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An Introduction
t o
the Basic5
I
of
Well C0mpletion5~
*
3
15,OOOpsi wellhead
working press ure
f o r
all
surface
5timulations
and Workovers
2nd
Edition
(Version 2.05)
Rubble Zone
Se t li ne r ha n ge r a t
10,800
ft.
wi th re ta rder
PBR s e t a t
12,300
ft.
Hot, High Fi-essure Ga s
I
George King
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7/24/2019 Well Completions Stimulations (George King)
2/661
An Introd uc t ion to the Basics
of
Well
Complet ions, S
im
u la ions an
d
Workovers
2nd edit ion
(version 2.05)
George E. King
Cop yrig ht 1988-1998 by George
E.
King,
TuIsa, Oklahoma
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Copyright
1988-1996
by
George
E.
King
Document may not be copied in any manner
Inquiries to:
4
George E. King
5555 S. 97 W.
Ave.
Sand Springs,
OK
74063
918) 446-7081
(918) 660-3226
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Table of
Contents
Introd uction : Basic Well Com pletion Concepts
..................................................... 1-1
Porosity
.......................................................................................................
1-1
Saturation
...................................................................................................
1-2
Permeability
................................................................................................
1-2
Relative Permeability
..................................................................................
1-2
Natural Fractures
........................................................................................
1-3
Reservoir Pressure
.....................................................................................
1-3
Pressures
...................................................................................................
1-4
Pressure Differential
...................................................................................
1-5
Well Temperature
.......................................................................................
1-5
Fluid Properties
..........................................................................................
i-6
High Temperature and High Pressure Wells
.............................................. 1-6
Introduction: Geology
.................................................................................................
11-1
Formation Sequences and Layering
.......................................................... 11-4
Well Planning
...............................................................................................................
111-1
Drilling the Pay, Selecting the Interval and th e Init ial
Design .......................... 1-1
Coiled Tubing Drilling
.......................................................................................
1-6
Underbalanced Drilling
....................................................................................
1-6
Slimholes
.........................................................................................................
1-7
Initial Completion Design
...............................................................................
1-7
Selecting the Pay Zone
....................................................................................
1-7
References
-
Drilling
....................................................................................
1-12
Other References
.........................................................................................
1-12
Casing Design
..............................................................................................................
2-1
Open Hole Completions
...........................................................................
2-1
Cased Hole Completions
..........................................................................
2-1
Description of Casing Strings
...................................................................
2-2
Casing Clearance
.....................................................................................
2-3
Connections
..............................................................................................
2-5
Casing Weights and Grades
.....................................................................
2-6
Casing Design Safety Factors
..................................................................
2-7
Load Description
.......................................................................................
2-7
Casing String Design
.....................................................................................
2-14
API Equations
.........................................................................................
2-14
Buoyancy
................................................................................................
2-16
Example
2.1
............................................................................................
2-17
Collapse Design - Non-API Method
........................................................
2-18
Example2.2 - Single String Casing Design
............................................
2-22
Example 2.3 - Casing Design - Intermediate String
................................
2-26
Design a
9-5/8
ntermediate String
........................................................
2-26
Final Design
............................................................................................
2-30
High Pressure Gas
.................................................................................
2-30
Additional Graphical Illustrations
............................................................
2-30
Running The Casing
...............................................................................
2-30
Casing String Design- Deviated Wells
.......................................................... 2-34
Liner Design
...................................................................................................
2-36
Example2.4 - Liner Design
....................................................................
2-36
Liner Tie-Backs
..............................................................................................
2-38
Cementing
.....................................................................................................
2-39
...
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Problems
........................................................................................................
2-42
References
..................................................................................................
2-42
Other References
........................................................................................
2-45
Casing Horizontal Wells
.................................................................................
2-54
Reach Interval
.........................................................................................
2-54
Rotation and Torque
................................................................................
2-55
The Build Interval
....................................................................................
2-55
Bending Stress
........................................................................................
2-56
Vertical Interval
........................................................................................
2-57
Application
...............................................................................................
2-58
Cementing
......................................................................................................................
3-1
Cement Density
.........................................................................................
3-4
Factors Affecting Cement
..........................................................................
3-5
Cementing Design
............................................................................................
3-6
Primary Cementing
...........................................................................................
3-6
Cementing Calculations
..........................................................................
3.14
Balanced Plug Setting
.............................................................................
3.15
Squeeze Cementing
................................................................................
3-16
Cement Squeeze Tools
...........................................................................
3-17
Liner Cementing
......................................................................................
3-18
Frictional Pressure Dropin Pipe
...............................................................
3-19
References
..................................................................................................
3-20
Cementing: Review Questions
....................................................................
3-23
Packer Selection and Tub ing Forces
......................................................................
41
Production Packers
...................................................................................
4 1
Special Equipment
....................................................................................
4 1
Dressing Packers
......................................................................................
4-3
Allowing Tubing Movement
.......................................................................
4-3
Effects of Temperature
..............................................................................
4-4
Deep Completions
.....................................................................................
4-5
Seal Considerations
..................................................................................
4-8
Seal Problems
...........................................................................................
49
Tubing and Packer Forces
........................................................................
4-9
Length or Force Changes?
......................................................................
4-13
Setting the Packer
...................................................................................
4-14
Combined Forces
....................................................................................
4-16
Special Packers
..............................................................................................
4-17
Tubing Stretch and Compression
............................................................
4-17
Problems
........................................................................................................
4-17
References
..................................................................................................
4-18
Well Heads, Chokes and
SSSVs
...............................................................................
5-1
Well heads
........................................................................................................
5-1
Subsea Wellheads
............................................................................................
5-3
Coiled Tubing Well Heads
................................................................................
5-5
Hydrate Control in C oiled Tubing Completions
................................................ 5-5
Chokes
.............................................................................................................
5-7
Subsurface Safety Valves
................................................................................
5-8
Fluid
Loss
..................................................................................................
3-4
Application
.................................................................................................
37
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References
...................................................................................................
5-12
Corrosion and Erosion
...............................................................................................
6-1
Corrosion
.........................................................................................................
6-1
The Corrosion Circuit
................................................................................
6-2
Chemical Reaction
...................................................................................
6-2
Acid Gases
...............................................................................................
6-4
Controlling Corrosion
................................................................................
6-5
Materials for Sour Service
......................................................................
6-10
CO2 Corrosion
........................................................................................
6-11
Other Factors
...........................................................................................
6-1 2
Corrosion by Stimulation Acids
...............................................................
6-13
Destruction of Elastomers
......................................................................
6-14
Microbial Corrosion
.................................................................................
6-14
Nonmetallic Tubulars
..............................................................................
6-14
Predictive Techniques and Inspection Devices
...................................... 6-14
Erosion
...........................................................................................................
6-15
Corrosion References
..................................................................................
6-1
7
Inflow Perform ance, Tubin g Selection, and A rtificial Lift
.................................. 7-1
Inflow Performance
...................................................................................
7-1
Tubing Design
..........................................................................................
7-2
Heading
....................................................................................................
7-8
Tubing Design
..........................................................................................-9
Artificial L ift
...............................................................................................
7-9
Rod Pump
...............................................................................................
7-1
0
Rod Pump
...............................................................................................
7-1 2
Gas Lift
...................................................................................................
7-1 6
Electrical Submersible Pump
..................................................................
7-1 6
Other Systems
........................................................................................
7-1 6
Li f t
Selection
...........................................................................................
7-1
6
Reservoir Fluid Classification
.................................................................
7-1 7
References
...................................................................................................
7-1 9
Special Co mpletions (Deviated, Thermal Mu ltiples, and
Multi-Laterals)
.......
8-1
Deviated Completions
......................................................................................
8-1
Descriptions
..............................................................................................
8-1
Horizontal Well Candidate Selection
...............................................................
8-2
Horizontal Completions Background
...............................................................
8-3
Path of the Horizontal Section
.........................................................................
8-7
Artificial Lift Options
.........................................................................................
8-8
Solids Control Techniques
...............................................................................
8-9
Fracturing
...............................................................................................
8-10
Increasing Reservoir Contact
........................................................................
8-12
Logging
...................................................................................................
8-13
Wellbore Stability
....................................................................................
8-15
Perforating
..............................................................................................
8-1 7
CorrosionErosion
...................................................................................
8-1 8
Gravel Packs
..........................................................................................
8-19
Coning Control
........................................................................................
8-19
Heading Problems
.........................................................................................
8-21
Multi-lateral Completions
...............................................................................
8-21
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Lateral Technology Levels
......................................................................
8.22
Candidate List
.................................................................................................
8.24
The candidate list for design is still forming but has the
following considerations:
8-24
Thermal Completions
.....................................................................................
8.25
Steam Projects
........................................................................................
8-25
Combustion Projects
...............................................................................
8-26
Alternate Heating Methods
......................................................................
8.26
Stimulation
...............................................................................................
8.26
Corrosion and Scale
................................................................................
8-27
Insulation
.................................................................................................
8-28
Tubular Design
........................................................................................
8-28
Cementing Considerations
......................................................................
8.30
Completions
............................................................................................
8.3 1
Coalbed Methane W ells
.................................................................................
8-32
Multiple Completions
......................................................................................
8-35
Tubingless Completions
..........................................................................
8.36
Selection of a Completion
.......................................................................
8-38
Monobores
..............................................................................................
8-38
Coiled Tubing Completions
............................................................................
8-40
References
..................................................................................................
8-42
Logging
...........................................................................................................
8-50
Productivity Estimates
....................................................................................
8.53
Perforating
.....................................................................................................................
9.1
Temperature Effect
....................................................................................
9-6
Perforation Size
.........................................................................................
9-6
Calculated Pressure Drop
.......................................................................
9-16
Partial Completion
...................................................................................
9-16
Underbalance Perforating
.......................................................................
9-17
Tubing Conveyed Perforating
..................................................................
9-19
Wireline Perforating
.................................................................................
9-21
Highly Deviated W ells
.............................................................................
9-22
Depth Control
..........................................................................................
9.22
Cement Damage
.....................................................................................
9.23
Casing Damage
.......................................................................................
9-23
Stress in an Deviated Well
.............................................................................
8-50
Well Completion Problems
.............................................................................
8-52
Extreme Overbalance Perforating
...........................................................
9-19
Repetiora ing Considerations
..................................................................
9-24
Stimulation Considerations
......................................................................
9-25
Stimulations n Deviated Wells - Effect
of
Perfs ...................................... 9-26
A
brasiveErosive Perforating
...................................................................
9-26
Pipe Cutoff Methods
.......................................................................................
9-27
Questions
................................................................................................
9-27
References - Perforating
..............................................................................
9-28
Formation Damage - Causes and Preventions
...................................................
10-1
Clays
...............................................................................................................
10-6
Common Types of Clay
...........................................................................
10-8
Water lmbibition
of
Clays
........................................................................
10-9
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Clay Swelling
..........................................................................................
10-9
Clay Dispersion
......................................................................................
10-9
Other Clay Problems
............................................................................
10-1
0
Paraffins and Asphaltenes
...........................................................................
10-1 1
Emulsions
....................................................................................................
10-13
Dispersions
..................................................................................................
10-15
Foams
..........................................................................................................
10-16
Froth
............................................................................................................
10-16
Wettability Problems
....................................................................................
10-16
Hydrates
......................................................................................................
10-1
7
Scales
..........................................................................................................
10-18
Calcite
...................................................................................................
10-18
Calcium Sulfate
....................................................................................
10-19
Barium Sulfate
......................................................................................
10-21
Strontium Sulfate
..................................................................................
10-2 1
Other Scales
.........................................................................................
10-22
Particulate Damage
.....................................................................................
10-22
Drilling Mud
...........................................................................................
10-22
Cements
...............................................................................................
10-22
Kill Fluids
..............................................................................................
10-22
Dirty Water
............................................................................................
10-22
Bacteria Problems
................................................................................
1
0-22
Effects
of
Formation Damage on Production
...............................................
10-23
Rate and Skin
.......................................................................................
10-23
Example 70.7
........................................................................................
10-23
Example 70.2
........................................................................................
10-27
Example
70.3
........................................................................................
10-28
Using Production History Curves to Assess Damage
..................................
10-28
Example 70.4
........................................................................................
10-28
Workover Candidate Selection
....................................................................
10-29
Example 70.5
........................................................................................
10-29
Formation Damage - Questions
...................................................................
10-30
References
.................................................................................................
1
0-30
Formation and Damage Diagnos is
........................................................................
11-1
Drill Stem Test (DST)
...................................................................................
11-1
Nodal Analysis
...............................................................................................
11-4
Inflow Performance
......................................................................................
11-5
Equations of Flow
...................................................................................
11-9
Decline Curves
............................................................................................
11-1
5
System Pressures
........................................................................................
11-1
6
Fluid Analysis
.............................................................................................
11-18
Transient Tests
..........................................................................................
11-21
Reservoir Logging Methods
.......................................................................
11-28
Gamma Ray Logging
............................................................................
1 1-28
Acoustic or Sonic Logging
....................................................................
11-28
Neutron Logging
...................................................................................
11-29
Density Logging
....................................................................................
1
1
29
Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log
............................................... 11-30
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Induced Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log
............................................... 1 1-30
Depth of lnvasion
..................................................................................
1 1-35
Other Logs
.............................................................................................
1 1-36
Cased Hole Logging
..............................................................................
1
1-37
Electric Logg ing Tool Response
................................................................
11-38
Direct Borehole Investigation
................................................................ 1
1-40
Formation Tester
...................................................................................
1 1-41
Fluid Movement Surveys
..............................................................................
1
1-42
Fluid Surveys
-
Formation
............................................................................
11-43
Fluid Surveys
-
Wellbore
..............................................................................
1
1-43
Mapping
.....................................................................................................
11-47
Rock Mechanics Information From Logs
...................................................
11-51
Basic Logg ing Tool Response
...................................................................
11 55
Gamma Ray Logging
.................................................................................
'11-56
Neutron Logging
........................................................................................
11-56
Density Logging
.........................................................................................
11-57
Natural Gam ma Ray Spectroscopy Log
.................................................... 11-57
Induced Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log
...................................................
11-57
References
................................................................................................
11-58
Chemical and Thermal Stimulation
........................................................................
12-1
Example
12.1
..........................................................................................
12-2
Example 12.2
..........................................................................................
12-2
Selecting a Candidate Well
............................................................................
12-3
Evaluation
of
Stimulations
..............................................................................
12-3
Selective Stimulation
......................................................................................
12-4
Diverting vs.Fluid Loss Control
..............................................................
.l2-4
Candidates
..............................................................................................
12-4
Diverter Operation
...................................................................................
12-5
Limited Entry (Pressure Differential Diverting)
.......................................
.1
2-5
Mechanical Diverting
...............................................................................
12-6
Chemical Diverlers
................................................................................
12-1
lnterface Treatments
.............................................................................
12-1
Diverler/Fluid Loss Control Stages
........................................................ 12-1
HCVHF Treatment Diversion
.................................................................
12-1
Recommendations
................................................................................
12-1 7
Packoff Techniques
...............................................................................
12-1
Technology of Bridging
..........................................................................
12-1
Depth
of
Diversion
.................................................................................
12-1
Chem ical Stimulation Techniques
................................................................
12-1
Acidizing
................................................................................................
12-1
Open-Hole Logging
...............................................................................
1 1-30
Noise Logging
.......................................................................................
1 1
-46
Borehole Surveys
..................................................................................
1 1-47
Completion and Lift Analysis
.....................................................................
11-50
Production and Operations Information
.....................................................
1
1-50
Mechanical Properties
...........................................................................
1 1-53
Acoustic or Son ic Logging
.........................................................................
11-56
Cleanup
.................................................................................................
12-1
HF Acid Spending Rates
..............................................................................
12-20
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Solvents
.......................................................................................................
12-21
Gases
..........................................................................................................
12-22
Surfactants
...................................................................................................
12-22
Reactants
.....................................................................................................
12-22
Treatment Types
..........................................................................................
12-22
Damage Removal
........................................................................................
12-23
Reaction Rate Factors
.................................................................................
12-24
Temperature
.........................................................................................
12-24
Pressure
...............................................................................................
12-24
Area Volume Ratio
...............................................................................
12-24
Acid Concentration
...............................................................................
12-24
Acid Selection
.......................................................................................
12-24
Formation Composition
........................................................................
12-25
Additives
......................................................................................................
12-25
Surfactants
...........................................................................................
12-25
Weffability
.............................................................................................
12-26
Mutua l Solvents
....................................................................................
12-27
Wash Design
...............................................................................................
12-28
Wellbore Cleanup and Acid Wash
........................................................ 12-28
Solvent Wash of Injection Wells
...........................................................
12-28
Perforation Breakdown
.........................................................................
12-28
Extreme Overbalance Perforating
...............................................................
12-29
Matrix Acidizing Design
...............................................................................
12-29
Obtaining the Required Information
...................................................... 12-29
Designing the Treatment
......................................................................
12-3 1
Thermal Stimulation
.....................................................................................
12-35
Chem ical Heat Generation
...................................................................
12-37
References
.................................................................................................
12-38
Granular Salt
........................................................................................
12-43
100-Mesh Sand
....................................................................................
12-43
Calcium Carbonate
...............................................................................
12-43
Naphthalene
.........................................................................................
12-43
Benzoic Acid Flakes
.............................................................................
12-44
Wax Beads
...........................................................................................
12-44
Organic Resin Beads
............................................................................
12-44
Organic Resin Dispersions
...................................................................
12-44
Micron Size Patticulates
.......................................................................
12-44
Poiymers
...............................................................................................
12-45
Others
...................................................................................................
12-45
Fracturing
....................................................................................................................
13-1
Recovery by Fracturing
..................................................................................
13-1
Fracturing Economics
....................................................................................
13-2
Fracturing Length and Conductivity Decisions
.............................................. 13-3
Fracture Design
...........................................................................................
13-15
Fracture Length and Width - Modeling
................................................. 13-1
5
Fracture Orientation and Formation Stresses
....................................... 13-16
Fluid Loss
.............................................................................................
13-1
7
Fracturing Design
.................................................................................
13-20
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Closure Stress
.......................................................................................
13-25
Fracture Treatments
..............................................................................
13-29
Fracture Treatment Design
...................................................................
13-29
When To Fracture
.................................................................................
13-33
Treatment Pressure Behavior
...............................................................
13-33
References
................................................................................................
13-34
Unstable Form ations and Sand Control
...............................................................
14-1
Sand Cementation
..........................................................................................
14-1
Formation Characterization
.....................................................................
14-2
Sand Movem ent Prediction
.....................................................................
14-4
Sand Control Considerations
................................................................
14-1 2
Sand Control
.........................................................................................
14-13
Alternate Gravel Sizing Methods
...........................................................
14-20
Mobility
of
Fines
...................................................................................
14-22
Sand Sorting Considerations
.................................................................
14-23
Benefits
of
Larger Gravel
......................................................................
14-24
Carrier Fluids
.........................................................................................
14-26
Equipment
.............................................................................................
14-28
Packing Methods
...................................................................................
14-29
Fluid Loss Control
.................................................................................
14-30
Alternate Path Gravel Packing
..............................................................
14-30
Pressure Drops Across G ravel Packs
................................................... 14-31
Example
................................................................................................
14-32
Pack and Frac Technology
....................................................................
14-32
Reservoir Lamination and Well Deviation
............................................. 14-33
Other Unstable Formations
...................................................................
1
4-33
References
-
Gravel Pack
..........................................................................
14-34
Workovers
and
Fluids
...............................................................................................
15-1
Well Control
.............................................................................................
15-1
Example
15
..........................................................................................
15-2
Example
15.2
..........................................................................................
15-3
Example 15.3
..........................................................................................
15-3
Shut-In
.....................................................................................................
15-5
(Re)Gaining Control
................................................................................
15-6
Example
15.4
..........................................................................................
1 5 6
Pressure Effects
....................................................................................
15-1 1
Example
15.5
........................................................................................
15-14
Completion/Workover Fluids
.................................................................
15-1 6
Example
15.6
........................................................................................
15-1
8
Example 75.7
........................................................................................
15-19
Example 15.8
........................................................................................
15-20
Example 15.9
........................................................................................
15-20
Example
I5 I0
......................................................................................
15-22
Before the Job W C
................................................................................
15-26
Fluid Filtration
...............................................................................................
1527
Field Testing and Measurement of Clean
........................................... 15-32
Application
............................................................................................
.1 5-32
Kill String Completions
..........................................................................
15-33
Returning W ells to Operation
................................................................
15-33
Workover References
................................................................................
15-34
Current Gravel Pack Design Methods and Problem Identification
........14-21
Snubbing
...............................................................................................
15-1
4
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References o n Filtration
.............................................................................
15-35
High Tem perature, High Pressu re Completions
................................................. 16-1
Completions Operations
.................................................................................
16-2
Brines
.............................................................................................................
16-5
Stimulation
......................................................................................................
16-5
Formation Damage
.........................................................................................
16-6
Well Design
....................................................................................................
16-7
Completions Equipment
.................................................................................
16-7
Subsurface Safety Valves
..............................................................................
16-8
Annular Pressure Buildup
.............................................................................
16-1
References
................................................................................................
16-1 1
Water Produc tion Control
........................................................................................
17-1
Summary of Important Points
..................................................................
17-1
Sources
of
Water
.....................................................................................
17-1
Problem Definition - Reservoir
................................................................
17-2
Problem Definition
-
Near Wellbore
.........................................................
17-3
Coning
.....................................................................................................
17-3
Water Block
.............................................................................................
17-5
Problem Definition - Injection Well
..........................................................
17-6
Reservoir Description and Modeling Necessities
....................................
17-7
Treating Considerations
..........................................................................
17-7
Modification of Permeability
............................................................................
17-7
Deep M odification - Permeab ility Reduction
...........................................
17-7
. .
Deep M odification - Increasing Permeability
...........................................
17-7
Shallow Modification - Permeability Reduction
........................................ 17-8
Shallow M odification - Increasing Permeability
.......................................
17-9
References
..................................................................................................
17-9
Wireline and Coiled Tubing Operations
................................................................
18-1
Wireline Operations
.................................................................................
18-1
Downhole Wireline Equipment
................................................................
18-2
Pressure and Fluid Control
......................................................................
18-6
Special Services
......................................................................................
18-9
Tools
for
Downhole Measurements
......................................................... 18-9
Coil Tubing O perations
................................................................................
18-9
Chain Injector
........................................................................................
1
8-1
Axial Load Capacity
...............................................................................
18-25
Depth Limitations
..........................................................................................
18-27
Buoyancy
......................................................................................................
18-28
Tapered S trings
............................................................................................
18-30
Buckling
........................................................................................................
18-31
Capacity and Displacement
..........................................................................
18-31
Fluid Unloading in Casing
.............................................................................
18-40
Friction Pressure
..........................................................................................
18-42
Well Testing with Coiled Tubing
...................................................................
18-44
References
................................................................................................
18-44
Additional References on Coiled Tubing
................................................... 18-46
Workover Fishin g
.......................................................................................................
19-1
Location of Stuck Point
............................................................................
19-6
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References
.
ishing
....................................................................................
19-8
References
.
illing
.....................................................................................
19-8
Plug and A bandonm ent Procedures
.....................................................................
20-1
Legal Requirements
.......................................................................................
20-2
Setting Cement Plugs
.....................................................................................
20-2
Other Plugging Processes
..............................................................................
20-6
Milling
a Packer
.......................................................................................
20-7
References
-
Plug and Abandonment
..........................................................
20-7
Effects of Com pletion, Stimu lation and Workover A ctivities on
Surface Facility
Operations
..............................................................................................................
21-1
Stimulation Flowbacks
....................................................................................
21-7
Testing the Backflow
......................................................................................
21-7
Causes of Upsets
....................................................................................
21-7
Flowback Duration
........................................................................................
21 -1 2
Treating the Returning Acid
..........................................................................
21-13
Treatment Choices
.......................................................................................
21-13
Oil Foams
.....................................................................................................
21-14
References
................................................................................................
21
1
4
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Intro du ction: Basic Well Com pletion Con cepts
Porosity
Porosity is the fraction of the total volume of the rock that is
pore (non rock) space or void and not
made of solid pieces of the formation.
It
will be filled with a gas, water or hydroca rbon
or
two or more
at the same time. Porosity will range from a high of 40-50% in
some m arginally consolidated chalk for-
mations to a low of near zero in some of the evaporites
(anhydrite). The average po rosity of producing
reservoirs ranges from about 5 1 5 % in limestones or dolomites,
10-25% in sandstones and over
30%
in many of the chalk formations. In most unconsolidated
formation, poros ity depends upon the grain
size distribution; no t on the abso lute size of the grain
itself. Po rosity can be in the order of 35-40%
if
all grains are close to the same size, but in most cases
where
a
wide range of grain sizes are avail-
able, the porosity will be between 15-25%. Severe cases of
formations with mixtures of large and very
small grains may have porosities less than 15%.
Lower porosities, such as 10% or less, are usua lly the result
of chemical mod ification of the pore
structure, i.e., recementation, precipitation of additional
minerals, or leaching and reprecipitation. In
some cases, the very consolidated sandstones with overgrowth of
quartz m ay have porosities down to
near zero.
Geologists further subdivide po rosity into several descriptive
classifications that he lp engineers
describe the flow of fluids through the formation and into the
wellbore. The major classifications are
briefly described in the follow ing paragraphs.
1. Matrix porosity or intergranular porosity - the porosity
between the grains of the formation.
2.
Vug porosity - porosity in the solution chambers that may range
from a ten th of a millimeter to
voids larger than a basketball.
3.
Fracture porosity
-
the void space created within the walls of an open natural
fracture.
4 .
Micro porosity - the voids between the clay platelets or
particles. Although a large micro porosity
may exist, production of fluids from them is often difficult
since the fluids are usually held by
strong cohesive forces.
The matrix porosity is referred to as the primary porosity and
most other poros ities are secondary.
Usually, the pore space described by natural fractures and vugs
are produced or swep t very early
(flush production) and their continuing use becomes as a
conductive pa thway to the wellbore. Long
term production rate estimates are usually based upon the
reserves in the matrix except in very large
fields where solution porosity (vugs) is very extensive.
Porosity values derived from neutron or sonic logs are usually
used alone with other log inform ation
and well observations to es tablish whethe r a section of rock
is pay. Although the use of porosity in
this manner is common, it can also be very m isleading.
Obviously, porosity is not a stand along value
for establishing the quality of pay. Shales, for example, have
porosities of 30%
or
more but lack the
conductive pathways (permeability) to make them economic except
where fractured gas-rich shales
exist in massive sections.
The location and type of porosity has a great affect on the
performance of a well. R elying totally on a
log derived porosity, especially in a carbonate, may provide
unexpected low produc tion or may result
in missing productive intervals. The occurrence of lime muds, a
low porosity deposit common within
limestones may isolate porosity an d result in much lower
effective porosities than reported with a log.
Fossils, porosity within grains, and isolated vugs encased by
grain overgrowths may also result in high
porosity readings without adding
to
the porosity of the reservoir. These porosity problem s are
usually
only spotted with the aide of core exam inations.
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Lower porosity rocks (less than
10%)
may be pay in a few instances if microfractures exist at
reservoir
conditions. The open microfractures serve as drainage paths for
fluid flow from very low porosity but
extensive parts
of
the rock.
Saturat ion
The fraction of pore space containing w ater is called the water
saturation and usually denoted by an
Sw.
The remaining fraction of the pore space that contains oil or
gas is called hydrocarbon saturation
Sh.
The simple balance
sh = 1 -
Sw accounts for all of the pore space within a rock. In
almost
every porous formation, there is at least a small amount of
water saturation. Usua lly when the sedi-
ments were laid down, the matrix materials were dispersed in
water.
A s
the hydrocarbon entered the
porous formation, water was displaced from many
of
the pores, although the displacement process is
not efficient enough to move all the water. This displacement
process, whether it was oil displacing
water over geologic time, o r water displac ing oil during water
drive or water flooding, results in a lower
saturation of the fluid being displaced. If a very large amount
of the driving fluid is displaced, the quan-
tity of the initial fluid reaches a point, usually a few percent
of the pore space, where it cannot be
reduced further. This level of fluid is the irreducible
saturation of that fluid. Therefore , an irreducible
water saturation, S,,,, is the saturation o f water in the core
that cannot be removed by m igration of
hydrocarbon. This water
or
oil,
Soil
may be trapped in the small pores, held by high capillary
attraction,
or bound to clays as a surface layer or in the clay lattice.
Permeabi l i ty
Permeability, denoted by a lower case
k,
s a m easure of the conductance of the formation to flow of
a
fluid. The h igher the permeability, the easier it is (takes
less driving pressure) for a fluid to flow
through the rock matrix. The law was originally derived by a
French engineer named dArcy to
account for the flow of water through sand filters. The original
permeability concept used darcies as
a
unit of measurement, but most productive formations will be
between
0.001
md
(1
md =
0.001
darcy)
and
1000
millidarcies
(1
darcy). Permeability depends on the absolute grain size of the
rock, how well
the sediments are sorted, presence of fractures, and how much
chemical modification has occurred in
the matrix. Flowing and bound fluid properties also affect the
permeability. Large-grained sediments
with a minimum of fine particles (large, open pores) usually
have high permeabilities whereas very
fine-grained sediments with small pores have lower
permeabilities. Porosity does not always relate
directly to permeability. Materials such as shales and some
chalks may have very high porosities but
low permeability because of lack of effective connection of the
pores.
Permeability to
oil,
water and gas m ay b e different because of viscosity
differences and other influ-
ences such as wetting and the issue of the thickness of the
liquid coating on the pore wall. Oil wet for-
mations are usually thought to be less permeable to the flow of
water than water wet formations
because the molecular thickness of the oil coating is thicker
than that of water. This leaves less pore
space for fluids flow. When m ore than one phase exists in the
pore, relative permeability relationships
govern the flow.
Relat ive Permeabil i ty
The effects of relative permeability explain many of the
problems involved in formation damage and
reduction of flow from a formation, either on initial
production
or
after treating with a material which
severely oil wets the formation.
As
will b e pointed out in the chapter on formation damage,
problems
with relative permeability include a significant drop in
permeability to the saturating fluid as trace
amounts of a second, immiscible phase are introduced in the
flowing liquid. Reductions of up to
80%
of
initial permeability are common when saturation of an immiscible
phase is increased from zero to
approximately
20
or
25%.
It is this significant reduction in permeability that explains m
uch
of
the dam-
age behind overtreatmen t with an oil-filming chemical, such as
an oil-based drilling m ud, or the use of
highly absorptive surfactants
or
solvents. The surface of the rock also plays an important part
since
the charge of a surfactant controls the attraction to a
particular formation face. It must be remembered
that severe we ttability problems such as the absorption of
cationic m aterials onto sandstones and the
absorption of anionic materials onto limestones can play a
significant role in permeability reduction.
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The reduction from this coating or wetting may be severe and can
be long-lasting, depending on the
tenacity of the coating.
Matrix cleanup of this type of wetting is imperative to fully
restore the flow capacity of the forma tion.
Cleanup of this type of dam age mus t take into account both the
stripping of the relative permeability
influencing layer and the type of rock surface to which it is
adsorbed.
Natural Fractures
Natural fractures are breaks in the fabric of the rock caused by
a wide variety of earth forces. These
natural fractures may have widths of a few thousandths of an
inch to a tenth of an inch or more. Natu-
ral fractures generally h ave a common direction that
corresponds to forces generated by a significant
geologic event in the area such as folding, faulting, or
tectonic forces. Where solution etching
or
cementation forces are active, the fractures may be widened into
extens ive vugs with perm eabilities of
hundreds of darcies or filled completely with precipitated mine
rals. Stylolites or gouge filled frac tures
are examples of these behaviors. Na tural fractures influence
flush production or high initial production
rate that diminishes quickly after bringing on a new well
or
the start of flow in a well that has been
shut-in. Although they serve as conductive pathways for oil or
gas production, they also will transmit
water at a much faster ra te than the formation matrix, leading
to early breakth rough of water or other
type floods and sweep problems in reservoir engineering.
Reservoir Pressu re
The pressure that the reservo ir fluids exert on the well at the
pay zone is the reservoir pressu re. In sin-
gle pay completions with little or no rat hole (extra hole below
the pay), the reservoir pressu re is the
bottom hole pressure,
BHP.
The initial reservoir pressure is the pressure at the time of
discovery.
Flowing bottom hole pressure is pressure exerted as the result
of a drawdo wn (differential pressure
produced by flowing the well). Shut-in pressure is the stable
pressure reached after the well has b een
shut in long enough to co me to equilibrium. Shut-in pressures
are often quoted as a function of time.
The initial pressure is usually a function of depth of burial
but may be modified by other forces at the
time of burial or at a later time. Driving pressure may be
supplied by a number of mechanisms
depending upon the characteristics of the oil and the
surrounding geologic and physical forces. The
genera l types of reservoir drive forces (to the limit of
general interest in well completions) are:
1.
Solution gas drive - a volumetric displacement where all the
driving energy or pressure is sup-
plied by gas expans ion as the pressure is reduced and the gas
comes out of solution. In reser-
voirs above the bubble point, all the gas is dissolved in the
oil and there is no free gas. In these
reservoirs, there may b e a volume change
of
the oil as the pressure drops and gas breaks out
of
solution. Reservo ir pressure decrease s with fluid
withdrawals.
2. Gas Cap
-
a volumetric displacemen t where the oil is below the bubb le
point, i.e., there is free
gas or gas saturation in the pores and there may be a gas cap.
Reservo ir pressure dec reases
with fluid withdrawals.
3.
Water drive -water influx into the reservoir from edge, bottom
or water injection wells can pro-
vide very consistent drive p ressure to a reservoir. Like the
oil, the water m oves through the most
permeable pathways of the formation towards the pressure drop
produced by rem oval of fluids.
The water pushes part of the oil in front, entering some of the
pores and displacing the oil. Oil
production continues long after the breakthrough
of
water at the producing well since the forma-
tion may contain a number of streaks that have permeability
differences an order of magnitude
or more. R eservoir pressure may rem ain the same or drop with
fluid withdrawals, depending
upon how fast the incoming water replaces the withdrawn
fluids.
4. Reservoir compression through com paction in poorly
consolidated, high porosity reservoirs is
also a method of supp lying driving energy but it usually
generates serious problems in the res-
ervoir. In these reservoirs, which may o ften be initially over
pressu red, the reservoir fluids are a
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overbu rden load supporting element. W ithdrawal of the fluids
requires the m atrix of the formation
to support more of the load from the overlying sediments
(overburden). In some poorly consoli-
dated or weak formations, the matrix compresses under the load,
leading to lower porosity and a
continued pressure on the remaining fluids. Although this is a
definite form of pressure mainte-
nance, when the porosity is decreased, the permea bility also is
reduced. Compaction of the p ay
in massive sections may also lead to subsidence of several feet
at the surface
--
a critical prob-
lem for some offshore rigs and se a level land fields.
5. Pressure ma intenance or sweep projects using water or gas
are our methods of increasing
recovery. These processes come with m any of the same advantages
and limitations as their nat-
ural counterparts.
Pressures
To a workove r engineer, pressure can be a powerful tool or a
nightmare. The difference is in how pres-
sure control is handled. The following "sho rt list" of
pressures and pressure related terms p resents an
idea of what and how pressures are important to the
workover.
1.
Reservoir Pore Pressure
-
The pressure of the reservoir fluids, often expressed as a
gradient in
psilft. The initial reservoir pressure is the pressure at the
time of discovery. Fluid withdrawals
from a reservoir are made by lowering the pressure in the
wellbore. The flow of fluids toward the
low pressure creates zones of lower pressure or pressure gradien
ts extending into the reservoir.
The reservoir pressure can only be measured at the wellbore in a
new well or in a well that has
experienced comp lete buildup.
2.
Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure -T hi s pressure is measured at the
productive zone during flow.
A
value of flowing bo ttom hole pressure is usually reported with
a flow rate or a choke se tting.
A
change i n the flow rate will change the flowing bottom hole
pressure.
3. Drawdown
-
Drawdown is the pressure d ifferential set by the difference of
the reservoir pressure
and the flowing bottom hole pressure.
4.
Flowing Tubing Pressure
-
A surface m easurement of the pressure in the tubing, prior to
the
choke, at a particular flow rate. It is equal to the flowing
bottom hole pressure minus the hydro-
static pressure exerted by the fluids in the tubing. Because of
entrained gas production and gas
breakout as the well is produced, it is rarely possible
on
iquid/gas producers to accurately calcu-
late the flowing bottom hole pressure from the flowing wellhead
pressure. Only when the compo-
sition of the fluid in the tubing is known can the down hole
pressure be calculated.
5. Shut-in Surface Pressure
-
Any pressure measured at the surface immediately after a w ell
is
shut-in will change as bottom hole p ressure builds up toward
reservoir pressure and the fluids in
the tubing come to an equilibrium. S urface measured shut-in
pressures are useful in some b uild-
up tests to assess the productivity of a well.
6.
Productivity Index
-
The productivity index is a measurement of well flow potential.
It is a term
generated from a delivery plot of flow rate and pressure from a
particular well. It is comm only
expressed as a potential flow rate per pressure drop such as
barrels per day per psi. By multiply-
ing the P I by the intended drawdown, a flow rate of the well
can be predicted. The PI is estab-
lished by test on the well. It changes with time.
7. Fracture Breakdown Pressure - A measurement of what pressure
is required to hydraulically
fracture the rock. The breakdown pressure is usually attained
from drilling data, breakdown
tests, or fracture stimulations. It is usually expressed as a
gradient of pressure per unit of forma-
tion depth such as psi/ft.
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8. Fracture Extension Pressure -T h e pressure necessary to
extend the fracture after initiation. Like
fracture breakdown pressure, it is relevan t to a particular
well or field.
9. Friction Pressure - When fluids are flowed at h igh rates
through a conduit, there
is
a resistance
to flow caused, at least partly, by friction
of
the fluids at the boundaries of the conduit and by tur-
bulence (mixing) of the fluids. Whether the con duit is pipe
or
a fracture, friction represen ts a
back pressure. Friction is expressed as pressure at a rate for a
unit length of a particular conduit.
10. Bubble Point Pressure - In a reservoir that contains an
undersaturated oil, there will be no gas
cap. As the pressure
is
drawn down, the solution gas will break out of solution. Because
of rela-
tive permeability and saturation concerns , the occurrence of
reaching the bubble point usually
coincides with a drop in production.
Pressure Differential
Pressure differential
is
probably the m ost important pressure during drilling,
completion, workover and
production. The differential pressure between the wellbore and
the formation dictates which direction
fluids will move and at what rate they will move. Additional
controls such as reservoir permeability and
native and injected fluid viscosity also have an affect, as does
the presence of solids in the wellbore
fluid when the pressure differential is toward the form
ation.
In general, drilling pressure differential should b e as low as
possible to m inimize formation damage
and the amoun t of fluid invasion from wellbore fluids. However,
during any drilling, comp letion or work-
over operation, the pressure differential m ust be toward the
wellbore (higher pressure in the wellbore
than in the reservoir) when well flow is not wanted. M
aintaining pressure differential is the same as
ma intaining well control. Ce rtain conditions, such as
intentional or accidental swabbing caused by
swab cups or large-diam eter tools, can create low pressures at
the bottomhole, even with a column of
high pressure fluid above the swab or tool. It is the rate of
movement and the diameter difference
between the objec t in the h ole and the inside of the hole
itself that determ ine the sw ab or underbal-
ance loads. Each step of a drilling, comp letion or workover
operation, particularly when tools or equip-
ment are removed from the hole, should b e examined to
determine
if
swab loads can unbalance the
pressure differential and sw ab fluids into the wellbore.
During production, pressure differential towa rd the we llbore
is essential for fluid flow. Colum ns of
standing liquids, excessive backpressures or large amounts of
solids in the fluids in the wellbore will
act as a check valve, severely limiting produc tion flow into
the well.
The study of pressu re differential and p ressure drop is
commonly done us ing a nodal analysis pro-
gram. These programs compute pressure drops and
backpressures
on
a system, and help identify
those points that may be bottlenecks to good production
practices. There are many instances of wells,
some even with large-diameter tubing where the tubing has been
found to b e a choke on the produc-
tion from the well. Changing out the tubing to a larger size in
many cases has doubled production from
a h igh capacity well.
Well Temperature
The reservoir at static conditions has a shut-in or rese rvoir
tempe rature that is characteristic of the
depth times the geothermal gradient for that area. A 13,000
ft
deep rese rvoir in one part of the world
may have a bottom hole temperature of 16OoF, while a similar
depth reservoir in a hotter geothe rmal
area may be 360F.
As the well flows, the bottom h ole temperature will drop depen
ding on the type and am ount of gas and
the pressure drop. The cooling is produced by the expansion of
gas. Temperature reductions low
enough to freeze water may form ice or hydrates in some gas
wells while wells with a smaller ratio
of
gas to liquids will flow hot to surface .
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Fluid Properties
The composition of the fluid in the formation, at various points
in the tubing and at the surface have
major affects on the performance of he well and the
selection
of
production equipment. The following
terms are required know ledge to describe the fluid a nd their
changing nature.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Gas-oil-ratio,
GOR,
the amount of free gas associated with the oil production. The
gas may ordi-
narily be in solution or free gas as in a reservo ir with a gas
cap. When the gas volum e is
expressed as a function of the total liquids, the value is the
gas-liquid-ratio, GLR. Wells with
GLRs above 8000 are considered gas wells, while those with a
GOR
less than 2000 are labeled
oil wells. The wells in between 2000 and 8000 are combination
wells. The actual GOR value is
usually m easured at the surface, its value downhole changes
with pressure.
Water-oil-ratio, WOR, is the am ount of water being produced in
ratio to the oil production.
Bubble point refers to the p ressure that a free gas phase will
form in an undersaturated oil. The
significance is the addition of another phase that, most likely,
will lower the relative permeability.
Dew point is the pressure and temperature at which the light
hydrocarbon gases, Cs-C,, begin
to
condense into a liquid. The addition of anothe r phase will
lower relative permeability.
Cloud point is the temperature in an oil system where paraffin
crystals appear (cj8+ fraction
begins to solidify).
Pour point is the temperature below which the o il will
no
longer pour.
High
Temperature
and High
Pressure Wells
Wells with pressures over 0.6 psi/ft and temperatures over 300F
are often referred to as HTHP wells
or high temperature, high pressure wells. These wells account
for less than
1%
of the total wells
drilled, but may cost
5%
or more of the total expenditures for drilling and completions.
The risk, reward
and cost can a ll be very great in these types of wells. Very
special workover and completion opera-
tions are necessary to adequately complete and produce these
wells.
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Introductions
Geology
The geologic understanding of the pay and the surround ing
formations plays an important part in the
design of well comp letions and stimulations. The b rief
introduction given here will only give a glimpse
of the sub ject ma tter in the field. Th is treatment of geo
logy is very simplistic; reference articles and
books are available for every segment.
The type of formation, composition, strength, logging basics,
leakoff sites and other parameters may
be available from a detailed geolog ic investigation. This
information is useful for pay zone identifica-
tion, fluid and additive selection, longevity of fluid contact,
and selecting casing points.
There are several major classifications of rocks of interest to
the petroleum industry: sandstones, car-
bonates (limestone and dolomite) evaporites, and shales are only
the major groups. Several others,
such
as
mudstones, siltstones and washes, are subd ivisions of the major
classifications.
Sandstones are predominately silicon dioxide and may have
various amounts of clay, pyrite, calcite,
dolomite or other materials in concentrations from less than
1
%
to over
50%.
Sandstone formations
are generally noted for being a collection of grains. The grain
size may range from ve ry small, silt
sized particles (5 microns) to pea size or larger. The grains
fit together to form a matrix that has (hope-
fully) some void space between the particles in which oil or
other fluids may accumulate. The grains
are usually held together by a cem ent that may be clay, silica,
calcite, dolomite, or pyrite. Som e
cementation of the grains is critical for forma tion strength;
however, excess cementation reduces
porosity and permeability.
Sands are deposited in a variety of depositional environments
that determine the in itial sedimentkock
properties. The depositional env ironmen t is simply what type
of surroundings and forces shaped the
deposits. In the following descriptions of depositional
environment, the energy level is labeled as
either high or low depending upon the leve l of force that accom
panied the deposition of the sediments.
High energy deposits are those with sufficient wind or current
to move large pieces of debris while low
energy is sufficient to m ove only the smaller particles. The
importance of energy is described later.
Common depositional environments are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Deltas
-
These m outh of river deposits provide some of the larger
sandstone deposits. Because
of the enormous amount of natural organic material swept down
the river systems , the deltas are
also rich in hydrocarbons. Quality of the reservoir rock
deposits may vary widely because of the
wide variations in the ene rgy level of the systems.
Lagoonal deposits - May be regiona lly extensive along the
shores of ancient seas. Lagoonal
deposits are low energy deposits that are hydrocarbon rich.
Permeability may vary w ith the
energy and amount of silt.
Stream beds - A moderate to low energy deposit with some streaks
of high energy along the fast
flowing parts of the stream s. Stream beds are known to wander
extensively and chasing these
deposits with wells requires very good geologic interpretation,
plus a lot of luck. The deposit vol-
umes are also lim ited and frequently deplete quickly.
Deep m arine chalks
-
These are often the most massive deposits available, built up at
the bot-
tom of ancient seas by the death of millions of generations of
plankton-sized, ca lcium fixing
organisms. They can be very consistent, thick deposits. Natura l
fracturing is common.
Reefs
-
These forma tions were built in the same manner as the reefs of
today, by animals that
take calcium from the sea water and secrete ha rd structures.
Because of the cavities rem aining
from the once living organisms, reefs that have not undergone
extensive chemical mod ification
are among the m ost permeable of the carbonate deposits.
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6.
Dunes - The effects of desert winds on the sands have a shaping
effect that can be seen in the
arrangement of the grains. These deposits may be m assive but
are usually lower energy. Perme-
ability may vary considerably from top to bottom.
7. Alluvial fan
-
Zones of heavy water run-off such as from mountains are
extremely high energy
runoffs. Common constituents of these formations may range from
pebbles to boulders and
cementation may be very weak. Formations such as the g ranite
washes are in this classification.
8. Flood plains - Occur along lower energy rivers and form
during flood stages when the rivers
overflow the banks and spill into adjacen t low areas. Flood
plain deposits are mostly silt and
mud.
The level of energy with each type of deposit can b e visualized
by their modern depositional counter-
parts. The importance of energy is in the sorting of the gra ins
and the average size of the grains . As
seen in the description
of
permeability in the p receding section, a rock with larger
grains and the
absence of very small grains leads to high permeability. When
small grains are present, the perme-
ability is m uch lower. When there is a mixture of the very
large and very small grains, such as in some
alluvial fans, the p ermeability can be very low. The exten t of
grain differences in a forma tion is terme d
the sorting, with well sorted formations having similar sized
grains and poorly sorted forma tions
showing a very wide size range.
The events that happen after the deposit is laid down are also
factors in well completions and may
have a devasta ting effect on reservoir engineering. Som e of
these forces are active for a short period
in geologic time such as faulting and salt domes, and others
like salt flows and subsidence, are active
during the productive life of the well. The faulting, folding
and salt movement make some reservoirs
difficult to follow. Continuo us forces are often responsible
for formation creep in open holes, spalling,
and casing sticking a nd collapse problems. A lthough these
geologic movement factors cannot be eas-
ily controlled, the well comp letion operations can be modified
to account for many of them, if he prob-
lems are co rrectly identified early in the p roject life.
Chem ical modifications also influence the rese rvoirs, though m
uch less drastically than the uplift
forces of a salt dome, for example. Most carbonates (not
including the reefs) are laid down by accu-
mulation of calcium carbona te particles. Limes tone may
recrystallize or convert to dolomite by the
addition of magnesium. Be cause the limestone is soluble in
ground water and very stable (resistant to
collapse), the l