WPJ9 2 Coal Rush

World Placer Journal – 2009, vEMI Environmental Paper #2 –

Remote sensing of the coal sectorChina and MongoliRobin Grayson MSc and Chimed-Erdene Baatar MBAEco-Minex International Ltd., Apt.14, Bldg. 40, 1/40000 Microdistrict, Sukhbaatar District, Ulaanbaatar 210644, P.O.B. 242, Mongolia. E-mail: [email protected] the authors

Chimee completed her Masters Degree in Business Administrationin 2004 with the Maastricht School of Management, and has analysed Mongolia’s ‘coal rush’ by fieldwork and remote sensing. She has a special interest in the complex relationships between mining companies and artisanal miners, and is an officer Ulaanbaatar Rotary Club.Robin is a qualified geologist and ecologist, and has for coal in the South Lancashire Coalfield, Hindu Kush and the Gobi Desert. He produced new structural maps of the coalfields of northern England for the oil industry, and was an expert witness at several major UK public inquiries into opencast coal mining

9, volume 9, pages 24-47. www.mine.mn– September 2009

Remote sensing sector in Mongolia

Erdene Baatar MBA

40, 1/40000 Microdistrict, Sukhbaatar District, Ulaanbaatar 210644, P.O.B. 242, Mongolia.

Business Administration

with the Maastricht School of Management, and has rush’ by fieldwork and remote sensing.

interest in the complex relationships between mining companies and artisanal miners, and is an officer of

has prospected for coal in the South Lancashire Coalfield, Hindu Kush and the

He produced new structural maps of the coalfields of northern England for the oil industry, and was an expert witness

opencast coal mining.

Purpose of study

The overall purpose of the study iassist the reader to gain a better understanding of Mongoliaand to draw attention to lessons that can be learned from China’s coal industry

To achieve this, we searched for activities in northern Chinamodels – good and bad – to help guideMongolia in managing its spate of new coal mines.

The value of Google Earth in highlighting environmental issues is illustrated by images of coal seams on firewaters contaminating streamsdust affecting the nomadic the Gobi Desert.

A surprise was the ease of trackfrom coal trucks on dirt roads acrossGobi Desert, often many kilometresthe mine source.

The study presents evidence from Google Earth of the merit in insisting on rail transport of coal on environmental, health and safety grounds, rather than trucking by road, and for adopting rail in transporting waste to the dumps.

An unexpected outcome was the detection of a system of open fractures along a 5.5.km wall of a large coaXinjiang, indicating serious collapse

Special thanks are due to Lotus Resources PLC for technical and logistical support.

Figure 1. images of the coal mining

TOP – New rail loading facility at the Shivee Ovoo Mine on the Trans-Mongolian Railway. (photo: ChimedUPPER MIDDLE – A new mine shaft being sunk by a Chinese company at Nailakh. (photo: Chimed-Erdene BaatarLOWER MIDDLE – A new mine shaft being sunk by miners (‘ninjas’) at Nailakh. (photo: ChimedBOTTOM – Satellite image of a traffic jam of coal trucks at the entrance to the Nariin Sukhait Coal Mine in the Gobi Desertdestined for export via dirt roads to China

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rpose of the study is to a better visual

of Mongolia’s Coal Rushlessons that can

’s coal industry.

we searched for coal northern China to serve as

to help guidespate of new

The value of Google Earth in highlighting illustrated by

coal seams on fire, acid mine treams, and coal

e nomadic pastures of

s the ease of tracking spills rom coal trucks on dirt roads across the

kilometres from

The study presents evidence from Google Earth of the merit in insisting on rail transport of coal on environmental, health and safety grounds, rather than trucking by road, and for adopting rail in transporting waste to the dumps.

An unexpected outcome was the detection of a system of open fractures along a 5.5.km wall of a large coal mine in

rious collapse.

Special thanks are due to Lotus Resources PLC for technical and logistical support.

coal mining industry

ail loading facility at the Shivee Ovoo Mine on the (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

A new mine shaft being sunk by a Chinese Erdene Baatar)

A new mine shaft being sunk by informal t Nailakh. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

a traffic jam of coal trucks at the e in the Gobi Desert. All is

dirt roads to China. (image: Google Earth)

World Placer Journal – 2009, volume 9, pages 24-47. www.mine.mn

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Contents

Purpose of study...........................................................241: Coping with a coal rush ........................................252: Coal mines on Google Earth..................................263: Coal dust and ‘other’ dust .....................................264: Is coal detectable on Google Earth? ......................265: Large mine in Xinjiang – lessons for Mongolia .......276: Collapse of north face of Sandaoling Mine .............277: Dumps of Sandaoling Mine ...................................288: Dust prevention....................................................289: Risk of dump fires ................................................2910: Risk of open pit fires.............................................3011: Risk of virgin coal fires .........................................3012: Coal fires in China ................................................3113: Coal fires in Mongolia ...........................................3114: Risk of acid mine drainage....................................3215: Options for waste transport ..................................3316: Options for coal output.........................................3417: Coal transport – rail option ...................................3518: Issues at rail loading sites.....................................3619: Coal transport – road option .................................3720: Coal haul roads from mines ..................................3821: Haul road issue – coal spills ..................................3922: Haul road issue – multi-tracks.................................4023: Coal-burning power plants in Ulaanbaatar .............4124: Pulverised fuel ash (PFA) in Ulaanbaatar ...............4225: PFA and radon gas in Ulaanbaatar ........................4226: Time series on Google Earth .................................4327: Coal seams on Google Earth .................................4428: Coal briquettes in China........................................4529: Discussion............................................................4530: Recommendations................................................4631: Acknowledgements...............................................4632: References ...........................................................46

1. Coping with a coal rush

Mongolia only began to gain an industrialized economy decades after the Soviet Union industrial-military complex had matured. Late Soviet investment was barely sufficient to barely meet Mongolia’s modest need for heat and power. By the time the system collapsed, Mongolia had scant experience in financial, technical, environmental,regulatory or socioeconomic issues of large coal mines.

Yet the Soviets did prove large coalfields whose reserves were added to the ‘State balance’ and voluminous tomes filed in the then-secret State archives. Disintegration of the Soviet Union caused economic collapse and Mongolia de-industrialised rapidly. In response, the Government made public the State Geofund and with the assistance of the World Bank and IFC introduced a fast-track first-come first-served mineral cadastre. This triggered a Gold Rush in placer miningwhich as part of the Government Gold Plan pumped liquidity into the banking system and nascent private sector and stabilised the national currency.

In contrast, Mongolia’s coal sector developed in a lob-sided manner. Private companies opened small coal mines near Ulaanbaatar and close to rural markets. Butlarge mines were cash-starved by Governments capping coal prices to hold down prices of electricity and heating.

With dwindling cash and profits too low to warrantinvestment, the large mines became inefficient, production targets unrealistic and unit costs rocketed. Notoriously the Sharin Gol mine “went on strike” and refused to sell coal to the power stations of Darkhan or Erdenet cities at the uneconomic price set by the Government.

Figure 2. coal mine on strikeA banner over the locked gate of Sharin Gol Coal Mine proclaims:“2007.09.01 – some Sharin Gol miners are on strike, to stop coal being transported to the Darkhan and Erdenet power stations from this date”. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

Such dire confrontations are eventually settled or the cities’ residents and infrastructure would perish in the harsh Mongolian winter. But the low prices and uncertainty have deterred investment into the ex-Soviet flagship mines of Sharin Gol and Baganuur [2]. Today both struggle with antiquated equipment and try to open up blocks of reserves without sufficient funds.

Figure 3. inefficient miningThe draglines have insufficient reach to fling waste out of the open pit of Baganuur Coal Mine. (photo: Bernd Braeutigam)

Yet Mongolia has to shift from this byzantine scenario to manage a Coal Rush of global importance, driven by China’s insatiable appetite for energy and fuelled by aSoviet Geofund that archived billions of tons of coal. Yetfew Mongolians are aware of what a modern coal mine looks like or how it can produce low-cost coal profitably year-after-year with minimum impact. Mongolia risks repeating serious mistakes that have cost the west billions of dollars and a century to unravel; and today these mistakes are in evidence in China where ‘Coal is King’.

To assist the debate, we present visual evidence from China of how to stimulate the coal sector – and pitfalls to avoid! Finally we present some strong recommendations for Mongolia’s policy makers.

World Placer Journal – 2009, v

2. Coal mines on Google Earth

Coal mines were detected in Google Earth plotted as normal kmz files. Pins were chosen selection, and coloured from the GE colour palette. To avoid clutter, pins and text were downsized. were added for artisanal coal mining sites, and black truck pins used where coal trucks were seen. Special pins were added for indications of acid mine drainage (AMD), coal fires, coal-fired power plants, coal briquette plants. In addition, pins were added for signs of coal exploration by drilling and pitting, coal spillages from trucks and multitracking of coal haul roads.

Figure 4. coal mines in the study areaCoal mines in Mongolia and north China visible in high definition Google Earth and used in the study. (image: Google

3. Coal dust and ‘other’

As a prelude to this paper it is useful to clarify what is meant by dust in the context of coal mining.commonly produce three different types of dust.

Coal dust: blown from the mine floor and face, or from coal stockpiles and trucks. Less obvious but often more serious is the paler low carbon silica-rich dust blown from dumps of stripped overburden and flung into the air from haul tracks by coal trucks.

Figure 5. coal dust excursion from a coal mineCoal dust at Shivee Ovoo Coal Mine. (photo: Robin Grayson)

Figure 6. Silica dust in a gentle dust-storm Silica-rich dust blowing across a road. (photo: Robin Grayson)

The coal dust and silica dust often become mixed along haul roads to form a bright pale grey cover of dust.

Inter-seam dust: blown from dumps of interwaste with variable carbon and often high clay content.

Silica dust: dust blown from overburden dumps or flung into the air from dirt roads by coal trucks.

9, volume 9, pages 24-47. www.mine.mn

oogle Earth

Google Earth (GE) and hosen from the GE

selection, and coloured from the GE colour palette. To avoid clutter, pins and text were downsized. ‘Flag pins’

, and black truck Special pins were

added for indications of acid mine drainage (AMD), coal fired power plants, coal briquette plants. In

oal exploration by drilling and pitting, coal spillages from trucks and multi-

oal mines in Mongolia and north China visible in high definition image: Google Earth)

’ dust

As a prelude to this paper it is useful to clarify what is meant by dust in the context of coal mining. Coal mines

different types of dust. blown from the mine floor and face, or

from coal stockpiles and trucks. Less obvious but often rich dust blown

from dumps of stripped overburden and flung into the air

t excursion from a coal mineCoal dust at Shivee Ovoo Coal Mine. (photo: Robin Grayson)

storm (photo: Robin Grayson)

The coal dust and silica dust often become mixed to form a bright pale grey cover of dust.

: blown from dumps of inter-seam waste with variable carbon and often high clay content.

: dust blown from overburden dumps or flung into the air from dirt roads by coal trucks.

4. Is coal detectableon Google Earth?

We have detected coal seams on highGoogle Earth in northern China and southern Mongolia, particularly in rocky desert regions.by solid coal having a dull blackish colour, in swith the pale sandstones, siltstones and shaley clays with which coal so often is associated. Where clay rocks predominate, or where sandstones are soft, then the coal seams can be the hardest local rock in the sedimentary sequence and so the seams may sometimes as ribs through the thin desert soils.

When coal is disturbed by mining, including artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM), then the inevitable spillages of powdery broken coal form tell-tale black to blackishblue areas on Google Earth.

Figure 7. coal visible on Google EarthCoal’s dull black colour dominates this view of the coal yards west of Beijing. Stockpiles of coal are surrounded by coalground (image: Google Earth)

Figure 8. coal contrasts with arid groundThe black colour of coal is often in sharp contrast to the background colour of dry humus-poor bare soilsinformal coal mines at Nailakh. (photo: Robin Grayson)

Caution is required, for coal is mimicked by spillages of oil, areas of black shale or slate, arich clays. However, a characteristic of coal is a tendency to powder once disturbed and so streaks of coal dust on the ground can often be seen.

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coal seams on high-definition Google Earth in northern China and southern Mongolia,

This is made possible by solid coal having a dull blackish colour, in stark contrast

pale sandstones, siltstones and shaley clays with associated. Where clay rocks

predominate, or where sandstones are soft, then the coal seams can be the hardest local rock in the sedimentary

sometimes stand proud

When coal is disturbed by mining, including artisanal scale mining (ASM), then the inevitable spillages

tale black to blackish-

visible on Google Earthdull black colour dominates this view of the coal yards west

of Beijing. Stockpiles of coal are surrounded by coal-covered

coal contrasts with arid groundoal is often in sharp contrast to the pale

poor bare soils, as here in the Nailakh. (photo: Robin Grayson)

Caution is required, for coal is mimicked by spillages of oil, areas of black shale or slate, and by wet organic-rich clays. However, a characteristic of coal is a tendency to powder once disturbed and so streaks of coal dust on


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5. Large mine in Xinjiang– lessons for Mongolia

The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region producesabout 40% of China’s coal, and includes a wide range of coal mines in terms of size, age and mining method.

Xinjiang’s large Sandaoling Mine is instructive for Mongolia. For, although the mine is over 50 years old, it demonstrates issues that can arise when developing a large open-pit coal mine in a harshly continental arid environment. The main open pit is about 50 metres deep and up to 200 metres wide, and traces a narrow and gently sinuous course along the strike of Jurassic coals [31] for about 5.5 kilometres. These parameters arewithin the size range anticipated for several open pits envisaged for Mongolia’s Gobi desert in the short-term.

Figure 9. Sandaoling Coal MineHigh-definition Google Earth image with a cloudless sky, revealing the entire layout of Sandaoling open-pit coal mine and its dumps. Sandaoling city is visible at the top-right. (image: Google Earth)

Google Earth reveals mining is by a series of six to eight benches being excavated by large electric-powered face shovels with 11m bodies and 13m booms. These feed rail wagons on a fleet of dedicated merry-go-round trains that ply to-and-fro the dumps or coal stocking areas.

Figure 10. benches of Sandaoling Coal MineA view down inside the open pit showing seven of the mine benches. The lighter benches are of overlying overburden that is being stripped, while the darker lower layers are of the coal seams and associated beds. (image: Google Earth)

Haulage is entirely by steam locomotives although these are expected to be withdrawn and replaced by diesel traction in the near future [30, 34].

6. Collapse of north faceof Sandaoling Mine

A remarkable feature of the Sandaoling Mine is that the entire north face of the mine is in a state of general instability and wholesale collapse along a 5.5-kilometre system of open cracks. It is apparent that 100-metre wide masses of material have episodically slipped onto the floor of the mine, with potentially profound implications for mine safety and efficiency. Many open fissures are present, often generating blocks of rubble of 5 to 10 metres in size.

The precise cause of the collapse is not apparent, but a contributory factor may be the gentle but steady surface gradient estimated from Google Earth to be about 20 metres per kilometre. It seems that a low-angle detachment surface has formed at or below the junction of the dark Jurassic coal-bearing deposits with the cover of pale overburden. Detachment would be facilitated if as expected the coal-bearing sequence is an aquaclude with clays of low-shear strength, whereas the cover sequence is assumed to be a highly porous aquifer.

Figure 11. collapse of north faceLooking west to view the dramatic slide of pale overburden onto the floor of the open pit. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 12. collapse of north faceA higher view, showing the layout of the arcuate open fissure system. (image: Google Earth)

The openness of the fissures makes it unlikely that the collapsed masses might be a rollover on a listric detachment. Instead it seems to be a valley-camber collapse, whereby the more it cambers then the more the fissures open up.


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7. Dumps of Sandaoling Mine

The energy expended in hauling trainloads of waste out of the Sandaoling Mine is evident. The round-trip is a considerable distance. Yet this is a desert environment with no physical, cultural or land value constraints. Accordingly the mine has enjoyed the freedom to spread the dumps over a large footprint. This reduces the haulage gradient so trimming haulage costs.

The operating cost of rail haulage is unknown, but is thought to compare very favourably with that of the large fleet of dump trucks that would otherwise be required.

Figure 13. lateral accretion of the dumpsThe main dump accreting sideward by fresh material being delivered by rail and piled neatly into arcuate ribs by a large earth-moving machine. This may be face shovel or a walking dragline. Note the carpet of rubble blocks that have tumbled onto the ground at the base of the slope. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 14. vertical accretion of the dumpsA large earth-moving machine that appears to be raising the surface of the dump by using fresh material delivered by the railway track to its immediate right. (image: Google Earth)

8. Dust prevention

While the mine footprint might be deemed excessive by some environmentalists, a bonus is that the evolving landform is consistently more streamlined than would otherwise be possible, and therefore wind erosion and dust generation are reduced. Once a dust excursion has begun it would be virtually impossible to stop until all the fines had blown away and a protective lag carpet of gravel inhibited further excursions of dust.

Figure 15. smooth landform of the dumpsThe overall shape of the main dumps presents a reasonably streamlined outline to wind. (image: Google Earth)

Using rail trucks as the sole means of transport to the dumps generates far less dust than would be the case if a large fleet of dump trucks were shuttling to-and-fro.While dust suppression is theoretically possible, in practice this is rarely satisfactory in a desert environment, not only due to a lack of sufficient water and the evaporation of whatever water is sprayed, but also due to spillages of excessive uncovered loads, the jolting of laden trucks on dirt roads, the bouncing of speeding empty trucks returning to the mine, and not least due to the dust-generating turbulence in the wake of every truck.

Likewise, using face shovels instead of dozers and scrapers for modelling the surface of the dumps means that dust generation is significantly reduced.

Figure 16. smooth landform of the dumpsThe leading edge of the main dump showing the ribbed near-horizontal top, and the steep leading edge. (image: Google Earth)


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9. Risk of dump fires

The extensive dumps of the Sandaoling Mine bearfew signs of significant combustion. This is remarkable for the mine is in China’s ‘coal fire risk region’ [1, 11].

The reason that the dumps have large avoided fires is evident on Google Earth. The dumps are seen to be dominated not by dark coaly waste but by spreads of pale overburden waste that has very low carbon content and so no tendency to combust. Indeed it could be used as an inert blanket to inhibit or suppress coal fires – a clear advantage over the new mines planned for Mongolia that have little or no inert material in the overburden.

Nevertheless a spectacular fire raging on the dump of Sandaoling Mine is clearly visible on Google Earth. Thefire is not in normal dumped waste, and appears to be burning masses of train-loads of smouldering coaly material evacuated from the mine on a contingency basis to the dumps. Here it is free to burn itself out safelywithout unduly imperilling the mine or its workers.

Figure 17. mine dump on firePart of a one kilometre ribbon of fire on the Sandaoling Mine dumps on 17th September 2004. (image: Google Earth)

Tracing the burning material on the dumps back to its source reveals large areas of reddish-brown material on the floor of the open pit. We interpret this as being burnt coal that is now clinker and ash, plus associated carbonaceous clayey material that has combusted to create ‘red shale’. As usual in coal fires worldwide, the tell-tale orange-red brick colour is due to iron oxides such as haematite produced by thermal oxidation of pyrite.

Figure 18. removal of burning materialThe ‘red shale’ areas of the open pit indicate where coal fires have occurred. The ‘active fires’ are interpreted as being burning material hauled by train out of the pit. (image: Google Earth)

The overall evidence suggests that rail haulage has a clear advantage over truck haulage in efficiently and safely evacuating burning material from a large open pit.


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10. Risk of open pit fires

The Sandaoling Mine has a long history of dealing with extensive fires in its large open pit. This struggle has continued in recent years, with many visitors taking photos and videos of the fires [34]. The images are commonly of small smouldering fires scattered across the floor of the open pit, typical of internal combustion. A few night-time images indicate flames are present.

Flames, smoke and steam are not convincingly visible on Google Earth, and it is presumed that the fires are too small, too dry and too scattered. But clearly visible are areas of ‘red shale’ that indicate extensive fires have occurred. This does not, in itself, mean that such fires are recent, for ‘red shale’ in Inner Mongolia has also been produced by large coal fires triggered by natural internal combustion thousands of years ago [19].

Of interest is ‘red shale’ with the collapsed east face of the open pit. This may be coincidence, but a history of coal fires would be expected to produce considerable voids in the burnt zones rendering the pale overburden liable to crack and slide into the open pit. Such cracks, albeit smaller, have been mapped around the Wuda coal fires of Inner Mongolia [35].

Figure 19. red shale next to collapsed faceThe most prominent ‘red shale’ areas seem to be juxtaposed with some of the most severe collapses visible along the north wall of the open pit of Sandaoling Mine. (image: Google Earth)

11. Risk of virgin coal fires

Evidence of coal fires affecting virgin (unmined) coal is common in Inner Mongolia [25, 26, 33] and Xinjiang [38], and is also reported at Tavan Tolgoi, Nariin Sukhait and Ukhaa Khudag in Mongolia [19].

While flames, smoke, steam and sulphurous smell are to be expected this is not always so. Virgin coal fires may reach an equilibrium state of quiescence for long periods during which few such signs are manifest.

During periods of quiescence, one tell-tale sign may still persist, namely the presence of a chain of crown holes along the strike of the coal seam. Crown holes are roughly circular collapses of the ground surface triggered by upwardly migrating caverns produced by collapse of the overburden due to reduction in volume of the coal. The volume of coal is reduced by the loss of its carbon and sulphur content by combustion, the driving off of moisture content, and general shrinkage of clays.

Good examples of crown holes are visible on Google Earth along an 800m long zone beyond the western margin of the open pit of the Sandaoling Mine. We attribute the crown holes to natural collapse of the ground above ancient underground coal fires. Crown holes are also commonly created by collapse of underground mine workings particularly those using pillar-and-stall (= room-and-pillar) methods of partial extraction. However the crown holes observed on Google Earth are quite large, often in excess of 10-15m in diameter demanding the loss of volume underground to be in excess of what might be expected from normal underground coal mining.

Figure 20. crown holes along the strike of the coalCrown holes beyond the advancing western end of the open pit of Sandaoling Mine. A group of eight fresh crown holes are visible on the right, presumably triggered by the advancing pit, as evidenced by the largest crown hole now acting as a focus for open fractures extending to pit. In the top centre is a large but somewhat indistinct crown hole that is ringed by open fractures in the ground bending down into the cavern below. In the top left is a string of as-yet stable crown holes. (image: Google Earth)


12. Coal fires in China

While the Sandaoling Mine is instructive regarding coal fires and how to combat them, many elsewhere in China and are much more serious. Some of the worst in the world are in the Wuhai coalfield, where a pall of smoke and acidic vapour from coal fires hides much of the ground surface in a haze of pollution. While much of the hazard is due to industrial pollution fromburning power plants, heating plants and metallurgical plants, a large amount is due to out-of-control fires at coal mines and on coal waste dumps.

Coal fires in China were estimated to have consumed 100-200 million tons of coal in 1992 [12]. If fires released 2-3% of the world’s output of burning fossil fuel. But this figure has been to 10-20 million tons per year due to the red of paleo-fires being mistaken for signs of active fires [In Xinjiang Province red burnt shale has been dated as forming at intervals over the last 2 million years [Nevertheless active ‘wild’ coal fires remain contributor to global warming.

Coal fires in China have a voluminous therefore our paper seeks merely to show something of what can be seen of the fires by using Google Earth.

Figure 21. black smoke from small coal minesBlack smoke belching from a small coal mine near Wuda in Inner Mongolia. (image: Google Earth)

Black smoke belching from coal minuncommon; for it indicates only partial combustion of the coal has occurred with huge concentrations of carbon particles flung into the atmosphere. Black smoke is more typical of fires in oil shale, oilfields and in the petrochemical industry. However coal seams can be intimately associated with oil shale, as in large parts of Mongolia. Should a coal seam and its overlying oil shale catch fire then a ratchet effect occurs whereby each fire feeds the other and containment is exceptionally difficult

Figure 22. white smoke from small coal minesWhite smoke belching from small coal mines neaMongolia. (image: Google Earth)


While the Sandaoling Mine is instructive regarding coal fires and how to combat them, many more exist

are much more serious. Some of coalfield, where a

pall of smoke and acidic vapour from coal fires hides much of the ground surface in a haze of pollution. While much of the hazard is due to industrial pollution from coal-burning power plants, heating plants and metallurgical

control fires at coal

have consumed ]. If so, then these

the world’s output of CO2 from this figure has been revised down

20 million tons per year due to the red burnt shale fires being mistaken for signs of active fires [24].

Province red burnt shale has been dated as at intervals over the last 2 million years [38].

remain a significant

voluminous literature;per seeks merely to show something of

what can be seen of the fires by using Google Earth.

black smoke from small coal minesBlack smoke belching from a small coal mine near Wuda in Inner

Black smoke belching from coal mines is rather uncommon; for it indicates only partial combustion of the coal has occurred with huge concentrations of carbon

Black smoke is more typical of fires in oil shale, oilfields and in the

However coal seams can be intimately associated with oil shale, as in large parts of Mongolia. Should a coal seam and its overlying oil shale

ratchet effect occurs whereby each fire exceptionally difficult.

white smoke from small coal minesWhite smoke belching from small coal mines near Wuda in Inner

13. Coal fires in Mongolia

Coal fires in Mongolia have been, and remain, common in Jurassic and Cretaceous coals that predominate in most regions. Coal fires havthe open pits or dumps of Sharin Gol Mine, Maanit Mine, Baganuur Mine, Shivee Ovoo Mine, Chandaltal MineAduunchuluun Mine plus unconfirmed reports

A risk analysis is needed, bearing in mind the new mines that are currently planned to open soon in similar strata, and a few are likely to be of very large size while some intend to be hybrid mines producing coal and oil shale so increasing the risk of ‘difficult’ fires.

Figure 23. red shale at Maanit CoaThe red-orange colour on the left are bricks produced in a coalfired brick kiln at the Maanit Brickworks by heating carbonaceous pyritic shales from the Maanit Coal Mine in Tov aimag. The mine is the open pit in the centre right where orange tinged areas are tell-tales of coal fires. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 24. red shale at Chandaltal Coal MineA coal dump at Chandaltal Coal Mine east of Ulaanbaatar.dump caught fire years ago and is now an unsalable mass of red ash. Some coal remains and attracts dconvergent tracks. (image: Google Earth)

We are unaware of any coal fires at South Gobi and western Mongolia. However major coal fires will occur as large natural coal fires have destroyed much Permian coalprehistoric times producing burnt rockand natural burnt shale has also been reported from Nariin Sukhait and Ukhaa Khudag coal areas

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Coal fires in Mongolia

Coal fires in Mongolia have been, and remain, in Jurassic and Cretaceous coals that

oal fires have occurred in the open pits or dumps of Sharin Gol Mine, Maanit Mine, Baganuur Mine, Shivee Ovoo Mine, Chandaltal Mine and

plus unconfirmed reports elsewhere. , bearing in mind the many

new mines that are currently planned to open soon in a few are likely to be of very large size

nes producing coal and the risk of ‘difficult’ fires.

Maanit Coal Mineorange colour on the left are bricks produced in a coal-

fired brick kiln at the Maanit Brickworks by heating carbonaceous from the Maanit Coal Mine in Tov aimag. The mine

is the open pit in the centre right where orange tinged areas are tales of coal fires. (image: Google Earth)

red shale at Chandaltal Coal Mineeast of Ulaanbaatar. The

now an unsalable mass of red diggers as shown by the

(image: Google Earth)

We are unaware of any coal fires at new mines in the However it is likely that

as large natural coal fires have at Tavan Tolgoi in rock 50 metres thick,

atural burnt shale has also been reported from Nariin Sukhait and Ukhaa Khudag coal areas [19].


14. Risk of acid mine drainage

To form coal, plant material generally haspreserved by anaerobic (oxygen-less) conditions as in most waterlogged swamps and bogs. Such environments not only preserve coal-forming materials, but are also ideal for sulphur bacteria. As a result, coal is often found in association with biogenic pyrite (iron disulphide FeS2). Pyrite is a very stable mineral until it is brought into contact with aerobic (oxygengroundwater. Then the pyrite is rapidly decomposedyellowish-brown iron oxides (rust, ochre) andis released as acids causing water to have very

Once pyrite has decomposed then drainage’ (AMD) occurs, with ochreous acidic water issuing from the mine mouth, dumps, springs and wellsApart from its orange-brown colour being offensive, the ochre can damage wildlife by clogging the eggs and gills of fish and invertebrates and by retarding photosynthesis by aquatic plants by blotting out the sun. low pH of AMD eliminates many species of marginal, floating and submerged vegetation and only a number of acid-tolerant species survive. Furthermore thehigh acidity of AMD renders groundwaterleaching out heavy metals to produce highly toxic water.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is the norm mining districts in the British Carboniferousstreams are sometimes visible on Google Earthmainland Europe a feature is the swathe of brown coal open pits that extends from Germanyand Poland [10].

Paradoxically ochre streams are rarely visible in Mongolia or northern China’s coalfields – apart fromvicinity of Wuguantun where orange streams are common.We suggest that the scarcity of ochre streams is due to arid regions having alkaline ‘calcrete’ soils capable of buffering acidic mine waters. In contrast many of the coalfields of Europe have topsoil rich in humic acids from partly decayed lush vegetation and have enough rainfall to leach carbonates from the subsoil. If confirmed, then this can explain why AMD can have a marked effect in Europe but little discernable effect in the Gobi.

Figure 25. ochre water flowing from a coal mineYellowish-brown water downstream of a small coal mine in north China. (image: Google Earth)


Risk of acid mine drainage

, plant material generally has to be less) conditions as found

s and bogs. Such peaty forming materials,

but are also ideal for sulphur bacteria. As a result, coal is often found in association with biogenic pyrite (iron

mineral unless and ntil it is brought into contact with aerobic (oxygen-rich)

. Then the pyrite is rapidly decomposed to brown iron oxides (rust, ochre) and the sulphur

very low pH. hen ‘acid mine

occurs, with ochreous acidic water he mine mouth, dumps, springs and wells.

being offensive, the wildlife by clogging the eggs and gills

retarding photosynthesis aquatic plants by blotting out the sun. The extremely

many species of marginal, floating and submerged vegetation and only a restricted

Furthermore thewater capable of

leaching out heavy metals to produce highly toxic water.orm for ‘black coal’

boniferous and orange sometimes visible on Google Earth; while in

swathe of acidic flooded Germany to Czech

Paradoxically ochre streams are rarely visible in apart from the

where orange streams are common.of ochre streams is due to

soils capable of In contrast many of the

lds of Europe have topsoil rich in humic acids from partly decayed lush vegetation and have enough rainfall to

If confirmed, then this AMD can have a marked effect in Europe

ochre water flowing from a coal minebrown water downstream of a small coal mine in north

Figure 26. ochre water flowing from a coal mineView of the surface layout of a mediummine in northern China. A stream of yellowishis issuing as ‘acid mine drainage’. (image: Google Earth)

We are unaware of any remedial treatment of AMD in Chinese coalfields. An example from the UK Lancashire Coalfield is shown below [21].

Figure 27. treatment of AMD in the UKTreatment ponds for neutralising AMD and removing precipitated ochre from the 400-old coal mines in Haigh Plantations, Wigan. (image: Google Earth)

Acidic ochreous water can issue from coal mines for centuries as seen at Worsley near Manchester

Figure 28. 500 years of AMD from a AMD from ancient coal mines discolouring the Bridgewater Canal at Worsley near Manchester. The orange colour is now part of the tourism character of the village. (image: Google Earth)

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ochre water flowing from a coal mineView of the surface layout of a medium-sided underground coal

ellowish-brown ochre water (image: Google Earth)

We are unaware of any remedial treatment of AMD in Chinese coalfields. An example from the UK Lancashire

treatment of AMD in the UKTreatment ponds for neutralising AMD and removing precipitated

old coal mines in Haigh Plantations, Wigan.

Acidic ochreous water can issue from coal mines for Worsley near Manchester [21].

500 years of AMD from a UK coal mineAMD from ancient coal mines discolouring the Bridgewater Canal at Worsley near Manchester. The orange colour is now part of the



15. Options for waste transport

With exceptions such as parts of the Gobi, open pit coal mines have substantial amounts of waste that has to be stripped and dumped. The waste is two-folda) overburden material that is younger than the coal

strata and poses no risk of dump fires due to a general absence of coaly material, e.g. lateritic clays, loess silt, river gravel.

b) more variable waste material from between the coal seams, such as carbonaceous shale, sandstones, seatearth clays, unsellable poor quality coalunrecoverable coal. The presence of muchand pyrite renders these dumps vulnerable to coal fires from spontaneous combustiontriggering of acid mine drainage AMD.Dump trucks and tippler trucks are the current

norms in Mongolia and China for transport of material from open pits to waste dumps – not only for coal mines but also for hardrock gold, placer gold, iron and copper. The main options for transporting waste to dumpi) dump trucks, ii) tippler trucks, iii) dozers, v) conveyors, vi) overhead cableways, vii) viii) railways.i) Dump trucks offer many advantages, notably:

flexibility, versatility, readily available spares, ease of finance, ease of subcontracting and overall for management.

Figure 29. dump trucks in a placer mineDump trucks at the Ar Naimgan Mine of Altan Dornod Mongol Ltd. (photo: Robin Grayson)

ii) Tippler trucks are popular for while not short-haul to dumps, they offer the flexibility of being able to also transport coal on dirt roads to railheads or direct by hard roads to end-users.

iii) Dozers are useful in stripping and for grading dumps, but are not cost-effective for pushing material distances [22].

iv) Scrapers are rarely seen for, although again useful in stripping and for grading dumps, these machines are designed for shorted haul than dump trucks or tippler trucks [22].

v) Conveyors are rarely used for removal of waste from open pit waste to dumps, in spite of their low energy costs, low manning levels and ability to span soft ground, water, slopes and irregular areas. reasons, long-distance conveyors are a feature of dozens of large brown coal open pit mines in Germany, Czech, Poland and Kosovo and havcompletely eliminated trucks. Stacker conveyors are increasingly common in Mongolia’s placer mines and have begun to replace fleets of dozers and trucks for the transport of waste by virtue of the much lower capital and operating costs, and faster betterrehabilitation [22].


Options for waste transport

With exceptions such as parts of the Gobi, open pit coal mines have substantial amounts of waste that has to

fold: overburden material that is younger than the coal

fires due to a general absence of coaly material, e.g. lateritic clays,

between the coal seams, such as carbonaceous shale, sandstones,

clays, unsellable poor quality coal, and thin presence of much carbon dumps vulnerable to coal

spontaneous combustion; and to the

Dump trucks and tippler trucks are the current a and China for transport of material

not only for coal mines but also for hardrock gold, placer gold, iron and copper.

waste to dumps are: dozers, iv) scrapers,

vii) draglines, or

offer many advantages, notably: flexibility, versatility, readily available spares, ease of

overall simplicity

Dump trucks at the Ar Naimgan Mine of Altan Dornod Mongol Ltd.

not as efficient for offer the flexibility of being

transport coal on dirt roads to railheads

useful in stripping and for grading dumps, effective for pushing material long

are rarely seen for, although again useful in stripping and for grading dumps, these machines are designed for shorted haul than dump trucks or tippler

used for removal of waste from heir low energy

costs, low manning levels and ability to span soft ground, water, slopes and irregular areas. For these

distance conveyors are a feature of dozens of large brown coal open pit mines in Germany, Czech, Poland and Kosovo and have

tacker conveyors are increasingly common in Mongolia’s placer mines and have begun to replace fleets of dozers and trucks for

by virtue of the much lower capital and operating costs, and faster better

Figure 30. conveyors in German brown coal mineIntegration of large-scale stripping machines with conveyor systems has eliminated any need for trucks. Mirash MineBernd Braeutigam from Google Earth)

vi) Draglines are the norm for stripping and dumping material from large open pit coal mines in Mongolia notably: Sharin Gol, Baganuurare highly efficient ‘walking draglines’by having too short a reach and therefore costs escalate as dumps are put on reserves, demanding double or treble handling or sterilization of reserves.

Figure 31. draglines in Mongolian coal minesInsufficient reach of draglines is apparentTOP – Sharin Gol Coal Mine (photo: ChimedBOTTOM – Shivee Ovoo Coal Mine (photo

vii) Railways were the norm in China and Mongolia for hauling waste from large opendumps. Powerful coal-fired locomotives costs low and predictable. Sometimes the tracks to the dumps are of mainline gauge, enabling coal to also be transported directly from the mine face to the main railway network. Some Sandaoling are switching to diesel haulage, like Sharin Gol have scrapped rail in favour oand draglines for hauling waste, while still using rail for shifting coal. Rail generatesdust than road haulage of wastemine-life the waste dumps are albeit ribbed. Road haulage creates more prone to dust generation to rehabilitate. Rail also is ableto pit fires whereas road trucking

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conveyors in German brown coal minescale stripping machines with conveyor

systems has eliminated any need for trucks. Mirash Mine. (image:

are the norm for stripping and dumping material from large open pit coal mines in Mongolia

and Shivee Ovoo. All‘walking draglines’ but hampered

by having too short a reach and therefore costs dumps are put on reserves, demanding

double or treble handling or sterilization of reserves.

draglines in Mongolian coal minesis apparent:

Sharin Gol Coal Mine (photo: Chimed-Erdene)photo: Robin Grayson)

were the norm in China and Mongolia for hauling waste from large open-pit coal mines to

fired locomotives kept energy costs low and predictable. Sometimes the tracks to

of mainline gauge, enabling coal to directly from the mine face to the

Some mines such as switching to diesel haulage, but others

rail in favour of trucks waste, while still using rail

s far less spillages andthan road haulage of waste, and throughout the

waste dumps are essentially ‘level top’,oad haulage creates irregular dumps

generation and more challengingto respond effectively

trucking has to halt.


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16. Options for coal output

Large coal mines require high capacity output to be profitable as coal is a bulk mineral commodity of low unit value. Output is complicated by having to respond to seasonal peaks and troughs in demand. Indeed in winter Ulaanbaatar is the world’s coldest capital and has an acute peak demand for coal for heating and power generation. In response the larger coal mines (Baganuur, Shivee Ovoo, Sharin Gol etc) try to build up summer stockpiles of coal when demand is low, but this strategy has three inescapable weaknesses: a) working capital is often exhausted in financing the

growth of the summer stockpile; b) stockpiling risks spontaneous combustion which not

only has health, safety and environmental issues but also destroys coal, cuts essential coal supplies to winter clients, and drains the mine’s cash-flow; and

c) delivering peak amounts in winter puts a serious strain on the capacity of track, wagons and rolling stock of the Ulaanbaatar Railway Company.These factors exert strain on the large coal mines by

increasing capital expenditure (i.e. more equipment) and demanding more working capital (i.e. more stockpiling), compounded by the Government’s desire to hold down coal price contracts for generating electricity and district heating. The large mines are therefore ill-equipped to fully meet the winter peak for coal.

Small wintertime licensed coal mines operated by private companies for the winter peak, specialise in supplying coal to half of the population who live in gers (felt tents), and to facilities such as brickworks, schools and industries that have seasonal heating plants. Small private licensed mines require little capital expenditure on equipment and can be mothballed in summer when its laid-off workers can find seasonal work in other industriessuch as summer-only placer gold mining.

Figure 32. sells coal in the winter, gold in summerUnique mine near Zaamar. It produces coal in the winter, and then switches to washing the overlying Neogene gravels for summer to produce placer gold. (photo: Professor Minjin)

Small all-year-round licensed coal mines operated by private companies are scattered nationwide, serving customers who are remote from rail and too far from the large mines for trucking to be affordable.

Small wintertime unlicensed coal mines operated by informal ‘ninjas’ play an essential role in keeping Ulaanbaatar supplied with coal for heating during winter.

About 1,100 coal ninjas operate over 100 unlicensed mines in wintertime at Nailakh, a satellite of Ulaanbaatar. While there are serious safety, health, environmental and child labour issues [4, 32], our field observations show that since about 1995 their seasonal activity has filled a serious fuel gap for over many thousands of households in Ulaanbaatar’s ger areas that the formal mines have difficulty in supplying. The alternative would be for an acceleration of the already serious deforestation of the Ulaanbaatar region by cutting trees for faggots.

Figure 33. adits of informal coal minesA string of 20+ adits in a seam at Nailakh, Ulaanbaatar. The coal seam is dipping south (bottom). (image: Google Earth)

Figure 34. hauling coal at an informal aditAn empty home-made tub being dragged back underground for again filling with coal and then winching back to the surface. Ninja ‘winter-only’ mine at Nailakh. (photo: Robin Grayson)

Figure 35. head-frame of informal ‘ninja’ shaftPreparing a new head-frame over a vertical shaft ready for winter mining at Nailakh near Ulaanbaatar. (photo: Robin Grayson)


17. Coal transport – rail option

Exceptionally large coal mines require high capacity transport facilities. Rail is the preferred option, fed by stockpiles able to tolerate rail and respond to seasonal peaks and troughs in demand

Figure 36. most efficient loading of coal trainA new facility able of swiftly loading merry-go-round trains with Mongolian coal close to the China border. Yet the lack of a windbreak may make this otherwise neat facility acutely vulnerable to liberating excessive coal dust over a wide area. (photo: website of South Gobi Coal Inc – www.southgobi.com )

However the sheer size of the rail loading facilities, and the large mine-site stockpile necessary to consistently supply them, can cause significant impacts. A particular concern is the excessive release of coal dust from tlarge coal stockpiles, the risk of coal fires in the stockpiles, and dust and multi-tracking if road trucks supply the stockpile. This is considerably aggravated if road trucks also transport a proportion of the coal from the stockpile to customers, as is possible south of Narin Sukhait.

Figure 37. most efficient loading of coal trainA new large-scale coal stockpile south of Nariin Sukhait at anew railhead inside China. After only a couple of years in operation, the ground to the SE of the facility is now covecarpet of coal dust for more than 3km, and a thin plume is apparent for a further 7km downwind. (image: Google


rail option

require exceptionally . Rail is the preferred

rail interruptions ghs in demand.

most efficient loading of coal trainsround trains with

Mongolian coal close to the China border. Yet the lack of a wind-break may make this otherwise neat facility acutely vulnerable to liberating excessive coal dust over a wide area. (photo: website

However the sheer size of the rail loading facilities, site stockpile necessary to consistently

supply them, can cause significant impacts. A particular concern is the excessive release of coal dust from the large coal stockpiles, the risk of coal fires in the stockpiles,

tracking if road trucks supply the stockpile. This is considerably aggravated if road trucks also transport a proportion of the coal from the stockpile

is possible south of Narin Sukhait.

most efficient loading of coal trainsscale coal stockpile south of Nariin Sukhait at anew

railhead inside China. After only a couple of years in operation, the ground to the SE of the facility is now covered in a thick

km, and a thin plume is Google Earth)

Large coal mines still demandtransport facilities fed by stockpiles to seasonal peaks and troughs in demand

Figure 38. efficient loading of coal trainRail wagons being loaded from all-weather overhead conveyors at the Shivee Ovoo Coal Mine. (photo: Chimed

Figure 39. efficient loading of coal trainA dump truck is dumping coal onto a railby a red conveyor-crane. Coal dust is blowing from the dump truck and stockpile. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

However the unsustainable low coal price set by Government for supply to power plants has often deterred investing in modern rail loading facilities.

At Sharin Gol Coal Mine the rail loading facilities aredegraded, inefficient and expensive to operate.

Figure 40. inefficient loading of coal train60-ton rail wagons being loaded at Sharin Gol large electric face shovel. (photo: Robin Grayson)

MAK Eldev Coal Mine’s rail-side stockpile is poorly designed affecting a wide area with coal dust, and coal loading facilities are inefficient and expensive to operate.

Figure 41. inefficient loading of coal train60-ton rail wagons being loaded from the railEldev Mine by a front-end loader. (photo:

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demand high capacity rail fed by stockpiles capable of responding

ghs in demand.

loading of coal trainsweather overhead conveyors at

the Shivee Ovoo Coal Mine. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

loading of coal trainsl onto a rail-side stockpile, managed

crane. Coal dust is blowing from the dump Erdene Baatar)

However the unsustainable low coal price set by Government for supply to power plants has often deterred investing in modern rail loading facilities.

At Sharin Gol Coal Mine the rail loading facilities areexpensive to operate.

loading of coal trainsbeing loaded at Sharin Gol Coal Mine by a

. (photo: Robin Grayson)

side stockpile is poorly designed affecting a wide area with coal dust, and coal loading facilities are inefficient and expensive to operate.

loading of coal trainston rail wagons being loaded from the rail-side stockpile of the

. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)


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18. Issues at rail loading sites

Coal is hauled by 50-ton road trucks along a 23km dirt road from MAK’s Eldev Coal Mine to its stockpile alongside the Trans-Mongolian Railway at a settlement known as Railway Station #25.

From the stockpile, the coal is loaded inefficiently into 60-ton rail trucks by a front-end loader. Coal is delivered by rail to Erdenet Copper Mine, Khutul Cement Factory, Ulaanbaatar Power Plant #2 and some is perhaps destined for export to Erlian city in China.

Figure 42. rail loading facility - 8th June 2004The coal stock-pile of Eldev Coal Mine. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 43. rail loading facility - 8th June 2004Closer view of the stockpile with open land still present on most sides. The mine has only been operating for a short time but coal dust covers much ground to the south-east – see bottom right.The haul road from MAK’s Eldev Mine is in the top corner and reaches the stockpile via a level crossing. (image: Google Earth)

Although full output commenced at the Eldev Mine Coal as recently as 2005, Google Earth shows that by 8th

June 2004 its impact had become considerable at the railhead, and that by 29th March 2007 this impact had become excessive, causing a nuisance from coal dust over a wide area. Meanwhile, several industries had expanded in the immediate vicinity of the railhead – rail ballast mining, chemical grade fluorspar and gypsum. Coal dust is not appropriate next to fluorspar or gypsum processing.

Figure 44. rail loading facility - 28th March 2007The same view 32 months later. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 45. rail loading facility - 28th March 2007Closer view with the stockpile now much enlarged and hemmed in by new mining developments – A) rapid expansion of industrial mining for railway ballast; B) mine camp of a new gypsum mine; c) fluorspar upgrading plant; D) fluorspar rail loading area. The coal dust now covers a much larger area. (image: Google Earth)


19. Coal transport – road option

Exceptionally large coal mines require exceptionally high capacity transport facilities. Road trucks are an option are most cost-effectively fed directly from the fof an open pit and delivered directly to customers. Exceptionally large fleets of road trucks are essential for the round trips. Compared to rail, the extra burden of fuel and staff is severe – for instance a single train with a 4man crew might haul 100x60 ton rail trucks, matched by 100 road trucks and at least 100 drivers.

Figure 46. road trucks in large fleetsPart of a fleet of new 12-wheel 60-ton road trucks exceptionally large coal mine in the South Gobi of Mongolia. (photo: website of South Gobi Coal Inc – www.southgobi.com

A fleet of road trucks is more difficult to schedule than a coal train. An even flow of road trucks is frustrated by variations in travel-time due to variations in speed and mechanical trouble, and due to chaos theory when vehicles attempt to travel nose-to-tail. In addition the haul roads on a pit floor are often so narrow that a single vehicle can cause a massive tailback.

Figure 47. queue of coal trucks at mine entCoal trucks delayed at the entrance to the Nariin Sukhaait Coal Mine in the South Gobi of Mongolia. (image: Google Earth)

Attaining a steady flow of road trucks down a haul road onto a pit floor is not easy, especially in snowstorms, dust-storms, hailstorms, cloudbursts and high winds. Trucks may become boggled down, lose traction, one another or topple.

Figure 48. road trucks descending to pit floorA convoy of Chinese trailer-trucks struggling to descend onto the floor of the Nariin Sukhait Mine. The trucks are robust, but not designed for this demanding task. (photo: website of Mines – www.ivanhoe-mines.com)


road option

require exceptionally high capacity transport facilities. Road trucks are an

effectively fed directly from the floor of an open pit and delivered directly to customers. Exceptionally large fleets of road trucks are essential for the round trips. Compared to rail, the extra burden of fuel

for instance a single train with a 4-100x60 ton rail trucks, matched by

ton road trucks at an exceptionally large coal mine in the South Gobi of Mongolia.

www.southgobi.com)

more difficult to schedule even flow of road trucks is frustrated

ions in speed and to chaos theory when

In addition the haul roads on a pit floor are often so narrow that a single

of coal trucks at mine entranceCoal trucks delayed at the entrance to the Nariin Sukhaait Coal Mine in the South Gobi of Mongolia. (image: Google Earth)

a steady flow of road trucks down a haul , especially in snowstorms,

ailstorms, cloudbursts and high winds. become boggled down, lose traction, slide into

descending to pit floortrucks struggling to descend onto the

floor of the Nariin Sukhait Mine. The trucks are robust, but not (photo: website of Ivanhoe

Figure 49. road trucks being loaded on mine floor12-wheel 60-ton road trucks being filled by on the pit floor of the Nariin Sukhait Mine in the South Gobi. (photo: website of Ivanhoe Mines – www.ivanhoe

Figure 50. road trucks being loaded on mine floor12-wheel 60-ton road trucks being filled by frontthe floor of the Nariin Sukhait Mine in the South Gobi. trucks are high-sided, suitable for coal transport. of South Gobi Coal Inc- – www.southgobi.com

Figure 51. traffic jam of trucks on mine floorTOP – Nariin Sukhait Mine seems to be shadow of no interest.BOTTOM – adjusting with Picture Manager reveals the minto be packed with coal trucks. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 52. small truck matched to small aditA small truck reversed into the adit of a small private licensed coal mine at Nailakh. Loading of coal is achieved easily even outside air temperature was -40C. (photo: Robin Grayson

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being loaded on mine floorton road trucks being filled by a hydraulic excavator

floor of the Nariin Sukhait Mine in the South Gobi. www.ivanhoe-mines.com)

road trucks being loaded on mine floorton road trucks being filled by front-end loaders on

the floor of the Nariin Sukhait Mine in the South Gobi. These sided, suitable for coal transport. (photo: website

www.southgobi.com)

jam of trucks on mine floorNariin Sukhait Mine seems to be shadow of no interest.

adjusting with Picture Manager reveals the mine floor to be packed with coal trucks. (image: Google Earth)

small truck matched to small aditA small truck reversed into the adit of a small private licensed

Loading of coal is achieved easily even in anphoto: Robin Grayson)


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20. Coal haul roads from mines

Exceptionally large coal mines using road haulage generate exceptionally large volumes of truck traffic. This demands as a minimum a well-designed haul road plus traffic management measures to reduce bunching and prevent traffic jams.

Traffic jams may arise at the mine exit, especially if gradients are steep or if there is a delay at a weighbridge.

Figure 53. traffic jam of coal trucks at mine exitCoal trucks struggling in a queue at the exit of the Nariin Sukhaait Coal Mine in the South Gobi of Mongolia. (image: Google Earth)

Coal trucks are easy to see with Google Earth when they are on haul roads on the dark grey desert gravels of the Gobi. The constant stream of heavy trucks soon creates a bright pale grey carpet on both sides of the haul road where a ‘hybrid dust’ has been deposited consisting of fine black coal dust plus fine white silica-rich dust.

The coal dust originates from gentle excursions from the top of the trucks plus coal dust cast from the wheels, chassis and bodywork of each truck.

The silica-rich dust is due to the vortex and wind-shear associated with every truck, especially if the trucks are travelling fast or nose-to-tail.

Figure 54. coal trucks on a glowing grey carpetCoal trucks on a haul road south of Nariin Sukhait coal mines. The haul road is well-built but both sides have a bright pale grey carpet of hybrid dust. The glow is stronger and wider to the east (left) due to the prevailing wind direction. (image: Google Earth)

The glowing grey carpet associated with haul roads can be traced for at least 30km from large coal mines in the Gobi Desert to the vicinity of the China border.

Figure 55. coal trucks on a glowing grey carpetA 30km stretch of a coal haul road from Nariin Sukhait (top left) trending SSE towards the China border. The coal dust content of the hybrid dust seems to fade with distance causing the hybrid dust to brighten after 20 to 30 kilometres. (image: Google Earth)


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21. Haul road issue – coal spills

Issues associated with coal haul roads are plainly visible in China, and more recently in Mongolia.

Issues include: multi-tracking, coal spillages, coal dust excursions and silica-rich dust generation. In addition, while traffic jams may seem to be solely a financial concern due to excessive delays, it is also likely that traffic jams of trucks on mine floors will cause poor air quality for truck drivers and miners alike. From the trucks the release of exhaust fumes and diesel fumes will supplement the sulphurous fumes, coal fire fumes, coal dust and silica dust typical of mine floors.

When haul roads are non-existent, or when used over a period of years, then severe ground contamination may accrue from the shedding of coal dust and fragments.

Figure 56. haul road with large coal lossesA haul road for trucking coal about 15km from mines to a power plant in Laoshidan, China. The road is irregular, causing trucks to spill coal as dust and lumps. (image: 5th Oct 2006 - Google Earth)

Figure 57. haul roads with coal lossesA network of haul roads for trucking coal to Qi Ketaicun and neighbouring small towns in eastern China. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 58. long-distance haul roadA convoy of 11 coal trucks from Mongolia travelling SE towards Linhe in China. The well-engineered dirt road as yet has few coal spills and is attracting non-coal traffic. (image: Google Earth)

We have traced a trail of coal spillages from Nariin Sukhait across the border into China for a total of 200 kilometres, with over 100 coal spills detected. This has occurred in only a few years and before the truck traffic has peaked. It suggests that the impact of coal spillages on the desert floor is destined to increase considerably.

Figure 59. trails of coal spillages far into ChinaA trail of coal spills tracked from Nariin Sukhaait Coal Mine across the border splitting SW and SE in China. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 60. trails of coal spillages far inside ChinaThe 100th coal spill tracked SW into China. (image: Google Earth)


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22. Haul road issue – multi-tracks

Mongolia’s dirt roads are notorious for becoming multi-track, particularly as few receive proper maintenance. Usually the most severe multi-track is between towns but can peak with mining activity.

Figure 61. multi-tracking by coal trucksMulti-track exceeding 100-metre width by trucks off the haul road between Narin Sukhait and China. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 62. multi-tracking by coal trucksMulti-track peaking at 500-metre width by trucks converging on a ford between Narin Sukhait and China. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 63. multi-tracking by coal trucksMulti-track peaking at 400-metre width by trucks on a small hill east of Eldev’s well-engineered haul road. Many coal spills are visible due to trucks struggling on the hill. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 64. multi-tracking by coal trucksMulti-track peaking at 150-metre width by coal trucks converging on a ford east of Nariin Sukhait. The brightest tracks are the most recent. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 65. multi-tracking by coal trucksMulti-track peaking at 750-metre width by trucks using the full width of a valley south of Baruun Naran from Tavan Tolgoi, and the route is long-established. (image: Google Earth)

Multi-tracking is so blatant that truck routes, haul road construction and environmental management measures to prevent multi-tracking are ineffective in Mongolian Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs). This merits scrutiny and some research has been published on natural re-vegetating of multi-tracks in the Gobi [27]. Multi-tracking often damages a larger surface area than the actual mine and its dumps.


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23. Coal-burning power plantsin Ulaanbaatar

Ulaanbaatar has three main coal-burning power plants, all combined heat and power plants, and known as ‘Thermal and Electrical Stations’ TES #2, TES #3 and TES#4. The three are clearly visible on a time series of high-definition Google Earth. Also visible is the original TES #1 which has been disused and derelict for many years and is an issue of concern regarding contamination.

Figure 66. coal stockpile of Ulaanbaatar TES #2Coal is delivered to the stockpile via a short spur line from the Trans-Mongolian Railway. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 67. coal stockpile of Ulaanbaatar TES #4The shadow of the 500m tall stack points at the stockpile and train-loads of coal are in the siding. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 68. Ulaanbaatar TES #2 and TES #4The short stack of #2 partly conceals the 250m tall stack of #4. Heating pipes supply the city. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

Figure 69. Ulaanbaatar TES #4ABOVE – small plumes from the cooling tower and smoke stack.BELOW – large plumes in cold weather. (images: Google Earth)

Figure 70. thermal inversion over UlaanbaatarEmissions of vapour and dust from TES #2, TES #3 and TES #4 contributing to poor air quality. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

Ulaanbaatar is the world’s coldest capital city in winter when its air quality plummets due to thermal inversion over the valley and air pollution from coal fires.

Half the residents live in ger districts and every ger has a central stove fuelled by coal or sometimes by wood. The coal is lump coal and is mostly from about ten licensed and 100 unlicensed small seasonal mines at Nailakh [32], the coal being delivered in small trucks. In contrast the power stations use coal delivered by rail from Baganuur and Shivee Ovoo coal mines, and at the power stations it is blended and pulverized. According to Dr. Badarch and colleagues [5] if coal cleaning facilities operated at Baganuur and Shivee Ovoo then the calorific content would be boosted before delivery to TES #4. Thiswould save 134,000 tons of coal a year, cut the work of the electrostatic precipitators in removing ash, conserve scarce space in the PFA settling ponds, cut air pollution significantly in Ulaanbaatar and reduce rail congestion.

All Mongolia’s industrial towns endure low air quality in winter, and most have thermal inversions with various degrees of smog. Sharin Gol sometimes has spectacular fogs that roll in from the hills that ring it, the fog soon turning to smog from carbon and ash liberated by domestic fires and the thermal plant of the coal mine.

Figure 71. thermal inversion over Sharin GolCold dense air off the hills fills the town with white fog that becomes smog due to smoke from domestic coal fires and the mine’s power station. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

Figure 72. dust plume of Sharin Gol power plantA dense plume of hot vapour and smoke rising vertically then forming a sub-horizontal layer. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

A new 400-500mW Thermal Electricity Station is planned for the east side Ulaanbaatar [6]. This may makeUlaanbaatar’s air quality worse, deplete the city’sunderground water supply, obstruct the emergence of a healthy competitive capital and strain the hairpin rail bottleneck of the eastern approach to the city.

We favour a bolder solution, to close all but one of the power-plants and bring power to the city by a strongernational electricity grid from new distant coal-burning power stations. Then the western half of the city could be developed for thousands of jobs, for instance as a rail-rail hub between the Trans-Mongolian railway and a standard gauge line to China via Tavan Tolgoi and Oyu Tolgoi.


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24. Pulverised fuel ash (PFA)in Ulaanbaatar

Pulverised fuel ash (PFA) is normal waste from coal-burning power stations and is settled out in lagoons.

Figure 73. slurry of PFA arriving from TES #3Being derived from pulverized coal, the ash is easy to transport to the lagoon by pipeline. (photo: Chimed-Erdene Baatar)

Figure 74. PFA settling lagoons for TES #4Several lagoons are required to enable periodic clearing out of the settled pulverised fuel ash (PFA). (image: Google Earth)

PFA is strongly alkaline and often has high levels of heavy metals. Ideally PFA lagoons should be sited away from water courses [23] and sealed from aquifers. Unfortunately all the PFA lagoons in Ulaanbaatar are sited above the aquifer that is the city’s sole supply of water, while the PFA lagoons of TES #3 are next to the main channel of the Tuul River.

Figure 75. PFA settling lagoons for TES #3The lagoons are well-designed but are so close to the Tuul River that a major pollution event is possible. (image: Google Earth)

To minimise ash being vented into the sky, as much PFA as possible is removed by electrostatic dust precipitators and piped as slurry to settling lagoons where it settles out. The PFA has an economic value, being sold to local makers of PFA-cement blocks who sell them in huge quantities to Ulaanbaatar’s construction industry.

25. PFA and radon gasin Ulaanbaatar

All coal is very slightly radioactive but rarely sufficient to affect human health. However Mongolia’s coal basins have sediment-associated uranium occurrences and some may prove to be world-class U deposits. For instance the Geofund records U occurrences close to some coal mines, notably Shivee Ovoo Coal Mine [14] which is one of Ulaanbaatar’s main suppliers of power station coal.

A risk may arise if power stations burn coal that has above-normal radioactivity. We believe this is likely to be the case for power stations in the capital. When such coal is burned most of its radioactive traces remain locked in the residual ash. Hence ash is slightly more radioactive than the coal it came from [3, 20].

The risk is not from ash discharged as smoke to the atmosphere via the power station’s stack. Although this contributes to Ulaanbaatar’s poor air quality in winter, ‘dilute and disperse’ of the airborne ash will render its already low radioactivity extremely low indeed.

The risk is from PFA-cement blocks incorporated intointerior walls of thousands of new buildings in Ulaanbaatar. Such buildings are double glazed, insulated and centrally heated in winter, encouraging traces of radon escaping from the PFA-cement blocks to accumulate in rooms and perhaps exceed international safety norms.

Figure 76. building blocks being made from PFAOne of many small factories making building blocks from PFA near Ulaanbaatar’s power stations. (photo: Robin Grayson)

The risk to human health of radon in buildings has become better understood since 1996 when the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended a maximum exposure of 1,000 Becquerel’s/m3. In September 2009 the WHO slashed the recommended maximum level tenfold to 100 Becquerel’s/m3 [37] and presented evidence that radon exposure causes in the range of 3-14% of all lung cancers. The WHO now advises that if a country cannot meet the new standard, levels should not exceed 300 Becquerel’s/m3, noting that the risk of lung cancer rises 16% per 100 Becquerel’s.

The task now is to do radon assessments of thousands of houses and apartments in Ulaanbaatar.Mongolian scientists possess the know-how [13], but funding is weak although preliminary studies have been published [18]. Some tests have already been made on the soils around TES #4 and on the coals it uses [7, 8, 9].

We suggest a special risk may exist for caretakers and their families in gers and sheds constructed on ground covered in PFA in fenced yards of PFA processors. The WHO claims that radon exposure adds to the risk of lung cancer from cigarette smoke. In highly insulated gers with radon entering from PFA soil, the risk of lung cancer among smokers and passive inhalers is apparent.


26. Time series on Google Earth

Since early 2009 the latest free update of Google Earth includes a button to display a time series of old and new high-definition images one-by-one. As yet only about a sixth of Mongolia has any high-definition Google Earth and within that there are few time series. The potential isconsiderable, as shown by comparing the images below

Figure 77. informal coal mines – 11th Nov 2001A string of 20+ adits in a seam at Nailakh, Ulaanbaatar. The coal seam is dipping south-west. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 78. informal coal mines – 25th Feb 2007Six years later the 2001 adits have been abandoned and two new strings of adits are active to the north. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 79. informal coal mines – 25th Feb 2007Each year there are deaths of informal miners at Nailakh near Ulaanbaatar (photo: Mongol Messenger newspaper).


Time series on Google Earth

free update of Google Earth includes a button to display a time series of old and

one. As yet only about definition Google Earth

and within that there are few time series. The potential isconsiderable, as shown by comparing the images below.

Nov 2001A string of 20+ adits in a seam at Nailakh, Ulaanbaatar. The coal

west. (image: Google Earth)

Feb 2007s later the 2001 adits have been abandoned and two new

strings of adits are active to the north. (image: Google Earth)

Feb 2007Each year there are deaths of informal miners at Nailakh near

newspaper).

A good example of a time series is Ulaanbaatar’s first coal burning power plant known as TES #1years a derelict ruin. The time series has been done and the dereliction remains.

Figure 80. UB Power Station #

Figure 80. UB Power Station #1 –

Figure 81. UB Power Station #1 -

Figure 82. UB Power Station #1 –

Figure 83. UB Power Station #1 –Example of a time series. (images: Google Earth).

www.mine.mn

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good example of a time series is Ulaanbaatar’s first known as TES #1, for many

years a derelict ruin. The time series confirms that nothing liction remains.

UB Power Station #1 - 18th Oct 2007

– 14th Apr 2007

-31st Mar 2006

– 20th Oct 2005

– 22nd Oct 2004Example of a time series. (images: Google Earth).


27. Coal seams on Google Earth

Mongolia has perhaps a hundred coal basins of Carboniferous, Permian, Jurassic and Cretaceous age [17]. We find Google Earth of immense value in them and clarifying the socio-environmental issues [

An example is the Baruun Naran CoalfieldPermian age, a south-westerly extension of the Tavan Tolgoi Coalfield which is Asia’s largest deposit of virtually un-mined high-quality bituminous coal and coking coal. A 1.5km wide belt of low ground in a hilly district delineates the Baruun Naran Coalfield on Google Earth.

Figure 84. landform of Baruun Naran CoalfieldThe relatively smooth low topography of the coalfield contrasts sharply with the rugged hilly country. (image: Google Earth)

Figure 85. Soviet geological map of Baruun NaranThe Soviet geological map is good, but can be enhanced using high-definition Google Earth. (map: www.qgxgold.com

Figure 86. oblique view of Baruun NaranRegularly spaced prospecting trenches showing coal discoveries. (image: Google Earth).


Coal seams on Google Earth

Mongolia has perhaps a hundred coal basins of Carboniferous, Permian, Jurassic and Cretaceous age [15,

value in studying environmental issues [16].

An example is the Baruun Naran Coalfield of Late westerly extension of the Tavan

Tolgoi Coalfield which is Asia’s largest deposit of virtually quality bituminous coal and coking coal. A

1.5km wide belt of low ground in a hilly district delineates .

landform of Baruun Naran CoalfieldThe relatively smooth low topography of the coalfield contrasts


Soviet geological map of Baruun Naranmap is good, but can be enhanced using

www.qgxgold.com)

Regularly spaced prospecting trenches showing coal discoveries.

Figure 87. geophysical and geological mapsTOP – geophysical survey of part of the coalfield.BOTTOM – geological interpretation of the geophysical survey.(images: website of QGX Ltd – www.qgxgold.com

Figure 88. coal strata on Google EarthTOP – exploration trenches; note the black streaks of coal.BOTTOM – enhanced image showing coal strata as a series of sharp V shapes pointing ENE. (images: Google Earth)

www.mine.mn

44

geophysical and geological mapsgeophysical survey of part of the coalfield.

geological interpretation of the geophysical survey.www.qgxgold.com)

coal strata on Google Earthexploration trenches; note the black streaks of coal.

enhanced image showing coal strata as a series of images: Google Earth)


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28. Coal briquettes in China

Coal briquettes are made either from unsellable coalfragments or from crushing inferior ‘stone coal’ that has high clay content. The powdered material is mixed with a binder such as clay or cement and may be mixed with oilor other calorific supplements. After squeezing in a mould and dried the resultant briquette is a valuable source of fuel for heating homes, buildings and light industries.

Artisanal and small-scale coal briquette factories are found throughout China but are unusual in Mongolia. Such factories are prominent on Google Earth due to the crushed coal carpeting the ground. The largest group of such factories detected on Google Earth are clustered along a 60-kilometre ribbon extending from the Beijing district border through Tumu, Hualiali County to Xuanhua.

Figure 89. coal briquette yards for 60 kilometresSeveral hundred factories engaged in briquette making and coal sales stretching WNW from Beijing. (images: Google Earth)

While coal briquettes are usually safe, acute health issues can arise. The coal may have very high levels of fluorine that exceeds the safety threshold of 190mg F/kg coal which gives a scientific basis for ascertaining coal-burning endemic fluorosis-affected areas and potential threaten areas [28]. Such briquettes are one cause of fluorosis in China [36]. Even if the coal has low fluorine content, the clay used as binder to make the coal briquette may have very high fluorine levels, and this is a major cause of fluorosis in China [39].

In some regions, coal is rich in arsenic and such briquettes are one cause of arsenism in China [29].

29. Discussion

Coal is of China’s largest industries and has many serious environmental, social and health issues, some affecting the entire planet by global warming.

Mongolia’s coal industry is in its infancy and is undergoing explosive growth. Mongolian society has yet to come to terms with the environmental, social and health issues that will arise, and Mongolian policy makers have little time to gain experience of how to respond.

Our study draws attention to the following issues that seem particularly relevant to Mongolia:1: Coal fires – the biggest environmental risk of Mongolia’s coal rush is of a series of coal fires that are exceptionally large and beyond control. Some may have a global impact due to the exceptional size of the coal reserves that might burn. Has a risk assessment been made for coal fires been made for each coal mine specifying how the Government and mine operators can respond quickly and decisively?2: Stability of pit walls – we have identified a 5km long partial collapse of an open pit coal mine in China. Have sufficient geotechnical tests and precautions been taken to minimise this risk in Mongolia’s large new coal mines?3: Dust – extreme dust is expected when using bulldozers, trucks and scrapers in a desert, against which dust suppression measures are largely futile. Dust causes serious health problems such as silicosis and eye injuries as well as damaging grazing land, reducing the value of fleeces and rending sheep intestines unsellable as casings.Has the option of ‘rail only’ for waste haulage and coal haulage been properly considered and fully-costed as asimple ‘low-dust’ alternative?4: Acid mine drainage – AMD is a serious problem in coal mines worldwide, but we can find little evidence for it in the desert regions of China and Mongolia. We suggest that the caliche desert alkaline soils are natural buffers that arrest AMD. Is the real risk of AMD far less than in humid regions such as the coalfields of northern Europe?6: Fluorosis risk #1 – many of Mongolia’s coal basins formed close to hills with large amounts of fluorine, notably fluorspar. As in parts of China [28], we predictsome of Mongolia’s virgin coals have unacceptably high fluorine levels. Has sufficient tests of the fluorine content been made for all Mongolia’s new coal mines?7: Fluorosis risk #2 – fluoride is excessive in some groundwater [28] in China having leached from fluorine-rich minerals such as fluorspar. We predict that some of Mongolia’s bricks and coal briquettes have unacceptably high fluorine content. Has sufficient tests been made of the fluorine content for all Mongolia’s new brickworks and coal briquette factories?8: Cancer risk – some Mongolian coal basins contain potentially world-class sedimentary-type U deposits, and uranium occurrences are documented in the immediate proximity of some coal mines such as Shivee Ovoo. Apart from a mild risk to the coal miners, an increased risk of lung cancer may exist for residents of apartments built from PFA blocks due to the possibility of radon gas. Has sufficient tests been made of the fluorine content of bricks and coal briquettes from Mongolia’s new factories?


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30. Recommendations

In conclusion, we make the following recommendations to Mongolia’s policy-makers regarding satisfying the transport needs of the country’s rapidly expanding coal sector. Our rationale is to benefit thewhole country rather than to merely “solve the problem” of coal transport.

Recommendation #1: construct two new railways of standard gauge from Tavan Tolgoi via Oyu Tolgoi to China and from Nariin Sukhait to China.

Recommendation #2: ensure both railways are non-exclusive enabling all companies to use rail to export coal, other minerals and for general movement of goods.Outcome: rail gains more traffic, therefore rail cost falls. allows all mines, large and small, to export efficiently. encourages start up of small mines for rail export of

industrial minerals such as fluorspar, coltan and mica. encourages exploration of oilfields in the Gobi. new rail route for export/import of goods. for other outcomes, see below.

Recommendation #3: a moratorium on using roads to transport minerals, goods, people or livestock to China when the rail routes are available.Outcome: rail gains more traffic, therefore rail cost falls. eliminates cross-border hard roads and feeder haul roads. cuts dust and eliminates multi-tracking. removes need for ‘truck towns’ next to the border. better border customs processing without trucks. better border security without trucks or ‘truck towns’. cuts impact on protected areas and their buffer zones.

Recommendation #4: require large mines to connect to the rail system.Outcome: rail gains more traffic, therefore rail cost falls. cut in trucks, reducing dust and multi-tracking. better border customs processing without trucks.

Recommendation #5: require all large mines to use rail spurs to remove waste to dumps.Outcome: rail gains more traffic, therefore rail cost falls. less dust in transporting and dumping waste. better able to deal with coal fires at large coal mines. minimises expensive imports of fuel.

Recommendation #6: investigate extending a standard gauge railway from Tavan Tolgoi to a rail-rail interchange at the western side of Ulaanbaatar.Outcome: creates a new N-S economic corridor. better fuel security by giving shorter same-gauge

access to imports of fuel via China. Ulaanbaatar gains fast access to the high-speed rail

route to Europe under construction near the border. thousands of new jobs created in Ulaanbaatar in

railways, warehousing, manufacturing and tourism. western Ulaanbaatar revitalised as a pleasant city. rail time to China cut in half, allowing Ulaanbaatar to

compete with Erlian for cross-border trade. Mongolia has sovereignty over an international railway.

31. Acknowledgements

This study was made possible by made possible by Eco-Minex International Ltd (EMI) funding many hours late at night on Google Earth. Special thanks are due to the encouragement and logistical support with the fieldwork by staff of the London PLUS-listed Lotus Resources PLC notably Simon Longworth, Henry Tebar and Minjin Batbayar.

The authors are pleased to acknowledge the valuable assistance given by many people and organisationsover the last few years. Special thanks are due to:Tony Whitten (World Bank); Dr. Baatar Tumenbayar (San Frontier Progress NGO); Les Oldham (Geologist); Michael Priester and Jorgen Hartwig (Projekt-consult gmbH); Bernd Braeutigam (Geologist); Manfred Walle (Mining Engineer); Dr. Peter Appel (Greenland and Denmark Geological Survey GEUS); Tsedeegiin Janchiv (Mining Rescue Service) and members of the Alaska Gold Forum.

Special thanks from Robin to Iain Williamson of Wigan Mining College plus Dr. Fred Broadhurst and the late Dr. Michael Eagar of Manchester University for tutoring in coal geology; to Donald Anderson and Tony France for guidance on coal washeries, small mines and ochre; to Rod Ireland for guidance on acid mine drainage from coal mines that are four centuries old, and to all members of the Wigan and District Geological Society for ten years of visits to a vast number of coal seams and coal mines in the Lancashire Coalfield.

We express our appreciation to the managers and staffof over a dozen coal companies for access to their mining operations; and to the artisanal coal miners of Nailakh who generously shared their opinions.

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