Watershed Management: An Overvie · Watershed Management: An Overview Using the watershed approach, we can take a broader view of the environment, where our activities are interconnected

ment and economy. Because sur-faced groundwater is part of thetotal water cycle, wellhead andaquifer protection follow similarconcepts and approaches.

Why look at watershedsinstead of individual waterways?The activities of people who livewithin a watershed affect thehealth of the waters that draininto it. Any activity that changessoil permeability, vegetation typeor cover, water quality, quantity,or rate of flow at a location can

change the characteristics of astream.

For years, we understood thatdirect pollution of waters must becontrolled or prevented. We wereaware that obvious sources, suchas factory waste or untreatedwastewater from a failing septicsystem, were harmful to the localwaters. Now we know that eventhe silt that results from thesmallest disturbance of the top-soil or the bacteria-laden runofffrom livestock pastures alsoimpacts water quality.

lean water—we need itfor our health, recre-ation, and industry.We all want it—and

we all affect its quality. To main-tain adequate water quality, wemust look at all activities thattake place in an area and makesure that their environmentalimpacts on nearby waterways areminimal. Watershed manage-ment is simply a systemsapproach to environmental pro-tection. This issue of Pipeline willdiscuss the importance of water-sheds as a part of a healthy envi-ronment and economy. The U.S.Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA) Watershed-Based Nation-al Pollutant Discharge Elimina-tion System (NPDES) Permittingapproach to water protection willbe described along with severalreal-world examples.

What is a watershed?A watershed is an area of landthat drains into a lake or river.As rainwater and melting snowrun downhill, they carry sedi-ment and other materials intoour streams, lakes, wetlands, andgroundwater. A watershed is thearea of land that catches all pre-cipitation (such as rain andsnow) and drains or seeps into amarsh, stream, river, lake orgroundwater. You are in a water-shed now. Understanding yourwatershed is the first step in pro-tecting the water and other natu-ral resources. Healthy watershedsare vital for a healthy environ-

Small Community Wastewater Issues Explained to the Public

CWatershed Management: An Overview

FALL 2006Vol. 17, No. 4

Watersheds supply our drinking water, provide a habitat for plants and animals, and serve as sources for recreation and relaxation.

22PIPELINE – Fall 2006; Vol. 17, No. 4 National Environmental Services Center (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191

Watershed Management: An Overview

Using the watershed approach,we can take a broader view ofthe environment, where ouractivities are interconnectedacross local and regional bound-aries. Homes, farms, forests,small towns,and big cities allexist in watersheds. Watershedscome in all shapes and sizes.Some watershed boundaries crosscounty, state, and even interna-tional borders. Some watershedsinclude millions of square miles,others are just a few acres. Just ascreeks drain into rivers, water-sheds are nearly always part of alarger watershed. Using thewatershed approach, we can takea broader view of the environ-ment, where our activities areinterconnected across local andregional boundaries

Pollutants and water qualityThe majority of water qualityproblems can be traced to obvi-ous causes, called point sourcepollution. This means the prob-lem is traced to a specific loca-tion such as a pipe or disposalsite. When detected, these prob-lem sources are controlled. How-ever, water quality is also affectedby diffuse input originating fromlarge land areas or many small,scattered sources called non-pointsource pollution.

Many non-point source pollu-tants (agricultural fertilizers and,stormwater runoff, for example)are strongly related to land uses.The watershed managementapproach integrates the tradi-tional regulatory programs(addressing point source pollu-tions) and non-regulatory pro-grams (those addressingnon-point source pollution) pro-grams.

To clean up a particular contami-nant, first we must recognize thatit may come from multiplesources, then we must identifywhich sources are significant con-tributors, and prioritize ourefforts accordingly. For example,excess nitrate can originate fromseptic systems, sewage treatmentplants, livestock manure, agricul-tural fertilizers, or urban land-scape maintenance, but land usepatterns will dictate the propor-tion contributed by any of thesesources within a particular area.

History of watershed protectionUnlike the interconnected cyclein nature, surface and groundwa-ter issues have often beenaddressed separately by regulato-ry agencies. Multiple agenciesmight have jurisdiction within asingle river basin.

Unlike the actual interconnectedcycle in nature, historically,human approaches to waterproblems have been fragmentedor piecemeal. In the past, water

Pipeline is published quarterly by the National Environmental Services Center

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ISSN 1060-0043The contents of this newsletter do not necessarily reflect the

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constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

Pipeline is funded through a grant from theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

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quality was frequently character-ized by analyses of instreamwater samples and investigationof the obvious, pollution sources,for example point sources suchas sewage treatment outflow orabandoned mine openings. Inmany cases, adjacent land usepatterns were not studied andnon-point source pollution wasconsidered unimportant.

The concept of water resourcesmanagement within watershedsoriginated as early as the 1890swith the work of the U.S. InlandWaterways Commission. TheCommission, with the backing ofPresident Roosevelt, reported toCongress in 1908 that each riversystem—from its headwaters inthe mountains to its mouth atthe coast—is an integrated sys-tem and must be treated as such(Inland Waterways Commission,1908). The focus of waterresources management then andthroughout the first half of thecentury was on efficient use ofwater resources for such purposesas energy production, naviga-tion, flood control, irrigation, anddrinking water.

The 1950s and 1960s sawincreased emphasis on improvingambient water quality and pro-tecting the nation’s drinkingwater, much of which comesfrom groundwater. The FederalWater Pollution Control Act of1956 provided large-scale fund-ing of publicly owned treatmentworks. The Water Quality Act of1965 required states to developwater quality standards for inter-state waters. River basin com-pacts were formed to protectmajor systems such as theDelaware and Colorado Rivers.Some state sanitation commis-sions adopted a river basinapproach to their work. Theydeveloped basin plans that classi-fied individual water bodiesaccording to their best uses.

In 1972, the Federal Water Pollu-tion Control Act Amendments

tory standards for cleanwater and the federalminimums are beingmet.

The Watershed–BasedPermitting ApproachThe watershed-basedNPDES permittingapproach takes intoaccount the entirewatershed; all itsstreams, rivers, lakesand other water bodies;and all its sources ratherthan individual pointsources. Because thewatershed approachrefers to a process that issite-specific, NPDES per-mits developed using awatershed approach willnot look the same in

any two watersheds.

Successful watershed manage-ment includes all stakeholders inthe local partnership, uses soundtechnical information, sets clearobjectives and priorities, and usesa systems approach that inte-grates all concerns and chal-lenges. EPA’s suggested processfor developing and implementinga watershed-based NPDES per-mitting approach consists of thefollowing six steps:

• Select a watershed and determine the boundaries.

• Identify stakeholders andencourage their participation.

• Collect and analyze data forpermit development.

• Develop permit conditions anddocumentation.

• Issue the NPDES permit.

• Measure and report progress.

Each of these steps is describedmore completely below.

SStteepp 11——SSeelleecctt aa wwaatteerrsshheedd aannddddeetteerrmmiinnee tthhee bboouunnddaarriieessWatershed boundaries willinfluence the scale and scope ofthe process, particularly

33PIPELINE – Fall 2006; Vol. 17, No 4. National Environmental Services Center (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191

(PL92-500) established as anational goal the restoration andmaintenance of the physical,chemical, and biological integrityof the nation’s waters. The domi-nant features of this Clean WaterAct (CWA) were a federal permit-ting program (the National Pol-lutant Discharge EliminationSystem or NPDES) and massivefunding for wastewater treatmentand state water quality pro-grams. Under NPDES, each dis-charger receives a permitcontaining numerical effluentlimits that are, at a minimum,based on best available waste-water treatment technology orother guidelines; more stringentlimits are issued where needed totake into account the conditionof the water body.

How do NPDES permits protect water? Recent federal and state regula-tions recognize that a system-wide approach is necessary tosolve water problems. Everywater body has a set of waterquality goals known as waterquality standards. These stan-dards, developed by the states,identify the uses for each waterbody. Waters that do not meet

water quality stands are consid-ered impaired. States must devel-op TMDLs for impaired waters.(A Total Maximum Daily Load,or TMDL, is a calculation of themaximum amount of a pollutantthat a a particular stream, river,lake, or other water body canreceive and still meet water qual-ity standards.) Once the state cal-culates the maximum amount ofeach pollutant, small percentagesof this maximum total amount isare allotted to polluting sourcesalong that waterway. Both regu-latory and voluntary actions bypoint and non-point sources arenecessary to successfully imple-ment a TMDL and achieve waterquality standards.

An NPDES permit will generallyspecify an acceptable level of apollutant or pollutant parameterin a discharge (for example, acertain level of bacteria). Theentity seeking the permit maychoose which technologies to useto achieve that level. Some per-mits, however, do contain certaingeneric ‘best management prac-tices’ (such as installing a screenover the pipe to keep debris outof the waterway). NPDES permitsmake sure that a state’s manda-

Watershed Management: An Overview

What is your watershed address?

Over the years, a system for identifying and numbering watersheds has been developed in the U.S.This system assigns all waters a proper name and number. The watershed’s number is called its“watershed address.”

Watershed address system

DDeessccrriippttiioonn PPrrooppeerr NNaammee AAddddrreessss

Region Ohio River 05Subregion Wabash, Patoka & White Rivers 0512Basin Wabash River 051201Subhead Vermilion River 05120109Watershed North Fork Vermilion 0512010909Subwatershed Lake Vermilion 051201090905

(from http://www2.ctc.purdue.edu/KYW/glossary/whatiswsaddress.html– accessed 8/24/06)You can find your watershed at http://cfpub.epa.gov/surf/locate/index.cfm.

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Watershed Management: An Overview

stakeholder involvement anddata collection. The physicalcharacteristics of the area andthe jurisdictional limits must bedetermined. It is important tolearn how the watershed isused, and also to investigateand describe the soil,topography, and other features.

SStteepp 22——IIddeennttiiffyy ssttaakkeehhoollddeerrssaanndd ffaacciilliittaattee tthheeiirrppaarrttiicciippaattiioonn..Stakeholder involvement isparticularly important inwatershed-based permitting,where sustained voluntaryparticipation of non-pointsources might be the key tomeeting water quality goals. Byworking together, everyonewith an interest in thewatershed can solve problems,ensuring healthy land andwater.

Across the country, citizens incommunities both large andsmall are working together torestore watersheds. Thepartnerships should includelocal communities, as well asgovernment agencies,landowners, recreational users,local businesses, and electedofficials. Citizen action groups,interested non-profits, evenscout troops may play a roleand should be invited into thepartnership.

Given the various backgrounds,interests, and areas of expertiseamong the group, it isimportant that everyone has ageneral understanding of theNPDES program and thewatershed-based permittingconcept. The permittingauthority should provide thegroup with this overview andprovide any availableinformation about existingwatershed management plans.

SStteepp 33——CCoolllleecctt aanndd aannaallyyzzeeddaattaa ffoorr ppeerrmmiitt ddeevveellooppmmeennttThe permitting authority needsto collect and analyze data on

receiving water standards andgoals, receiving watercharacteristics, and sources ofpollutants to the water body.These data will be used to helpestablish appropriaterequirements in the permit.

SStteepp 44——DDeevveelloopp ppeerrmmiittccoonnddiittiioonnss aanndd ddooccuummeennttaattiioonn..An NPDES permit has five

major components: a coverpage, effluent limitations,monitoring and reportingrequirements, specialconditions, and standardconditions.

The cover sheet includes thename and location of thepermittee, a statementauthorizing each discharge, alist of locations of authorizeddischarges, and the effectiveperiod of the permit (not toexceed five years).

Effluent limitations arerequirements that restrictpollutant discharges from pointsources. These limits aredeveloped by considering thetechnology available to treatthe pollutant and thesensitivity of the receivingwater. All decisions involved indeveloping the effluent limitsmust be provided.

Monitoring and reportingrequirements in a permit areused to characterize effluentand receiving water quality.These same requirementsprovide the necessary data forthe permit seekers todemonstrate compliance withthe permit conditions.

The special conditions sectionof the watershed-based permitmay include best manage-ment practices, complianceschedules, or special site-specific studies. Standardconditions describe the legal,administrative, and proceduralrequirements of the permit.

SStteepp 55——IIssssuuee tthhee NNPPDDEESS ppeerrmmiitt..The most important factorsaffecting the process for issuinga permit will be the admin-istrative requirements and thetype or structure of the permit.Administrative requirementscan include public notice, andcomments,public hearings, andstate or tribal permit reviews.These requirements vary byjurisdiction.

The type and structure of thepermit varies widely fromwatershed to watershed. Forexample, many towns havemultiple wastewater treatmentplants, with each plantreceiving a separate permit.Treatments plants may becombined with stormwater andother municipally controlledpoint source activities into onepermit that covers all NPDESrequirements.

SStteepp 66——MMeeaassuurree aanndd rreeppoorrttpprrooggrreessss..The ultimate goal of watershed-based permitting is to ensurethat water quality is protected.Progress is measured at boththe watershed and permitlevels.

Watershed-level performance

What is a Watershed?

The regional area of land from which all precipitation and runoff drain into a singlewater source is called a watershed. Watersheds are natural divisions of the landscape.Rivers, lakes, estuaries, wetlands, streams, and even the oceans serve as catch basins forthe land around them. Groundwater aquifers below the land’s surface serve the samepurpose, catching and holding water for the future.

Adapted from the U.S. EPA.

What is a Watershed?

Control and Reclamation Act of1977 left scars on the terrain, aswell as polluted the waters. Manyhomes have inadequate sewagedisposal. Erosion, habitat destruc-tion, and polluted runoff (non-point source pollution) alsocontribute to the water qualitydegradation.

To restore and protect the coun-ty’s waterways, the Greene Coun-ty Watershed Alliance (GCWA)was created in 2000. The GCWAis an umbrella group uniting anumber of smaller watershedorganizations to become a voicefor county-wide water qualityimprovement. The Alliance offi-cially began with less than$10,000 granted by the Environ-mental Stewardship and Water-shed Protection Act.

The startup grant money helpedthe GCWA buy equipment, like acomputer, a printer, a camera,and other supplies. To spread

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measures consist of typical waterquality standards and otherwatershed goals developed bystakeholders. Attainment of thesestandards are tracked by moni-toring and reporting. Some ofthese measures might directlyreflect environmental benefit (forexample, the number of streammiles restored for aquatic lifehabitat). Others might indicatean intermediate step toward theultimate goal (for instance, thenumber of storm drains labeledin a stenciling program).

A properly developed watershed-based permit will be designed toachieve specific water qualitystandards and other goalsthrough effluent limitations andother permit conditions. Thesepermit requirements are, ineffect, the performance measuresfor the permit. It is importantwhen developing the monitoringand reporting requirements forperformance measurement thatthey be consistent with the efflu-ent limitations and conditions ofthe permit, quantifiable to allowcomparison over time, andunderstandable to all stakehold-ers. These requirements should bereported in a format that allowsfor efficient review by the permit-ting authority as well as allstakeholders.

U.S. EPA and the states are tran-sitioning to a five-year, water-shed-based monitoring andreporting cycle to replace thetwo-year Clean Water Act (CWA)Section 305(b) cycle now in effect.Under this scheme, states wouldidentify their water bodies and

assess water quality conditions inall watersheds over a five-yearperiod. Each year, core informa-tion would be electronicallyreported for those watershedsassessed according to the state’sschedule; a report characterizingconditions in the entire statewould be produced every fiveyears and combined into anational report.

This change will give statesgreater freedom to concentrateon monitoring and assessingwatershed conditions and willreduce the time spent on report-ing, resulting in a morecomprehensive assess-ment of national waterquality conditions.

Grassroots WatershedProtection inPennsylvania

Rural Greene County in southwestern Penn-sylvania is a placeyou’d want to comehome to. Its forests,farmlands, and smallcommunities make thearea a Mecca for folkswanting to escape therush of urban life.

Streams, creeks, lakes,and a major river windthrough the landscape,and similar to a lot ofother places in the U.S.,these waters havedeclined in quality overthe years. Coal minedprior to the SurfaceMining

Watershed Management: An Overview

The major features of a watershedapproach are:• targeting priority problems,• promoting strong stakeholder involvement,• integrating solutions using the expertise and authority of various agencies, and • measuring success through monitoring and other data gathering

66PIPELINE – Fall 2006; Vol. 17, No. 4 National Environmental Services Center (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191

Watershed Management: An Overview

word about their mission, theAlliance purchased postcards andstamps and created and distrib-uted informational brochures.

Since that first grant, the GCWAhasn’t stopped working. Thegroup continues to educate peo-ple about surface effects of under-ground mining. They haveidentified county areas damagedby acid mine drainage, and theyhelp other grassroots watershedorganizations with advice andtechnical assistance.

The group participates in annualtree plantings to establish ripari-an stream buffers, host “riversweeps,” and they maintain aWeb site. With all these accom-plishments, the GCWA providesan example for others to live upto.

(Reprinted from an article byMichelle Moore published in OnTap Magazine, Winter 2003.)

Combining Permits SimplifiesCompliance in NevadaSeveral of the boating marinas inthe Lake Tahoe Basin were regu-lated by both the NPDES GeneralIndustrial Activities Storm WaterPermit and the Individual WasteDischarge Requirements issuedby the regional board. Comply-ing with these two separate, butsimilar, permits and their respec-tive monitoring and reportingrequirements had been compli-cated and costly for the marinaoperators.

Compliance was simplified bythe issuance of a general inte-grated permit for Storm WaterRunoff Associated with IndustrialActivities and MaintenanceDredging as part of the water-shed-based permitting approach.This permit combines the require-ments and monitoring needs ofeach of the previous existing per-mits into one permit that should

be more manageable for theregional board and the regulatedmarina operators.

The success of this permittingscheme can be measured by thereduction of time and resourcescommitted to the program byboth the regional board staff andthe marina operators. All twelvemarinas have installed fixed orportable sewage pump-outs.Monitoring and reportingrequirements provide data aboutthe presence and magnitude ofgasoline constituents at marinas,and sediment and nutrients instormwater runoff. This permitallows for a streamlined permit-ting process for dredging projects.

Annual reports provide theregional board with informationregarding fueling practices,sewage pump-out volumes, fertil-izer application, irrigation prac-tices, and motorized watercraftusage.

(More details of this case studymay be found on Fact Sheet #7 ofthe Watershed-Based National Pol-lutant Discharge Elimination System(NPDES) Permitting ImplementationGuidance, EPA #833B03004.)

What is a Watershed?WWaatteerrsshheedd NNeewwss is a publication of EPA’s Office of Wetlands,Oceans and Watersheds. It is designed to provide timely informationto groups working at the watershed level.http://www.epa.gov/win/news.html

WWaatteerrsshheedd IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn NNeettwwoorrkk – a roadmap to information serv-ices for protecting and restoring water resources.http://www.epa.gov/win/

Two important EPA sites on the Web

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Watershed Management: An Overview

Local watershed organizations can help develop and carry out local solutions to waterquality and quantity problems and help to prevent future problems. These tips weregathered from successful watershed groups:

Build and maintain relationships. Many people share your watershed, and they often have different points of view. Your efforts will be more successful if you involve other groups, individuals, and agencies early, identify interests you share, and work toward a shared vision. This isn’t easy, but it’s worth it.

Set clear goals that are easy to explain. It will be easier to get support—both financial support and volunteers—if people understand what you are trying to do and how it relates to them.

Make sure everyone involved knows the basics. Many people did not learn much aboutwatersheds in school, and information about your specific watershed may not be widely available.

Develop a watershed plan. The plan should describe current conditions in your watershed,; what goals you want to reach, and how you will get there. Outline your budget needs. This provides your group with a “map” to follow that also can be used in seeking financial support.

Demonstrate results early. Pick a project that fits into your overall plan—then do it. A successful project, even a small one, will get people excited, interested, and feeling thatthey can accomplish something. It also shows potential financial supporters that you have the ability to get things done.

Give project participants good publicity. This is especially good to do when a local business has allowed its employees to participate on work time. Public recognition is a great thank you. Use local newspapers and organizations’ newsletters.

Look for diverse funding sources. Because many funding sources are designed for specific types of activities, you probably will have to piece them together to meet your overall watershed goals. Also, many government grants require local matching funds or in-kind services. Private foundations are often more flexible but may favor groups that can attract several funding sources. Make sure you are aware of the administrativerequirements for any grant you pursue and the time schedule for receiving the funds by contacting the potential funder.

Look for other types of support. Businesses and local governments may be able to provide services or materials more readily than cash. Try to make it easy for them to say “yes” by looking at your request from their perspective. Local colleges and universities may be able to help with inventories and surveys.

Enlist the support of your local government officials. Someone in your group may already have a working relationship with your local officials and be willing to make callsor visits. Various state and federal agencies may also be able to help.

Adapted from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection

Tips for Watershed Organizations

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Related Resources

“Managing Our Watersheds: A Systems Approach to MaintainingWater Quality,” by Patricia Miller and Anish Jantrania, Small Flows Quarterly, Fall 2000.

Watershed-Based National Pollutant Discharge EliminationSystem (NPDES) Permitting Implementation Guidance, EPA publi-cation #833B03004, December, 2003. (This publication is avail-able on CD for $5 plus shipping and handling from NationalEnvironmental Services Center at (800) 624-8301. Order#WWCDGN265.)

“Grassroots Watershed Protection: County Group Works to CleanUp Waterways,” by Michelle Moore, On Tap Magazine, Winter 2003.

“Watershed Approach Helps Mend Waterways,” by Caigan M.McKenzie, On Tap Magazine, Summer 2006.