish two different sources Harper Jansen and Smith Jansen. When the

two authors are father and son, with the son designated as Jr., include the designation Jr. in

the reference, preceded by a comma.

• That book chronicles visionary experiences in early modern Spain (Christian, Jr. 67).

1.2 To quote Work with four authors or a cooperate author

. When a work has four or more authors, you may list all four authors or give only the

last name of the first author followed by “er al”. Use the same form of reference you choose

for the text in the list of works cited. For example,

• The authors of Women’s Ways of Knowing make a distinction between “separate

knowing “and “connected knowing” (Belenky et al. 100-30) or (Belenky, Clinchy,

Goldberger, and Taule 100-30)

For a corporate author, use the name of the organization (abbreviated if it is lengthy,

after the first citation) in place of the name of the author.

• The annual report revealed substantial progress in fundraising (American Museum

of Natural History 12, hereafter AMNH) .…. (AMNH 15).

1.3 To quote by editor or compiler

List the names of editors, compilers or translators without the accompanying

abbreviation that appears in the list of works cited:

• Many of the articles in Research on Composing advocate further exploration of the

motivation for writing (Cooper and Odell).

1.4 To quote the work listed by title only or material cited in another source

For a work listed only by title in your list of works cited, use the title in parentheses,

shortening it to two or three words. Your abbreviate title must include the word by which the

title is alphabetized in your list. You would not want to abbreviate the title in the example

below to “Pharaoh,” for example, because the entry should be alphabetized by “ancient”.

• Due to air pollution, Egypt plans to move the status of Ramses II the main railroad

station in Cairo to the west bank of the Nile (“Ancient Pharaoh Statue”).

When you quote material from a source other than the original, introduce the name of

the source with “ qtd, In”. The author and title of the source you actually consulted appear in

the list of works cited. For example,

• Goethe wrote that “it takes more culture to perceive the virtue of The Magic Flute

than to point out its defects” (qtd. In Newman 2:104)

1.5 To quote multivolume work or two or more works by the same author

To cite an entire volume of a multivolume work, use the author’s name and the

abbreviation “vol.”. For example,

• This valuable reference work surveys the major operas of Mozart and Puccini

(Newman, vol. 2).

To cite a portion of a volume of a volume of a multivolume work, use an Arabic

numeral to indicate the volume followed by a colon and the page number(s). For example,

• Newman discusses the controversy about the quality of Mozart’s The Magic Flute

(2:104-05).

When you have two works or more by the same author, use a shortened vision of the

title in each reference. For example,

• Shaughnessy points out that “the beginning writer does not know how writers

behave” (Errors 79)

When you need to include more than one work in a parenthetical citation, separate

entries with a semicolon. For example, to use (Errors 79; “Diving in”68; Brooks and

Warren 5)

2. Reference List in MLA

In MLA-style reference list, the alphabetizing entries and italicized names of article

titles or books are employed in accord with the parenthetical in-text documentation.

2.1 Construct of the reference list

In general, the reference list in MLA should follow the guidelines:

• All the entities in the reference list are arranged according to the alphabetical order

of the surname of the author without the use of any Arabic numbers before each

entity. The first word of each entry in the list should be written as “ the first (surname)

+ comma + the last name” .

• Each entity in the list begins at the very beginning of the line without any space. If

you cannot finish within one line, you should continue into the second line. The

second line begins with five spaces indented to serve the purpose of giving the

prominent place of the author. For example,

Oliver, Richard. “The patterns of negotiation for meaning in child interactions”. Modern Language Journal 86 (2002): 97–111.

Oyama, Sussan. “A sensitive period for the acquisition of a nonnative phonological system”. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 5 (1976): 261–285.

• When using an edited volume or compilation and refer to more than one of the

articles in it, you must list each article by author in the works cited section, along with

the editor of the volume. For example,

Pienemann M. and Johnston, M. “Factors influencing the development of language proficiency”. Applying Second Language Acquisition Research. Ed Nunan, D. New Zealand: National Curriculum Resource Center, AMEP, Adelaide, 1987: 45–141.

• MLA-style shortens the names of publishers to one word whenever possible. The

name of the publishing house can be abbreviated. For example, “University Press”

can be abbreviated as UP or U.P. For the famous publishing house, it can only be

noted down as: Harper, Dell, etc, (the key words only). MLA also puts the name of

the imprint, or division, of a publisher before the name of the publisher, citing a book

published Harper and Row’s Colophon series as Colophon-Harper. For example,

Hakelly, Fox. Revisting the Washback. Ed. Dorothy Collin. Intod. Martin Dodsworth. Harmondsworth, Eng. : Penguin, 1996.

• The page(s) of eh magazine articles and the chapters of a book should be be written in

the following ways: A) the two digit numbers: it should be written out completely.

Such as 17-18; 28-59; 80-88; B) the three digit numbers: you just write down the

first number completely, the second number can be done with the last two numbers

only. EG: 127-51; 311-19; For example,

Long, M.H. “The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition”. Handbook of Language Acquisition, vol. 2. Second Language Acquisition. Ed. Ritchie C. and Bhatia. T.K. New York : Academic P. 1996. 413–68.

2.2 Forms of the reference list

The basic forms of the reference list are:

Books 1) the name of the author, compilers, etc.

2) the title of the book (Italicized)

3) the place of the publishers

4) the name of the publishing house

5) the time of publication

Magazines 1) the name of the author

2) “the title of the article”

3) the name of the magazine

4) the series number (if any)

5) the date of the publication

6) the page number

2.1.1 Reference List for Books Cited

The reference list for books cited includes the name(s) of the author(s) or of the

editor(s), compiler(s), the title of the book with any subtitle; and the facts of publication,

which include the city of publication. Each portion ends with a period followed by on space.

Invert the first author’s name, placing a comma after the surname and a period after the first

name(s), which should be spelled out in their entirety unless the title page displays initials;

the names of any additional authors are not inverted. Italicize the complete title and subtitle,

but not the final period. Take the facts of publication form the title page or the copy right

page. Abbreviate the publisher’s name. If several cities are listed, cite only the first. If the

state is needed for clarification, use U.S. Postal Service Abbreviations, And if the country or

province is needed, include a standard abbreviation, available in most dictionaries. For

example,

Book by a single author

Winfield, Richard Dien. Law in Civil Society. Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1995.

Book by two or three authors

Simons, Wendy, and Barbara Katz Rothman. Centuries of Solace: Grief in Popular Literature. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1992.

Book by four or more authors

Instead of presenting the names of all authors, the abbreviation “et al.”, meaning

“and others,” is preferred.

McPherson, William, et al. English and American Literature: Sources and Strategies for Collection Development. Chicago: ALA, 1987.

An edited, compiled, or translated volume

The name (s) of the person(s) responsible for the book go(es) in the author’s position, followed by an abbreviation for “ed.” “comp.” or “trans.” [ed. for editor; eds. for editors; comp. for compiler; comps. for compilers; and trans. for translator(s) ] .

Baum, Robert, ed. Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road through Tiananmen. New York: Rutledge, 1992.

Group or corporate author:

Bicycling Magazine. Reconditioning the Bicycle. New York: Rodale, 1989.

When the corporate author is also the publisher, the name is not repeated.

American Museum of Natural History. Annual Report. 1993-1994. New York, 1995.

2.1.2 Reference List for Journal Articles

In general, the reference List for Journal Articles include: (1) the name of the author

or editor provided as the ones in books; (2) the full title of the article within quotation marks;

and (3) the information of publication, which usually includes the name periodical

(italicized), the series name and number if any, the volume number (for a scholarly journal

only), the date of publication followed by a colon, and the inclusive page numbers on which

the article appears. Omit any introductory article in the periodical title (Los Angles Times,

not the Los Angeles Times). For example,

Article in a scholarly journal

Fox, Janna. “Technical Writing Skills.” Second Language Writing 3 (1999): 202-16.

Article in journal paginating each issue separately:

Gardner, Thomas. “An Interview with Josie Graham.” Denver Quarterly 26.4(1979): 22.

Journal using only issue numbers

When a journal numbers by issue rather than by volume, treat the issue number like a

volume number.

Nwezeh, C.E. “The Comparative Approach to Modern African Literature.” Year book of General and Comparative Literature 28 (1979): 22.

Article in journal with more than one series

Identify the series immediately after the title by ordinal number (2nd, 3rd ) or ns for

new series and os for old series.

Klein, Milton M. “The Pleasures of Teaching and Writing History.” William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. 52(July 1995):483-87.

Erickson, Peter. “Singing America: From Walt Whitman to Adrienne Rich.” Kenyon Review ns 12.1(1995): 103-19.

Article in a newspaper

For a quotation of an article in a newspaper, use the name of the newspaper as it

appears on the masthead, excluding any introductory article, such as the.

Mercer, Pamela. “U.S.Venture Bets Colombian Coal.” New York Times 27 July 1995, late city ed.: D7.

When a particular edition of a newspaper is specified, include its designation,

abbreviated, after the date (natl. for national, intl. for international, and do on.)

Donnelly, John. “Unrest in Iraq May Be a Mirage.” Miami Herald 22 July 1995, intl. ed.:1A+.

Article in a magazine

For a weekly magazine, give day, month, and year; for a monthly, give the month and

year only. Abbreviate all months except May, June, and July.

Kinoshita, June. “The Mapping of the Mind.” New York Times Magazine 18 Oct. 1992: 44+.

Brody, Howard. “How Would a Physicist Design A Tennis Racket? Physics Today Mar. 1995:26-31.

Anonymous magazine article

“Weather Satellite Finally Fit for Work.” Science News 18 Mar. 1995:171.

Entry for the entire edited volume

BNattaglia, Debbora, ed. Rhetorics of Self-making. U of California P, 1995.

Entry for article in the edited volume, one article or more cited When you use only one article in an edited volume or compilation, your entry begins

with the author of the article.

Marcus, George E. “On Eccentricity.” Battaglia 43-58.

Wagner , Roy. “If you have the advertisement you don’t need the product.” Battaglia 59-76.

Shaughnessy, Mina P. “Diving Introduction to Basic Writing.” The Writing Teacher’s Sourcebook. Ed. Gary Tate and Edward P.J. Corbett. New York: Oxford UP, 1981. 62-68.

More than one work by same editors: For the quotation of more than one work by the same editor(s) or compiler(s), use a

shortened form of the title to identify the compilation when listing individual articles.

Lloyd-Jones, Richard. “Primary Trait Scoring.” Cooper and Odell, Evaluating Petty, Walter T. “The Writing of Young Children.” Cooper and Odell, Research 73-84.

2.1.3 Reference List for Electronic Sources:

The reference list for an electronic source requires more information than you

normally need for print sources. The minimum information for the list of an electronic source

includes the author, if any , the title of the section you used, in quotation marks; the title of

the entire source, italicized; volume or issue number; year or date of publication (in

parentheses); number of pages (if applicable); a description of the medium(CD-ROM,

diskette, etc.); the name of the computer network or vendor and, if it is not well known, an

assess preceded by the word Available from; the date of electronic publication, if necessary

for your purpose. The equipment required to run it; and, in the case of on-line or E-mail

materials, the date you accessed the source. You may supply the electronic address or path at

the end of the entry. For example,

On-line Journals or E-Journals

Linery, E. Gardern, Paul. Georing, P. et al. Diagnosis of anorexia nervosa: a study on molecular mechanism. Br J Psych [serial online] 1998 Apr [ cited in 2002]; 189 (2): 300-03 Available from: URL: http:// biomed.niss.ac.uk

Articles or materials from CD-ROM

Microsoft Windows XP 2003. [Computer software]. Version.4. CD-ROM. Redmond, WA: Microsoft,2003.DOS 3.31, Windows 4.0, 6MB.

Materials from multimedia (database)

CDATA 98 with supermap: database for England. [ disk]. Release 2.1 rev. Hawthone East, Vic.: Space-time Research 1998.

Chapter 5 Proofreading and Editing --- to Finalize the Draft

A process of research paper writing may involve four stages before submitting:

planning, drafting, proofreading for redrafting and editing to finalize the draft. It is an

important stage to redraft a research paper by proofreading and do the editing by checking

through its presenting formats and styles. Generally, to do the proofreading of a research

paper, you need identify i) coverage and organization; and ii) presentation. When editing the

final draft, you need follow the acceptable format and style as a publishable journal article

required.

1.1 Coverage and Organization

A checklist of coverage and organization may include the work of checking through

the paper with 1) focus on argumentation 2) focus on forms.

Focus on Argumentation:

• Is the argument fit in the subject of the journal in which you hope to publish you

paper?

• Does the literature you reviewed cover most important studies related to your

argument?

• Do you present clearly and effectively what you are trying to argue in this paper?

• Is your study or experiment valid enough to support your argument?

Section 1. Proofreading

• Do you concentrate on the argument in the presentation of the paper, in particular in

the sections of the Abstract, the Introduction and the Findings and Discussions?

Focus on Forms:

• Does your abstract cover your study and main findings?

• Does your introduction indicate the relevant studies sufficiently?

• Are your procedures of study presented clear enough to be duplicated?

• Do you provide enough information about the validity of your study results?

• Do you make the effective contrasts and comparisons in your discussion and conclusions?

1.2 Presentation

A checklist of presentation of the paper may involve the work to check through

scientific and technical ( or formal ) language uses, capitalization and punctuation. To be

specific, you may start the proofreading from i) wording; ii) spelling; iii) logic of long

sentences.

I. Wording

Wording is important part for a non-native writer to draft an acceptable research

paper. The goal to do the wording is to avoid the bulky or informal expressions and achieve

conciseness. The following examples come form some typical mistakes in the academic

paper writing ( Cheng, 2005; Ren, 2004 ).

Informal or bulky expressions Concise use for academic writing a lot of many, several a majority of most a number of many, several a small number of a few accounted for the fact that because after this has been done then all of all along the lines of like an innumerable number of innumerable, countless, many an order of magnitude 10 times are found to be are are in agreement agree are known to be are are of the same opinion agree as a consequence of because of as far as our own observations we observed ascertain the location of find as whether or not whether at the present time (moment) now, at present based on the fact that because be comprised of comprise bright green in color bright green by means of by, with carry out perform cause injuries to injured completely filled filled contemporaneous in age contemporaneous covered over covered definitely proved proved despite the fact that although dies out ends due to the fact that because, due to during that time while, when during the course of during, when exposed at the surface exposed fall off decline few in number few first initiated initiated for a distance of 10 km 10 km for the purpose of examining to examine for the reason that because future plans plans give rise to cause goes under the name of is called has been shown to be is

Informal or bulky expressions Concise use for academic writing has the capability of can, is able if conditions are such that if, when if it is assumed that if in (my, our) opinion it is not an (I, we) think in a satisfactory manner, satisfactorily, adequately in all cases always, in variably in case if in close proximity to near in connection with about, concerning in consequence of this fact therefore, consequently in length long in order to to in spite if the face that although in the case of …. In …, for…. in the course of during, while in the event that if in the near future soon in the vicinity of near in the those areas where where in view of the fact that because is in a position to can, may is known to be is is appears that apparently is has been reported by Jones Jones reported it is clear that clearly it is likely that likely it is often the case that often it is possible that possible it is possible that the cause is the cause may be it is this that this it is worth pointing out that note that it would appear that apparently it would thus appear that apparently lacked the ability that could not large in size large large numbers of many lenticular in character lenticular locate in, locate near in, near look after watch masses are of large size masses are large, large masses necessitates the in collusion of needs, requires of great importance important of such hardness that so hard that on account of because on behalf of for

Informal or bulky expressions Concise use for academic writing on the basis of form, by, because on the ground that because on the order of about original source source oval in shape, oval-shaped oval owing to the fact that because, due to over more than past history history plans exhibited good growth plants grew well prior to (in time) before prove up test red in color red referred to as called reported in the literature reported results so far achieved results so far, result to date round in shape round serves the function of being is small in size mall subsequent to after take into consideration consider the fish in question this fish, these fish the majority most the question as to whether whether the tests have not as yet the tests have not the treatment having been after treatment there can be little doubt that this probably is through the use of by, with (not via) throughout the entire area throughout the area throughout the whole of the experiment throughout the experiment two equal halves halves was of the opinion that believed with a view to getting to get with the result that so that

II. Spelling

It is quite complex for Chinese scholars as non-native writers to learn to use correct

spellings in academic paper writing in English in China’s EFL (English as Foreign language)

context. Because when they were EFL learners they had to follow different requirements of

spelling and pronunciation in terms of their learning encounters with American and British

English in spoken and written languages. As a basic requirement, to do the proofreading

requires the writer to distinguish the American English spellings from British ones,

especially of those frequently used listed below (Lu, 1996), in the paper.

American British （1） e ae, oe ameba amoeba anapest anapast anemia anaemia anesthesia (anesthetic) anaesthes(anaesthetic) cesium caesium diarrhea diarrhoea edema oedema encyclopedia encyclopaedia esophagus oesophagus esthetic aesthetic estrogen oestrogen etiology aetiology fetus foetus hematology haematology leukemia leukaemia maneuver maneuvre medieval mediaeval pediatrician pediatrician (2) -er -re center centre fiber fibre goiter goitre liter litre maneuver maneuvre meter metre somber sombre theater theatre (3) to omit “-e” -e acknowledgment acknowledgement aging ageing judgment judgement likable likeable (4) -ction -xion

connection connexion deflect deflexion inflection inflexion retroflection retroflexion (5) im, in- em-, en- impanel empanel incase encase inquiry enquiry insure ensure (6) -ize -ise analyze analyse apologize apologise modernize modernise realize realse (7) -l -ll concilor councillor jewelry jewellry level (levelled) levell (levell) quarrel (quareled) quarrell (quarrelled) woolen woollen travel ( traveled) travell (travelled) skillful skilful fulfill fulfil (8) -log -logue analog analogue catlog catlogue dialog dialogue (9) -lyze -lyse analyze(analysis) analyse(analysis) catalyze(catalysis) catalyse(catalysis) civilize(civilization) civilise(civilisation) organize(organization) organise(organisation) tationalize (tationalization) tationalise(tationalisation) (10) -o -ou armor armour behavior behaviour clamor clamour color colour favor favour flavor flavour

humor humour labor labour odor odour vigor vigour mold mould smolder smoulder (11) -se -ce defense defence license license offense offence practise practice pretense pretence (12) aluminum aluminium artifact artefact check cheque draft draught leukemia leukaemia mold mould program programme sulfur sulphur (13) antenna aerial apartment flat assignment homework basement cellar calendar diary cell-phone mobile-phone custom-made made to order disk disc district division fall autumn faculty staff (university) faucet tap flashlight torch gas petrol high school secondary school kerosene paraffin motor engine period full stop railroad mackintosh recess break resume curriculum vitae, C.V. senior undergraduate sick ill

sidewalk pavement sophomore undergraduate store shop stock shares suspenders braces transmission gearbox wrench spanner zero nought zip code postcode, post code III. Logic of long sentences

Any publishable research paper has limits of words. So the writer has to condense the

sentences and paragraphs with more information included. As such, skills in dealing with

long sentences may play a critical role in writing a journal article. The logic of long

sentences concerns (i) correct use of conjunctions; (ii) agreement of contexts; and (iii)

completeness of structures. For example,

Correct use of conjunctions

The following conjunctions are most frequently used by mistake:

To express Condition: if , when, as ( see the examples below from a published paper)

When the battery is charged, lithium ions on the cathode migrate to the anode. As the battery

is used, the ions migrate back to provide the energy. In the charged state, the cathode without

most of its ions is highly unstable. If a spark occurs, the temperature of the cathode can exceed

275 degrees.

To express Reason: because , for, as, since

To present Attributive: that, where, as, which (see the examples below from

published papers)

In the steady state, as masses can perform random walks with a finite rate, the mass of a hub node

(mhub) diffuses to different nodes with the probability of being at node i given as Eq. (5). The

inset of Fig. 6 (b) shows the snapshot of the mass distribution of nodes with degree k for a single

sample at time t = 4х105 on SFN with γ=2.4 for ρ=3.0 and ρ=1.0. As shown, there is a peak

which may be formed at khub as in ZRP. However, the peak of mass m is not always located at

khub but diffuse around nodes according to Pi ∞ [Fig. 6(b)]. Hence by taking the average, the peak

soaks into the average mass mk, unlike in ZRP where all samples have the peak at khub. To see

this more explicitly, we derive the relation, mk ~k, based on the assumption that the diffusion

(the random walks of masses) is the only relevant physical factor to decide P(m)in the steady state.

To indicate Results: therefore, thus, so, so that,

To express Transition: however, hence, but, while, although (see the examples above

and below from published papers)

In summary, the interaction hypothesis (described in Long, 1996) has made important predictions

about the contributions of various features of interaction to second language development.

Although generally supportive, most of the empirical tests of the interaction hypothesis have

been conducted with adult language learners. Interestingly, however, studies of child language

learners and child-adult comparisons, while generally not focusing on developmental outcomes,

have indicated that the patterns and immediate outcomes of interaction may be different for

children and adults. It is therefore a crucial next step to examine if and how interaction also

facilitates second language development for children, as it has been shown to do with adults. It is

the goal of this study to begin to address this question.

Agreement of contexts The agreement of context involves the relationship of the numbers of concepts or

nouns (including the choice of countable and uncountable nouns) with the relevant verbs and

pronouns. While paragraphing, the writer should follow the rules in specific contexts, such as

how to define an countable and uncountable noun, the proper use of articles and single or

plural forms of pronouns. To study the following materials from a published paper, you may

notice the agreement of the highlighted parts in the whole paragraph.

The potential for fire in a lithium-ion battery is a result of its chemical composition. Contained

in that small package are all the elements needed for a fierce blaze: carbon, oxygen and a

flammable fluid. The battery is made of a thin layer of lithium cobalt oxide, which serves as

the cathode, and a strip of graphite, the anode. These are separated by a porous insulator and

surrounded by fluid, a lithium salt electrolyte that happens to be highly flammable.

Completeness of structures Proper use of structures, such as parallel structures and absolute structures, may help

build up clearness and conciseness. However, incomplete structure may confuse readers and

editors as well. The following examples are typical in practical use in research paper writing.

Parallel Structure by idioms or collocations

Hirvonen (1985) concluded that child speakers were able to modify their speech when addressing

child learners, and to differentiate between their peers who are native speakers and those who

are non-native speakers.

Parallel Structure by clauses

Cathcart-Strong (1986) also observed that young children used various communicative

strategies to obtain large amounts of modified input from their peers, and that child

learner productions involved a wider variety of communicative acts and syntactic

structures when the child had control of the activity they were engaged in.

Parallel Structure by modifiers

Oliver claims that although children are less developed cognitively, socially, and

linguistically, they are still "aware of their conversational responsibility and attempt to

work towards mutual understanding"

Absolute structure as ending

Ellis et al. (2001) concluded that uptake occurred in 73.9% of the focus on form episodes

where it was possible, noting that amounts were higher and more successful in student-

initiated focus on form episodes.

Absolute structure as inserted modifier

The volatility of batteries in laptops, and those powering millions of portable

consumer devices from cell-phones to power drills, was made apparent Monday with

Dell’s recall of 4.1 million laptop batteries. Dell said the batteries, made by Sony, could

catch fire because of a problem in the manufacturing process.

Apart from following the documentation formats, including the styles of in-text

citation and reference list, as discussed in Chapter 4, to meet the requirements of

Abbreviation, Capitalization and Punctuation in academic paper writing is also a necessity of

finalizing the draft by editing. In this section, the focus will be on some basic rules of

employing abbreviation, capitals and punctuations in research paper writing.

1. Abbreviation

Abbreviations benefit both readers and writers in some extent to which the frequently

used academic terms in the relevant research area could be accepted and to which the

presentation could be simplified to collect concentration of reading. Generally, they are more

frequently used in Abstract and Introduction. If the abbreviation is needed, the term should

Section 2. Editing: Final Draft

be used in a complete form for the first time with the abbreviation followed in the parenthesis.

Any abbreviated term should be capitalized. For example,

The 4 pipeline stages were: Instruction Fetch and Decode (IFD), Execute (EX),

Memory (MEM), and Write-Back (WB). The IFD stage contained the Instruction

Memory and the Register File. The EX stage had the ALU. The MEM stage had the

read-only Data Memory, which was modeled as an uninterpreted function that took as

input an address term computed by the ALU in the EX stage and produced a term for the

data at that address. Both the ALU and load instructions had two data operands.

Most abbreviation omits the prepositions, articles and the conjunction word “and” . For

example,

Presented are abstraction techniques that accelerate the formal verification of pipelined

processors with value prediction. The formal verification is done by modeling based on

the logic of Equality with Uninterpreted Functions and Memories (EUFM), and

using an automatic tool flow. Applying special abstractions in previous work had resulted

in EUFM correctness formulas.

Some typical abbreviations should be used in a proper manner without complete

forms provided. For example,

The journal-specific abbreviations (see the appendix II for the abbreviations of publishers):

• IEEE --- in the journals of Electronic Engineering

• SLA --- in the journals of Applied Linguistics

• O, P, I, Li, …, ( the chemical elements) --- in the journals of Chemistry

• CPU, ROM, RAM, PC --- in the journals of computer sciences

The abbreviations in the reference list

• The first name of authors, such as Kim, L.S. ; Fox, J.; Smith, D.

• The names omitted by et al. ( means “and others”)

• Ed. Or Eds. ( Editor or editors); 2 nd ed. ( Second edition); Rev. Ed. ( Revised edition)

• P. or pp. ( page or pages); Vol. ( volume); Chap. ( chapter); No. ( number)

• The names of the states of America

The abbreviations of units of measures and weights

• 7 units in SI (International System of Units ): m (meter), s (second), K(kelvin), kg

(kilogram), A (ampere); mol (molal); cd( candela)

• Time: s (second); min (hour); h (hour) d (day)

• Length: m (meter); km (kilometer); dm (decimeter); mm (millimeter); μ (micron)

• Area: sq. m. (square meter) sq. km (square kilometer);

• Weight and mass: mg (milligram); g (gram); kg ( kilogram); t ( ton)

• Capacity: l. (liter); ml (milliliter); cl ( centiliter); kl (kiloliter)

2. Capitalization The following are some basic rules for capitalization in research paper writing besides

the ones discussed in the Abbreviation part above:

• Any sentence should start from a word with the first letter capitalized, including the

sentences in the quotation mark and the parentheses. For example,

This example shows the native speaker recasting the first two question forms into a more

target-like "Did three little ones fall down?"

• The first letter of the words in the title or subtitle of an article should be capitalized

with the exception of the articles and prepositions. For example,

The title of an article

The Explanatory Power of Critical Language Studies: Linguistics with an Attitude

The title of a book cited

Critical discourse analysis has featured prominently as a powerful research methodology

in recent issues of Critical Inquiry in Language Studies

• The first letter of any specialized nouns, such as the person’s name, the country, the

nationality, the language, the widely accepted names, etc. for example,

Klemperer’s thesis, in essence, was that the public and official language use of the Nazi

state served as a political and ideological tool, and that the distortion of language

facilitated the creation of a Nazified culture and society by contributing to a mindset that

was shared by both the Nazis and the opponents.

• The capitalization in formula, diagram or graph may vary from journal to journal, but

the agreement of the capitalized letters should be kept in the text. For example,

3. Punctuation English punctuation often confuses Chinese research paper writers because there is

much similarity in English and Chinese punctuations. On the other hand, there are still a lot

of differences between them. The following examples are the mistakes frequently made by

Chinese students (Wang, 2005; Yu, 2004).

Period ( “ .” )

To compare the two sentences

Noam Chomsky once commented that, “The distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as

we know, unique to man” (quoted in Fromkin & Rodman, 1993, p. 3). ( √ )

Noam Chomsky once commented that, “The distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as

we know, unique to man.” (quoted in Fromkin & Rodman, 1993, p 3) ( Χ )

Comma (“,”) To study the two sentences, which one is better? Why?

The emphasis in the current study is on learning outcomes measured through posttests,

rather than on immediate responses, and the form or type of the feedback is not the

focus here. ( √ )

The emphasis in the current study is on learning outcomes measured through posttests

rather than on immediate responses and the form or type of the feedback is not the

focus here. ( Χ )

To tell which one is right: (1)

The tasks used in this study: (a) provided contexts for the targeted structures to occur as

discussed above and (b) provided opportunities for interactional adjustments such as

clarifications of meaning to take place. ( √ )

The tasks used in this study: (a) provided contexts for the targeted structures to occur, as

discussed above, and (b) provided opportunities for interactional adjustments, such as

clarifications of meaning, to take place. ( Χ )

(2) However research has shown children can and do provide feedback to their peers and we

suggest that the quantity of feedback may be less important as an aid to development than

other factors, such as timing and developmental readiness. This is of course an empirical

question. ( Χ )

However, research has shown children can and do provide feedback to their peers and we

suggest that the quantity of feedback may be less important as an aid to development than

other factors, such as timing and developmental readiness. This is, of course, an

empirical question . ( √ )

Ellipsis (“ …”) To study the following example ending with “….”

The native speaker did not indicate any lack of comprehension, but simply moved on

with the conversation and the task as in "I haven't got that" and "ok, I've got a dad and a

son...."

In the formula

The subscripts 1, 2, …, refer to the respective nuclei.

N = S0 + S0 K + S0 K1+ S0K2 …+ S0 K(n-1)

Dj, where j = 1, 2, 3, …, n.

Appendix I Typical Abbrs in Reference List of Journal Articles Words Abbrs Abstracts Abstr Academy Acad Accounts Accounts Acoustical Acoust Acta Acta Advanced Adv Advancement Adv Advances Adv African Afr Agricultural Agric AIAA AIAA AIDS AIDS Alcoholism Alcohol America Am American Am Anesthesia Anaesth Anales An Analgesia Analg Analysis Anal Analyst Analyst Analytica Anal Analytical Anal Anatomy Anat Andrology Androl Anatomical Anat Anesthesia Anesth Anesthesiology Anesthesiol Angewte Angew Animal Anim Annalen Ann Annales Ann Annals Ann Annual Annu Anthropological Anthropol Antibiotics Antibiot Antimicrobial Antimicrob Applied Appl Aquatic Aquat Arbeiten Arb Archiv Arch Archive Arch Archives Arvh Archivio Arch

Words Abbrs Arteriosclerosis Arterioscl Assisted Assist Association Assoc Astrointestinal Astrointest Astronomy Astron Astrophysical Astrophys Astrophysics Astrophys Asymmetry Asymmetr Atmospheric Atmos Atomic At Australian Aust Automatic Automat Bacteriological Bacteriol Bacteriology Bacteriol Bakteriologie Bacteriol Behavior Behav Berichte Ber Biochemica Biochim Biochimica Biochem Biochemical Biochem Biochemistry Biochem Bioengineering Bioeng Biologial Biol Biologie Biol Biology Biol Biomechanics Biomed Biomedical Biomed Bioscience Biosci Bioparasitology Bioparasit Biophysica Biophys Biophysical Biophys Biophysics Biophys Biotechnology Biotechnol Blood Blood Botanical Bot Botanisches Bot Botany Bot Brain Brain British Br Bulletin Bull Bureau Bur Canadian Can Cancer Cancer

Words Abbrs Carbohydrate Carbohyd Cardiology Cardiol Cardiovascular Cardiovasc Catalysis Catal Cell Cell Cellular Cell Ceramic Cer Ceramic Cer Cerebral Cerebr Chemica Chem Chemical Chem Chemie Chem Chemi Chem Chemistry Chem Chemists Chem Chemotherapy Chemother Childhood Child Chimica Chem Chimie Chem Chronicle Chron Chromatography Chromatogr Circulation Circ Clinic Clin Chinese Chin Clinical Clin Clinica Clin College Coll Commonwealth Commw Communications Commum Comparative Comp Complement Complement Comptes C Computational Complement Computer Comput Conference Conf Contemporary Contemp Contributions Contrib Control Contr Coordination Coordin Cosmochimica Cosmochim Critical Crit Crystallographica Crystallogr Crysallography Crystallogr Council Counc Culture Cult

Words Abbrs Current Curr Cytochemistry Cytochem Dairy Daiiry Dental Dent Dermatolgoy Dermatol Design Des Development Dev Developmental Dev Devices Dev Dialysis Dial Diagnosis Diagn Diagnosis Diagn Directions Dir Directors Dir Document Doc Digestive Digest Disease Dis Disease Dis Drug Drug Ecology Ecol Economics Econ Edition Ed Egyptian Egypt Electric Electr Electrical Electr Electrocardiology Electrocardiol Electrochimica Electrochim Electroencephalograph Electroencpalogr Electronics Electronb Embryo Embry Embryology Embryol Emergency Emerg Endocrine Endocr Endocrinology Endocrinol Endocrine Endocr Endocrinology Endocrinol Endoscopy Endosc Engineering Eng England Engl Entomologia Entomol Entomologica Entomol Entomological Entomol Environment Environ Environmental Environ Enzymology Enzymol

Words Abbrs Epidemiology Epidemiol Ergebnisses opeanErgeb Espanola Esp Ethnology Ethnol European Eur Evolution Evol Excerpa Excerpa Exercise Exer Experimental Exp Fauna Fauna Federal Fed Federation Fed Fertility Fertil Fish Fish Fisheries Fish Flora Flora Flow F Folding Fold Folia Folia Food Food Forest For Forschung Forsch Francais Fr Freshwater Freshwater Gastroenterology Gastroenterol General Gen Genes Gene Genetics Genet Geochimica Geogchim Geochimical Geogr Geological Geol Geologische Geol Geolophysical Geophys Geriatrics Geriatr Gesellechaft Ges Gynaecology Gynaec Gynecologic Gynecol Gynecology Gynecol Haematology Haematol Heart Heart Helvetica Helv Hepatology Hepatol Histochemistry Histochem History Hist Human Hum

Words Abbrs Hygiene Hyg Hypertension Hypertens Immunity Immun Immunology Immunol India India Indian Indian Industrial Ind Infection Infect Information Inform Inorganica Inorg Institute Inst Instruments Intrum Interactions Interact Interface Interf Internal Intern International Int Investigation Invest Investigation Invest Investigative Invest Irish Ir Israel Isr Italiana Ital Jahrbuch Jahrb Jahresberichte Janresber Japan Jpn Japanese Jpn Journal J Kinetics Kinet Laboratory Lab Lecture Lect Letters Lett Leukocyte Leukcoyte Limnology Limnol Macromolecular Macromol Magazine Mag Magnetic Magn Magneticsm Magn Management Manage Marine Mar Material Mat Materials Mat Mathematical Math Mathematics Math Matter Mat Mechanical Mech

Words Abbrs Mechanics Mech Medical Med Medicine Med Metabolism Metab Media Media Mexico Mex Metals Met Methods Methods Microbiological Microbiol Microbiology Microbiol Mineral Miner Mineralogist Mineral Modern Mod Molecular Mol Monographs Monogr Monthly Mon Morphology Morphol Mutation Mutat National Natl Natural Nat Naturalist Nat Nature Nat Naunyn-schmiedebergs N-S Nephrology Nephrol Nervous Nerv Nervosa Nerv Neurobiology Neurobiol Neurochemistry Neurochem Neuroimmunology Neuroimmunol Nurological Neurol Neurology Neutol Neuropathologica Neuropathol Neuropathsiology Neuropath Neurophaysiology Neuropahysiol Neurophysiology Neurophysiol Neuroradiology Neuroradiol Neuroscience Neurosci Neurosurgery Neurosurg New York NY New Zealand NZ Non-Crystalline Non-Cryst Nursing Nurs Nonferrous Nonferr Notices Not Nuclear Nucl

Words Abbrs Numerical Nmuer Nutrition Nutr Obstetrical Obstet Obstetrical Obstet Obsterics Obdtet Oceanography Oceanogr Official Off Oncology Oncol Ophthalmology Ophthalmol Opinion Opin Optical Opt Optics Opt Organe Organe Organic Org Organization Organ Organometallic Organmet Organs Organs Otology Otol Orthopaedics Orthop Otolaryngology Otolaryngol Paediatrica Paediatr Paleontology Paediatr Paleontology Paleontol Panamericana Panam Pan American Pan Am Pathology Pathol Pediatrics Pediatr Perspectives Persp Petrology Petr Pflugers Pflug Pharmaceutical Pharm Pharmacology Pharmacol Photobiology Photobiol Pharmacy Pharm Photochemistry Photochem Photonics Photonic Physical Phys Physik Phys Physiologia Physiol Physiological Physiol Physiology Physiol Phytologist Phytol Planetry Planet Plastic Plast Pollution Pollut

Words Abbrs Polymer Polym Proceedings Proc Process Process Processes Processes Public Public Podiatry Podiatry Progress Prog Psychiatrica Psychiat Psychologicalchl Psychol Psychology Psychol Publications Publ Quarterly Q Radiation Radiat Radiology Radiol Reconstructive Reconstr Record Rec Rehabilitation Rehab Related Relat Rendus R Report Rep Reports Rep Reproduction Reprod Research Res Resources Reson Resources Resour Respiratory Respir Review Rev Reviews Rev Revista Rev Revue Rev Rheumatic Rheum Rheumatism Rheum Rheumatology Rheumatol Rivista Riv Roentgenology Roentgenol Royl R Scandinvia Scand Science Sci Sciences Sci Scientific Sci Scinavica Sc Scinavican Sc Seminars Semin Series Ser Service Serv

Words Abbrs Society Soc South African S Afr Special Spec Spectroscopy Spectros Sports Sport Statistical Stat Statistics Stat Sterility Steril Structural Struct Structural Struct Studies Stud Supplement Suppl Surface Surf Surgery Surg Surgical Surg Survey Surv Symposia Symp Symposium Symp System Syst Systematic Syst Technical Tech Technik Tech Technology Technol Theoretical Theor Therapeutics Ther Therapy Ther Thermal Therm Thoracic Thorac Thrombosis Thromb Tomography Tomo Toxicology Toxicol Transactions Trans Transfer Tran Transplantation Transplantation Tropical Trop Ultrasound Ultrasound Ultrastructure Ultrastruct Union Union United states U.S. University Univ Untersuchung Unters Urological Urol Urology Urol Vacuum Vac Vascular Vas(Vasc)

Words Abbrs Veterinary Vet Virology Virol Virus Virus Visual Vis Vitamin Vitam

Words Abbrs Wissenschaftliche Wiss Zeitschrift Z Zoologle Zool Zoology Zool

Appendix II Abbrs. of Most-frequently Cited Publishers

Publishers Abbrs A.A.Balkamaia AA Balkama Academic Press Academic Pr Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Addision-Wesley Alan R. Liss AR Liss American Chemical Society American Chemical Soc American College of Physicians American Coll of Physicians American Institute of Physics American Inst of Physics American Mathematical Society American Mathematical Soc ASP Press APS Pr Antheneum Publishers Atheneum Blackwell Scientific Publications, Inc. Blackwell Scientific Butterworth-Heinemann Butterworth-Heinemann Cambridge University Press Cambridge Univ Pr Churchill Livingstone, Inc. Churchill Livingstone Cornell University Press Cornell Univ Pr CRC Press，Inc. CRC Pr David R.Godine, Publisher DR.Godine Douglas & McIntyre Douglas & McIntyre Dover Publication, Inc Dover Editions Cepadues Cepadues Editions EIF-Aqutaine Editions EIF-Aqutaine Editions Flammarion Flammarion Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc. Elsevier Science Futura Publishing Co., Inc. Futura Geological Society of American Geological Soc of America Graphics Press Graphics Pr Harper & Row,Publishers, Inc. Harper & Row Harvard University Press Harvard Univ Pr Henry Holt &Co., Inc, Henry Holt Inkata Press Pry Ltd Inkata International Organization for Standardization IOS Jackdaw Press Jackdaw Pr Jones Wiley & Sons J Wiley Jones &Bartlett Publishers, Inc. Jones &Bartlett Les Editions INSERM Editions INSERM Little, Brown and Company Little, Brown Longman Group Longman Macmillan Publishing Co.,Inc Macmillan McGraw-Hill Book Company McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill ,Inc McGraw-Hill Merck& Co.,Inc Merck Merriam-Webster Inc., Publishers Merriam-Webster

Publishers Abbrs Blackwell Scientific Publications, Inc. Blackwell Scientific Butterworth-Heinemann Butterworth-Heinemann Cambridge University Press Cambridge Univ Pr Churchill Livingstone, Inc. Churchill Livingstone Cornell University Press Cornell Univ Pr CRC Press，Inc. CRC Pr David R.Godine, Publisher DR.Godine Douglas & McIntyre Douglas & McIntyre Dover Publication, Inc Dover Editions Cepadues Cepadues Editions EIF-Aqutaine Editions EIF-Aqutaine Editions Flammarion Flammarion Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc. Elsevier Science Futura Publishing Co., Inc. Futura Geological Society of American Geological Soc of America Graphics Press Graphics Pr Harper & Row,Publishers, Inc. Harper & Row Harvard University Press Harvard Univ Pr Henry Holt &Co., Inc, Henry Holt Inkata Press Pry Ltd Inkata International Organization for Standardization ISO Jackdaw Press Jackdaw Pr Jones Wiley & Sons J Wiley Jones &Bartlett Publishers, Inc. Jones &Bartlett Les Editions INSERM Editions INSERM Little, Brown and Company Little, Brown Longman Group Longman Macmillan Publishing Co.,Inc Macmillan McGraw-Hill Book Company McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill ,Inc McGraw-Hill Merck& Co.,Inc Merck Merriam-Webster Inc., Publishers Merriam-Webster Modem Language association of American Modem Language assoc of America National Academy Press National Acad Pr New York Academy of Sciences N Y Acad of Sciences Oxford University Press Oxford Univ Pr Pergamon Press Pergamon Plenum Publishing Corp Plenum Presses Universities de France Prs Univ France Raven Press Raven Routledge, Chapman &Hall Routledge, Chapman &Hall Sage Publication, Inc Sage Sinauer Associates Sinauer Smithsonian Institution Press Smithsonian Inst Pr SPB Academic Publishing BV SPB Academic Publishing

Publishers Abbrs Springer Publishing Company Springer Publishing Springer _ Verlag Springer _ Verlag St. Martin’s Press St. Martin’s State University of New York Press State Univ New York Pr The Analytic Press, Inc. Analytic Pr The Galileo Press Galileo The Johns Hopkins University Press Johns Hopkins Univ Pr The Keynes Press Keynes The MIT Press(the press of the Massachusetts MIT Pr Institute of Technology) The Reader’s Digest Association, Inc Reader’s Digest Assoc The Shoe String Press, Inc. Shoe String The University of Chicago Press Univ Chicago Pr United Stated Pharmacoperial Convention US Pharmacoperial Convention Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Van Nostrand Reinhold W. B. Saunders Company W B Saunders W.H. Freeman & Company WH Freeman Williams& Wilkins Williams& Wilkins