Water Management and Flood Control in Guyana

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Chapter 40: WAT! MANA"MNT AND

F#$$D C$NT!$# %$#&C&S

DRAFT March 24, 1996

&' (as)c Feat*res o+ the SectorA. IntroductionB. Sea DefencesC. Drainage and IrrigationD. ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice

&&' %ol)c)es o+ the SectorA. #ast $"o!ution of #o!icies: Sea DefencesB. Description of Current #o!icies: Sea DefencesC. #ast and Current #o!icies: Drainage and Irrigation

&&&' Descr)pt)o, o+ the %r),c)pal &ss*es a,d Co,stra),ts Fac),g the SectorA. IssuesB. Constraints

&-' Sectoral $b.ect)/esA. Sea DefencesB. Drainage and IrrigationC. ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice

-' %ol)c !ecomme,dat)o,s a,d The)r Tech,)cal 1*st)+)cat)o,sA. Sea Defences

B. Drainage and IrrigationC. ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice

-&' !ecomme,ded #eg)slat)/e Cha,gesA. Sea DefencesB. Drainage and IrrigationC. Hdrometeorolog)cal Ser/)ce

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-&&' %rel)m),ar &,/estme,t %rogramA. Sea DefencesB. Drainage and IrrigationC. ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice

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&' (as)c Feat*res o+ the Sector

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A' &,trod*ct)o,

%he coasta! p!ain of &uyana' a narrow strip of !and stretching 4() *i!ometers +etweenthe +orders of ,ene-ue!a and Suriname' !ies +e!ow sea !e"e! and is su+ected tof!ooding and erosion. %he de"e!oped portion +etween the #omeroon and Corentyneri"ers is approimate!y (0 *i!ometers in !ength and the width of cu!ti"a+!e !andsincreases from a+out 10 *i!ometers to () *i!ometers from $sse2ui+o to Ber+ice. %he-one is of strategic importance to the country3s economy. A!though its surface area isapproimate!y ) of the country3s tota!' approimate!y 50 of its popu!ation 6or7)'000 peop!e8 !i"es here. %he country3s maor crops of rice' sugar and coconut are

cu!ti"ated here and most of its townships are !ocated a!ong the coast.

%his area is protected from the intrusion of sa!ine water +y mangro"es' di*es' s!uicesand sea wa!!s +ui!t o"er the past two centuries. 9ith the etensi"e drainage' irrigationand f!ood contro! networ*' the sea defences ser"e to ma*e the coast ha+ita+!e andcu!ti"a+!e. 9ithout this hydrau!ic system' cu!ti"ation and sett!ement wou!d ha"e to +e!ocated much farther in!and.

nti! the mid 150s sea defences and drainage and irrigation accounted for most of&uyana3s capita! ependiture. owe"er' during the 15;0s the country3s economy went

into rapid dec!ine. As a resu!t' !ess ependiture was a!!ocated for maintenance andrepairs of sea defences' resu!ting in the deteriorated state of the country3s coasta!defences. <"er the years approimate!y forty *i!ometers of sea defences ha"e eitherco!!apsed or are on the point of fai!ure due to inade2uate maintenance.

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(' Sea De+e,ces

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&uyana3s sea defences ha"e e"o!"ed o"er time' in response to etensions of the sett!edareas and changing perceptions of the nature of the threat from the sea. %oday it is

understood that the design of the defences has to ta*e into account the fo!!owing fi"efactors:

=irst' the !and !e"e! of the coast !ies +e!ow that of mean high water spring tides +ya+out one metre' hence' any de"e!opment a!ong the coast must +e protected againstf!ooding during high tides. A c!ay em+an*ment is recommended as it is inepensi"eand watertight.

Second!y' incoming wa"es' which are much higher during high tides' wi!! +rea*against any o+struction they encounter. %herefore' any sea defence structure must +e

resistant to wa"e action. $arthen em+an*ments wi!! erode under wa"e action'therefore either the seaward face of these must +e ade2uate!y protected or other formsof sea defences' e.g.' concrete or sheets pi!ing wa!!s' shou!d +e used.

%hird!y' the foreshore of &uyana eperiences the passage of !arge mud+an*s thatoriginate from deposits of the Ama-on >i"er. 9here"er mud+an*s are present' theforeshore wi!! +e high and sand and she!! +eaches may form' a process *nown asaccretion. At !ocations +etween mud+an*s' the foreshore wi!! eperience erosion andthe !e"e!s wi!! +e much !ower. %he seaward tow of any sea defences at these !ocationsshou!d +e p!aced +e!ow the erosion or scour !e"e! or e!se undermining wi!! occur

which wi!! cause fai!ure.

=ourth!y' the fine nature of the predominant foreshore materia! does not encourage itsdeposition against +arriers' so groynes are not "ery effecti"e as protection structuresa!ong the &uyana sea coast. %hese structures are usefu! where the transported materia!is sand that deposits easi!y. As such' groynes may +e usefu! a!ong the estuaries wheresand is present.

A fifth factor to +e considered in sea defence designs is the wea* nature of theforeshore soi!. $m+an*ments shou!d ha"e gent!e s!opes or e!se the earth wi!! s!ide and

hea"y structures wi!! eperience ecessi"e sett!ement o"er time.

<wing to the !ac* of ade2uate maintenance in recent decades' the action of thesefactors has +rought a+out a situation in which 40 *i!ometers of the eisting 10*i!ometers of em+an*ment protection are in critica! condition and need reha+i!itation.%he mangro"e forests a!ong this !ength had +een destroyed and a!ong the remaining1?0 *i!ometers of em+an*ment protection' they are eroding rapid!y. %he other areas'



approimate!y ()) *i!ometers' are protected +y sand +an*s and mangro"e forests thatare current!y sta+!e +ut undergoing minor erosion at some !ocations.

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C' Dra),age a,d &rr)gat)o,

In &uyana' the drainage and irrigation 6D@I8 system was de"e!oped +y sugar estateowners a!ong the coast!ands to draw water from the marshy +ac*!ands +ehind theirestates. %he operation system today is sti!! much the same as it was when it wasorigina!!y constructed. any secondary drains do not drain direct!y into the sea +utinto a facade drainage cana! running para!!e! to the coast!ine' which drains into the sea

through a pair of s!uice gates. Drainage for the who!e area therefore is dependent onthe efficient management of this facade cana!.

%he efficient operation of the system is a!so dependent on regu!ar maintenance.Cana!s re2uire weeding and c!earing three times a year. If this does not ta*e p!ace'"egetation s!ows water f!ow and this causes the cana!s to si!t up more 2uic*!y' whichfurther s!ows the f!ow. <"er the past fifteen years the neg!ect of essentia! maintenanceto the D@I infrastructure has !ed to the current situation in which much of the systemis not operating to fu!! capacity' and some sections are comp!ete!y inopera+!e.

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D' Hdrometeorolog)cal Ser/)ce

%he ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice operates the Nationa! eteoro!ogica! Station Networ* 6NSN8 and the Nationa! ydro!ogica! Station Networ* 6NSN8 ande"a!uates the c!imate and water resources. By co!!ecting' processing' archi"ing'retrie"ing and ana!ysing the data from the NSN and the NSN' it can pro"ide

information to agencies that are p!anning and designing agricu!tura! proects andmaintaining the sea defences. It a!so ana!yses the western hemispheric !ower andupper atmospheric weather data and ensures the a"ai!a+i!ity of such detai!s for thenecessary forecasts. %herefore' its main ro!e is to monitor and co!!ect data on theatmosphere' water' and c!imate' with a "iew to identify the changes and pro"ide ear!ywarnings when necessary.







%he Chief ydrometeoro!ogica! <fficer heads the ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice' andcomes under the inistry of Agricu!ture' reporting to the #ermanent Secretary of theinistry of Agricu!ture. $penditures incurred +y the ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"iceare appro"ed and monitored +y the staff responsi+!e to the #ermanent Secretary withinthe inistry of Agricu!ture.

Besides its regu!ar duties the ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice co!!ects information on!ongterm c!imate trends' water f!ows and tides' to pro"ide ear!y warning of potentia!effects of c!imate change.

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&&' %ol)c)es o+ the Sector

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A' %ast /ol*t)o, o+ %ol)c)es: Sea De+e,ces

1. #eriod 1700 to 1;))

%he Dutch turned the swamps of the coasta! p!ain into thri"ing agricu!tura! areas +ydraining the !ands with a system of seawa!!s' earthen em+an*ments' cana!s' drains andsea s!uices. 9hen the British gained contro! of &uyana in 1;14' they continued thistype of agricu!tura! infrastructure de"e!opment. %he Dutch initia!!y p!anted cotton andto+acco and !ater introduced sugar' whi!e the British emphasised sugar production.During 1;14 sugar production +y the Dutch was )'000 tons whi!e under the British in1;(4 production rose to more than 40'000 tons. During this period' p!antations owned

+y indi"idua! proprietors were re!ati"e!y sma!! 6tens or hundreds of acres8 andetensi"e use was made of s!a"e !a+our' +oth +y the Dutch and the British. At the

+eginning of the nineteenth century' there were more than 400 such ho!dings.

#roprietors de"e!oped their ho!dings or p!antations perpendicu!ar to the coast!ine'which were empo!dered from the sea +y means of earthen em+an*ments. $rosion

protection to these em+an*ments was pro"ided +y the natura! mangro"e and courida"egetation found a!ong the coast!ine. $rosion of the foreshore resu!ted in the recessionof the seaward fringe of the mangro"e forests. Continued recession eposed theearthen em+an*ments to wa"e action and these were ine"ita+!y +reached. At theseinstances the proprietors wou!d remo"e their !ine of protection farther in!and.







andowners did not consider more effecti"e and therefore more cost!y means ofcoasta! protection since their re!ati"e!y sma!! ho!dings cou!d not support theseependitures and there was no shortage of !and during the retreat of the shore!ine.Comparison of maps of the $ast Coast Demerara produced during 1; and 15)?showed that the area +etween &eorgetown and BI has receded +etween 1';00 and

?'000 feet.

During the first ha!f of the nineteenth century a com+ination of socia!' economic andtechnica! factors great!y inf!uenced and caused dramatic changes to the system ofsma!! estate ownership. %hese factors inc!uded the a+o!ition of s!a"ery' !owering ofthe mar*et prices for sugar and techno!ogica! ad"ances in factory processing. %he firsttwo of these com+ined to ma*e the sma!! estate an uneconomica! "enture and many of these were a+andoned or so!d to !arger groups. %he !arger estate groups impro"ed ontheir production techni2ues and +y the midd!e of the nineteenth century the arri"a! ofcheap indentured !a+our' main!y from India' enhanced their economic "ia+i!ity.

(. #eriod 1;)) to 154)

During the !atter ha!f of the nineteenth century' emphasis in coasta! -one managementshifted from one of intermittent retreat of the shore!ine em+an*ment to one ofstrengthening and maintaining this structure. %his shift was necessary since the !argerestates insta!!ed more epensi"e infrastructure and therefore it was more economica!to reinforce the coasta! protection rather than to a+andon the infrastructure. =urther'the depth of the in!and cu!ti"a+!e space was attaining its !imit at many reaches a!ongthe coast. Infrastructure insta!!ation +y the &o"ernment' e.g.' ports' rai!ways and roads

re2uired protection a!so.

%he maor e"ent that triggered the shifting of this emphasis from one of retreat to oneof ho!ding the !ine was the f!ooding of ingston' &eorgetown' during 1;)). %hise"ent is suita+!y descri+ed +y Eames >odway3s artic!e pu+!ished in F%he ArgosyFdated arch 14' 150?' part of which fo!!ows:

FIn 1;)? the &o"ernor suggested to the Du*e of Newcast!e that pi!e groynes wou!d +echeaper than the granite wa!! re!ating to sea defences at =ort &royne. In the same yearr. E. . Eohnstone' ea!th <fficer for &eorgetown' reported that the co!ony !ands

and steam+oat ste!!ing 6now the S!aughter ouse8 had +een near!y a!! washed away'some of the !ots were co"ered with water from +reaches in the sea damsG if somethingwere not done' the !ighthouse wou!d soon +e standing in water and the who!e ofingston f!ooded at e"ery tide.

The Colo, %as at last



F$ar!y in Septem+er 1;)4' &o"ernor 9odehouse was informed that . .&o"ernment was no !onger prepared to sanction any ependiture for the fort and seawa!! or for the preser"ation of the mi!itary +ui!dings. e at once ca!!ed anetraordinary meeting of the Com+ined Court' which met on the 4th' when the&o"ernor informed them of the matter' and adourned to the 7th. %he de+ate on the

sea wa!! 2uestion +y r. >o+ert Smith' who seconded +y r. #eter >ose' mo"ed thatthe co!ony +e p!edged to dec!ine a!together to contri+ute any part of the epense ofeither wa!! or mi!itary +ui!dings. As an amendment r. E. . Smith seconded +y r.&. E. uc*ie' mo"ed that the Court *eep up the sea wa!!' +ut hoped that the cost of themi!itary +ui!dings might continue to +e +orne +y the ome &o"ernment. %he "otes onthe amendment were e2ua! and as the &o"ernor dec!ined to gi"e his casting "ote' itwas !ost. <n the suggestion of the &o"ernor for some conci!iatory measures it wasagreed to adourn for an hour. <n their return it was decided +y 1( to ( that the Courtwou!d pro"ide for the maintenance of the sea wa!! and fort in the earnest hope that themi!itary +ui!dings wou!d remain on the par!iamentary estimates.

The Dams "o Do2,

F%he matter appeared to ha"e +een sett!ed so far' +ut' as usua! in such cases' there wassome de!ay in deciding upon the cheapest method of doing the wor*. But as the 3tideswait for no man'3 and as the patching was stopped' the natura! resu!t was the greatinundation predicted for se"era! years +efore. <n the 11th of Eanuary 1;))' Eohn=rederic*s Bourne' Co!onia! Ci"i! $ngineer' reported that for a wee* pre"ious the surf had +een etreme!y high and had done more inury than in the who!e of the pre"ioussi months. e estimated that fi"e to ten thousand tons of !oose stone had +eenwashed into deep water' !ea"ing a!most nothing in front of the dam which they had

+een en!arging with con"ict !a+our as a temporary defence. <n account of the highsurf they were una+!e to do muchG it +ecame' therefore' of the greatest importance that

+rea*waters +e immediate!y constructed. e suggested that the +rea*water in front ofCamp ouse +e etended to three or four hundred feet' and the wa!! renewed and !aidwith #ort!and cement. %he >oya! $ngineer at the +arrac*s a!so wrote criticising the

patchwor* nature of the defences.

F%he Co!onia! $ngineer3s estimate of the cost of his proposed wor*s amounted toH1?0'000 of which H0'000 wou!d +e re2uired that year. %he &o"ernor ca!!ed aspecia! meeting of the Com+ined Court' on the 15th Eanuary' and on the fo!!owing daythey reso!"ed that no time shou!d +e !ost in underta*ing the wor*' the financia! side of the matter +eing !eft o"er to the annua! session.

3),gsto, "reat Flood



FNow came the crowning catastrophe' which was reported to Sir &eorge &rey on the(?rd =e+ruary' 1;)). <n the afternoon of the 1th' the sea rose during springtide to aheight' and with a "io!ence un*nown for near!y fifty years' and' in the course of a fewhours' swept away near!y the who!e of the upper part of the em+an*ment' andinundated the mi!itary !and and the adoining su+ur+ of ingston. %his continued for

the net two days during which !itt!e cou!d +e done towards repairing damages or pre"enting further destruction of property. Camp ouse' occupied as an ordinancestore and 2uarters' the remo"a! of which he had a!ready recommended' was at oncesurrounded with water to the depth of four or fi"e feet and rendered "ery unsafeG the&o"ernor' therefore' arranged for the house to +e ta*en down as the tim+ers weregoodG the patients in the mi!itary hospita! were remo"ed and he hoped to sa"e that

+ui!ding.

F%his information made a great impression the o!d peop!e sti!! date e"ents from theyear of the f!ooding of ingston. <n the (5th' F%he &a-etteF reported that Campouse was a+andoned' its sta+!es and cowsheds swept away. %he pu+!ic road wasf!ooded twice a dayG the sea thundered o"er and through the +reachesG the city was indangerG the ighthouse !ia+!e to +e underminedG ingston a swampG and the coastfrom #!antations %homas to <g!e' co"ered. A !oca! rhymer +ro*e forth into a string of"erses on the !ines of Ingo!d+y. %he fo!!owing is a samp!e:

3Be so+er' my muse and gra"ity te!!

9hat sad ha"oc and ruin a!! ingston +efe!!

ow the sea swept away a!! the dam and its mouses'

ade cana!s of the streets' Noah3s ar*s of the houses

ow some +ridges +!ew up' how some houses came down'

And together went wandering o"er the town.3

F<n the 1th of arch' it was stated that the f!ood was worse and worse at e"ery tideGthe rai!way had +ecome the sea dam' a!! the gardens were destroyed' and e"en the

amaha cana! near its eit was sa!ted.

F%he sum of H10)';0 was spent that year in dri"ing +ac* the water' against anestimate of H0'000' +ut as the &o"ernor stated that the wor*s were a+so!ute!ynecessary' the Court made no o+ection.



F%here is a ta+!et near the >ound ouse at the sea wa!! 6the site of the i!!fated Campouse8 which states that this wa!! was commenced at the +attery in 1;)) andcomp!eted to that point in 1;70. No dou+t some progress had +een made +y thisetension' +ut anyone can see that it is a "ery sma!! portion of the who!e !ength.9hen' in that year' the estimates were under consideration +y the Court' r. &rant

as*ed how !ong such sums 6H0'0008 that year were to +e continued' to which theCo!onia! $ngineer rep!ied that the wor* was high!y necessary for they were o+!iged torepair se"era! times during the pre"ious year.

Wall te,ded to 3)tt

F=or many years it rea!!y seemed as if the wor* was intermina+!e. %housands andthousands of tons of stone were thrown a!ong a !ine to itty' +ut for a !ong time noattempt was made to form a wa!! +eyond the end of Camp Street. In 1;( acommencement was made from the itty end' +ut two years !ater (0 feet s!id

forward into the sea. Baron Siccama too* up the matter' and +y his ad"ice a strongmud dam' faced with stone was made up and finished in Apri! 1;;(' as stated on thesecond ta+!et near the >ound ouse. %he present coping wa!! of concrete from the endof Camp Street to itty was erected in 1;;0 when the mud dam suffered a great dea!from want of protection from the surf. %he cost of sea defences in that year was o"erH17'000.

FIn 1;?' #!antation Be!air was endangeredG the wash at itty corner +ecame so greatas to endanger not on!y the estate' +ut &eorgetown itse!f. Something had to +e doneand r. ogg set to wor* to !ay down a +rea*water from itty to %ur*eyen. =rom

Eune 1;? to Decem+er 1;;' he spent ;0'000. In arch 1;5' he petitioned the Courtfor a !oan of ?0'000G he then stated that the wor* done had +een of the greatest +enefitto the town' +ut he did not as* anything from the pu+!ic treasury. is re2uest was for a!oan for twenty years at si percent' which was granted +y the Com+ined Courts. r.%inne to!d the Court of #o!icy that he considered the eruptions of the sea as simi!ar toa foreign in"asion' and that they shou!d +e dea!t with in the same way. Some dou+tswere epressed in the Com+ined Court as to the security of Be!airG which were

ustified !ater when the estate was a+andonedG howe"er' the !oan was entire!y repaid +y r. ogg.F

Integra! in r. >odway3s o+ser"ations are three components that regu!ate sea defences po!icy in &uyana to this day. %hese are:

6a8 >esponsi+i!ity and cost sharing

6+8 anagement



6c8 #hysica! wor*s

During the period 1;)) to the Second 9or!d 9ar responsi+i!ity for sea defences in&uyana shifted from the p!antation owners to &o"ernment. ,arious $nactments thatgradua!!y effected these changes were:

• By an <rdinance passed in 1;;?' the Director of #u+!ic 9or*s was gi"en wide

powers o"er the contro! of the foreshore of &uyana. Inc!uded in these powerswas the authority to direct estates to carry out' at their own epense' any coasta!

protection wor* he deemed necessary. #ro"ision was a!so made in the 1;;?<rdinance for money to +e ad"anced for any necessary coasta! protection wor*.

• By <rdinance No. of 1507 a +ody *nown as the $ast Demerara Sea Defence

Commissioners was constituted' with the Director of #u+!ic 9or*s asChairman. A!! the sea defences on the $ast Coast District 6approimate!y 40*m8 were "ested in these Commissioners' who were gi"en powers to !e"yassessments at a uniform rate for each acre on a!! properties in the district or

pay for +oth annua!!y recurrent and capita! wor*s. %he Commissioners werea!so gi"en power to raise money on !oan for sea defence purposes.

• In 151? the Sea Defences <rdinance was passed and under this' nine sea

defence districts were formed' each ha"ing a !oca! Board of Sea DefenceCommissioners. %hese nine districts thus de!ineated' contro!!ed practica!!y thewho!e of the occupied coast!ine of &uyana. %hese District Sea Defence Boards

were responsi+!e for the maintenance of eisting sea defences and theconstruction of new wor*s. nder this <rdinance' onefourth of the cost ofmaintenance and new wor*s was +orne +y the &o"ernment and threefourths

paid +y rates !e"ied on the !and.

• In 15??' the nine Sea Defence Boards of Commissioners were a+o!ished +y

<rdinance and a sing!e Sea Defence Board su+stituted. %he Sea Defence Boardis now responsi+!e for the maintenance' management and construction of a!!wor*s in dec!ared sea defence districts. An amending <rdinance' No. 4 of 15?'enacted that Ffrom the first day of Eanuary nineteen hundred and thirtyse"en

a!! costs and charges incurred in the construction or maintenance of any seadefence together with a!! epenses of administration sha!! +e defrayed fromsuch monies as may +e pro"ided from time to time +y egis!ati"e Counci!.F

%hese arrangements +y which &o"ernment finances the tota! costs of protection of the&uyana coasts continue to the present day' +ut they o+"ious!y ha"e not pro"ided there2uisite !e"e!s of funding for the past two decades. By these "arious $nactments' the



management responsi+i!ities for sea defences were transferred to the Director of#u+!ic 9or*s.

<f great interest are the types of sea defence structures ad"ocated and used during this period. Baron Siccama' a Dutch coasta! specia!ist' was in"o!"ed in sea defences and

re!ated matters in &uyana during the period 1;)) to 1;51. A!though on!y a short period of this time was spent in &uyana' he made "a!ua+!e suggestions on designs ofsea defences' impro"ements to the &eorgetown ar+our' rea!ignment of the Best&royne to reduce si!tation of the Demerara >i"er +ar and methods to +e ta*en to

pre"ent the mo"ement of the Boerasirie Channe!. is recommendations were +ased onetensi"e re"iews of the hydrographic and morpho!ogica! data a"ai!a+!e then.

is suggestions on sea defences construction a!ong $ast and 9est Coasts Demeraraare simi!ar to those +eing proposed today. $tracts from a report he prepared for the#u+!ic 9or*s Department whi!e he was the Co!onia! Ci"i! $ngineer during 1;51 read:

FIn comparing the depth of water in front of the seawa!! of &eorgetown o+ser"ed in1;5' with those found at present' no nota+!e change can +e found. %he Best f!ats area!so unchanged and going further out the !ines of e2ua! depths ha"e nowhereapproached the coast!ine since 1;0' ecept in front of usignan spit where the depthsseem to increase' +ut on!y s!ow!y.

F9hen' therefore' the !oss of !and can on!y +e attri+uted to the action of the surf onsoft ground' the most rationa! way of arresting this erosion is to co"er thedisintegrating soi! with hard su+stance. Stone is in this case the +est' +ecause it is at

hand and the !east cost!y and imperisha+!e of a!! the in this Co!ony procura+!emateria!s.

FIf instead of the "ery inade2uate +ust pac*ing now used to co"er the outward s!ope of the dams' stone were proper!y !aid and of sufficient weight not to +e disp!aced +y thesurf' a permanent wor* wou!d ta*e the p!ace of a ma*eshift' costing much in repairsand in most cases inefficient.

F%he most important factor in p!acing the sea defences of this Co!ony in a +etter andsafer condition is the cost at which stone can +e !aid down.

F%he present mode of transporting this materia! from the 2uarries in the $sse2ui+o>i"er is +y sai!ing punts' which is s!ow' uncertain and cost!y. %o carry out such wor*sin an ade2uate and efficient manner it is urgent!y re2uired to +e a+!e to +ring !arge2uantities of materia!s to the spot in short spaces of time. It wi!! +e therefore necessaryto increase !arge!y the num+er of punts and a!so to ha"e the ser"ices of two strong andhandy tow+oats.



FAs a genera! ru!e' it wou!d +e ad"isa+!e to protect with stone such points as are inimmediate danger' !i*e the outfa!! and shipping head!ands on the F9a!!er3s De!ight'FF>uim-igtF seadams' points on FeonoraF and FStewart"i!!eF on the 9est Coast' andthe F#!aisanceF' FBetter opeF' F%riumphF' and FCo"eandEohnF dams on the $astCoast. A!so' parts of the Be! Air sea front sti!! re2uire attention.

F%he $ast Coast' howe"er' is at present in the +est position. %here the !and is formingand the foreshores are genera!!y !anding up. %his is o+ser"a+!e from the ahaicaCree* mouth as far as %riumph' and this deposit wi!! pro+a+!y find its way furthereastward and form a natura! protection' at !east in the immediate future.

F%he wor*s which shou!d +e underta*en at the ear!iest opportunity are therefore not soimportant as might +e supposed' after protecting the point +eforenamed' with a stone

pitching. %he intermediate +ays can +e guarded against further erosion +y protectingwith stone such p!aces where the sea is undermining the upper surface of the !and.

9here these steep sides or escarps are situated' a !ong way seaward from the seadam'a simp!e fi!!ing in with hard materia!s wi!! pre"ent the sea from sapping away theforeshore' and in this way the +e!t of courida wi!! form an efficient sea+rea*er for thedam. At #!antation <g!e' where this method was adopted with great success' a wide

+e!t of foreshore and +ush was preser"ed for the most eposed points where theforeshore has tota!!y disappearedG and where the surf +eats upon the dam it wi!! +enecessary to p!ace two tons of stone per foot running as a pitching on the seawards!ope.F

%hese suggestions must +e deemed as etraordinary due to the fact that more than 100

years after' we are sti!! ad"ocating these measures' i.e.' stone or riprap protection toearthen em+an*ments' and we are faced with simi!ar !ogistica! pro+!ems' i.e.' hau!ingstone from the 2uarries in the Bartica "icinity. A!so' r. Siccama pointed out theimportance of maintaining tree co"er in the foreshore.

nfortunate!y' r. Siccama3s proposa!s were not gi"en ade2uate consideration andduring the period 1500 to 15?0 great emphasis was p!aced on the construction of anetensi"e networ* of groynes. essrs. $dward Case' Ceci! Case and =ran* &raywhose registered office in the year 1500 was in ondon' ' were the proponents ofthis scheme. %his team mar*eted a groyne system *nown as the FCaseF groyne thatthey c!aimed was high!y successfu! at Dymchurch and Dea!' $ng!and +etween theyears 1;( to 1;5; where reco"ery of the !ow water !ine ranged +etween )0 to 400feet. %wo of these groynes were insta!!ed west of the ahaica Cree* during 1;55 andwere not responsi"e to trapping materia! throughout their !engths. In fact' erosion waseperienced a!ong the seaward ends and accretion at the ends adacent to the shore.%he Co!onia! Ci"i! $ngineer3s representati"e fe!t that the ang!e of p!acing was



incorrect. =urther eperiments were performed and it was fe!t hat groynes were theso!ution to sea defences pro+!em in &uyana.

%he FCaseF groyne system was insta!!ed on an etensi"e sca!e a!ong the $sse2ui+oand 9est and $ast Demerara coasts. In a !etter to the &o"ernor of &uyana dated 1

No"em+er' 15?1' r. &era!d Case remar*ed: FAfter ?0 years3 eperience in seadefence wor*s I am of the opinion that nowhere in the wor!d can +e found a +ettereamp!e of the efficiency of groynes than the $ast Coast of Demerara.F owe"er'groynes insta!!ed a!ong the 9est Demerara coast were eperiencing deterioration andco!!apse. A!ong the $sse2ui+o coast the presence of sand assisted groyne performancewhi!e a!ong the $ast Coast of Demerara' the presence of a !arge mud+an* pre"entedgroyne deterioration during that time.

In the ear!y thirties' there was serious erosion ta*ing p!ace at "arious parts of the $astCoast Demerara. owe"er' a!! other pro+!ems were o"ershadowed +y the maor sea

defence +reaches that occurred in the on >eposAnnanda!e area *nown as the FNog$en BreachF in 15?? where +efore the difficu!t period had passed' more than H1mi!!ion had +een spent to contain the +reach.

%hroughout this period erosion a!ong different areas of the coast!ands continued andretirement was necessary. <f note are the retirement of the #u+!ic >oad +etween on>epos and Buton and No. )1 to 77 a!ong the Corentyne Coast. An is!and offshore ofthe No. 7? +each disappeared.

?. #eriod 154) to 15)

=o!!owing the Second 9or!d 9ar' &uyana' !i*e other de"e!oping countries'eperienced a tremendous fee!ing of nationa! emergence. Co!onia! mastery was2uestioned and greater in"o!"ement of the &uyanese professiona!s was esta+!ished.During this period tremendous epansion of resources too* p!ace in the country. Sugar

production epanded twofo!d +etween 1545 and 1570' rice production trip!ed and theamount of infrastructure insta!!ation was ne"er eperienced in &uyana. %ogether withconstruction of housing' roads' schoo!s' etc.' sea defences and drainage and irrigationwere the front runners in these de"e!opments that pro"ided a cornerstone in anindependent &uyana.

During the ear!y 15)0s' the sea defence pro+!em areas were most pronounced ineguan' 9a*enaam and the $sse2ui+o coast' particu!ar!y +etween ampton Court andBounty a!!. owe"er' +y 15);' hea"y erosion started +etween Seafie!d and inge!!yon the 9est Coast Ber+ice.



In arch of the same year' two +reaches in the seawa!! occurred at $nmore and +y15)5 the area of Strathspay/$!i-a+eth a!! was serious!y affected. <ther areas' whichwere to +e su+ected to erosion and hea"y wa"e attac*' were =riendship in 1570',igi!ance/B!aden a!! in 1571' a >econnaissance in 157(' and Buton in 1574. %o a!esser etent se"era! areas on 9est Demerara +ecame eposed and damaged' whi!e on

9est Coast Ber+ice the erosion etended westward as far as 9e!daad.

As a conse2uence of the maor co!!apse of the sea defences in "arious parts of thecountry' a period of intense acti"ity' attention' training of personne!' and pro"ision oftechnica! resources de"e!oped. %hese inc!uded the fo!!owing four maor studies andreports:

6i8 Demerara Coasta! In"estigation' 1570157(' ydrau!ics a+. De!ft 6ND#8.

6ii8 %echnica! >e"iew and >ecommended >e"ision and >eha+i!itation of Sea

Defences in British &uiana' 157)' .S. Army Corps of $ngineers 6SAID8.

6iii8 A #roposed #rogramme of Sea Defence 9or*s n &uyana' 157;' ydrau!icsDi"ision' inistry of 9or*s and ydrau!ics 6&o"ernment of &uyana8.

6i"8 >eport on Sea Defences Studies' 15(' N$D$C< 6IB>D8.

%hese reports ha"e ser"ed we!! the p!anning process of sea defences. owe"er' withthe passage of time and the !ac* of ade2uate' accurate and consistent data o"er theensuing period' use must +e made of them with the greatest caution.

During the period 1570 to 15)' a cadre of &uyanese professiona!s emerged who'a!though trained o"erseas' de"e!oped an understanding of sea defences re2uirementsin their country. %he #u+!ic 9or*s Department and !ater the ydrau!ics Di"isionduring this period +oasted the on!y team e"er assem+!ed capa+!e of monitoring'designing' constructing and maintaining sea defences in &uyana. New designs wereesta+!ished which considered the "arious factors pre"ious!y high!ighted in the reportsand construction was underta*en throughout the sea coast of &uyana. %hese designs'different from Siccama3s concepts' were am+itious and cost!y' +ut pro"ided thesophistication re2uired for an emerging nationhood.

%he &o"ernment of &uyana undertoo* responsi+i!ity and cost sharing. anagementwas pro"ided +y a team of !oca! engineers inc!uding Ste"e Nauruan' Barry anSoning' #eppy #hang' >o!!o ee' awrence Char!es' #a+!o >amsamoo' i*e >agwen'a!co!m A!!y' $dwin ee' and Eai &anesh. Sir 9i!!iam a!crow and #artners of thenited ingdom' and N$D$C< of o!!and' pro"ided consu!tancy ser"ices in part.



Designs entai!ed the p!acement of an earthen em+an*ment on the !andward side' aconcrete wa"escreen to pre"ent wa"e o"ertopping and to protect against erosion ofearth' a concrete grouted +ou!der s!ope to foreshore erosion !e"e! and outer protectionof ga+ion +as*ets and stee! or tim+er toe pi!es to safeguard against further !owering of the foreshore. Construction of these defences too* p!ace a!ong the $ast Coast of

Demerara +etween Annanda!e and ope during 157) and 1577' +etween Success and%riumph during 1577 and 157' +etween itty and i!iendaa! from 157 to 1575'

+etween <g!e/Success and $nmore/Nooten-ui! from 150 to 15?' +etween =ort&royne and itty from 15? to 15). ,arious !ocations a!ong 9est Coast Demeraraand $sse2ui+o Coast were a!so protected.

Construction was underta*en either +y the &o"ernment direct!y through a mechanism*nown as force account or +y contractors such as Ba!four Beatty and 9impey. %his

period saw the emergence of !oca! contractors who gained "a!ua+!e eperience in seadefence wor*s. %wo of these were ac* Brothers and %orrington and >ayman.

<ne serious shortcoming that the impro"ement in socia! we!fare created was thea!!ocation of housing !ots net to the sea defences. =ormer!y' sugar wor*ers werehoused in !ogies adacent to sugar factories and cane fie!ds that were !ocated awayfrom the sea defence !ines. and a!!ocation +y the sea defences at areas such as%uschen' <cean ,iew and Annanda!e p!ace additiona! pressure in ho!ding the !ine.

4. #eriod 15) to 1550

%he downturn of the economy during this period resu!ted in a curtai!ment of sea

defence construction throughout &uyana' ecept for the continuation of a proect teama!ong the $sse2ui+o Coast where se"ere erosion was eperienced +etween %hree=riends and ampton Court areas. ere the riprap designs ad"ocated +y r. Siccamaand impro"ed +y Sir 9i!!iam a!crow and #artners were used etensi"e!y for the firsttime in &uyana.

In 15;; the Sea Defences Act and the Drainage and Irrigation Act were amended andtransfer of function for the responsi+i!ity' maintenance' cost sharing and managementin regions was shifted to the >egiona! Democratic Counci!s that did not performcredita+!y' due to the !ac* of finance and epertise. No new de"e!opments were made

in sea defence designs.

%he conse2uences of this deemphasis in sea defence construction during this periodwere the resignation or rea!!ocation of trained staff' the deterioration of eistingstructures that re2uired upgrading' inade2uate data co!!ection for monitoring seadefence condition and unchec*ed erosion in nonprotected areas that !ed to many

+reaches at the end of this period.



%he epertise of the force account staff and the !oca! contractors dec!ined ordisappeared since no maor construction acti"ities were underta*en. %he pressurecaused +y !and a!!ocation a!ong the sea defences was eacer+ated through furtherencroachment' either !ega!!y or i!!ega!!y.

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(' Descr)pt)o, o+ C*rre,t %ol)c)es: Sea De+e,ces

As noted' the responsi+i!ities for the maintenance of sea defences were assigned to the>egiona! Democratic Authorities in 15;;. owe"er' due to poor performance of theregiona! system' these responsi+i!ities were handed o"er to the ydrau!ics Di"ision of

the inistry of Agricu!ture in 155(. %he $Cfunded Infrastructure >eha+i!itation#rogramme 6from 15;; to 155(8 ena+!ed the ydrau!ics Di"ision to carry out someemergency wor*s. %he #roect $ecution nit for sea defences was formed in 1554 tomanage donor agency programmes funded +y $$C' IDA' IDB and CDB to the "a!ueof approimate!y SH40 mi!!ion.

%he main o+ecti"e of short term p!anning is to reha+i!itate the critica! coasta! protection structures. %he &o"ernment of &uyana has recei"ed funding ofapproimate!y SH40 mi!!ion to reha+i!itate approimate!y (7 *i!ometres of thesewor*s. %his programme has a duration of three years and a #roect $ecuting nit

6#$8 has +een set up 615548 within the inistry of Agricu!ture to manage andeecute these wor*s. %he short term pro"ision wi!! not +e ade2uate to finance the 40*i!ometres of critica! sea defences. %hus' the 2uest for additiona! financia! resourceswi!! need to +e pursued.

#resent!y the Sea and >i"er Defence Board +ears the !ega! responsi+i!ity for a!!dec!ared sea and ri"er defence matters. #hysica! eecution of wor*s is performed +ythe ydrau!ics Di"ision as agent to the Board. %he #roect $ecuting nit formedduring 1554 to manage donor agencies funding has no !ega! mandate +ut has +eengi"en a measure of se!f accounting and procurement that is more !i+era! than that of

the pu+!ic ser"ice.

istorica! e"ents a!ong the shore!ine and current studies indicate that roc* armouringto c!ay em+an*ments is the most suita+!e and costeffecti"e method of protection.>ecent studies ha"e eamined "arious design detai!s inc!uding:

Crest e!e"ation





%oe e!e"ation

$tent of toe protection

>oc* si-e and !ayer thic*ness

%he !ifetime of the structure is the main factor determining the "a!ues of these parameters. <f course' a structure assigned a !onger !ifetime wi!! +e more cost!y in theconstruction stage +ut wi!! re2uire !ower !ong term maintenance.

%he cost of roc* supp!y and p!acement is the maor item that determines the o"era!!costs of this type of construction.

>oc* 2uantities per metre of sea defence recommended +y "arious studies are:

nder!ayer Armouring %ota!

D, t (( t (5 t

S>N3gineering 14 t (7 t 40 t

N$D$C< ) (0 t () t

In the medium term' issues of shore!ine management wi!! +e addressed in anintegrated and en"ironmenta!!y sound manner. %he InterAmerican De"e!opmentBan* has proposed a )year programme to ena+!e the &o"ernment to reso!"e theseissues. %he o+ecti"es of this programme are to:

6a8 reduce and contro! a"oida+!e en"ironmenta! and economic !osses due to shore!ineerosion and f!oodingG

6+8 promote en"ironmenta!!y sound !and use decisions as a +asis for sustaina+!ede"e!opment of the coasta! -oneG and

6c8 +ui!d a nationa! capacity for integrated coasta! -one management +y impro"ing theinstitutiona! and technica! capacity for coasta! -one management.

At the +eginning of 1554' a consu!ting team commenced the preparation of a Designand =easi+i!ity Study for this Shore-one anagement #rogramme. An interim report presented during August 1554 identified a mediumterm strategy for shore-onemanagement. It recommends the reha+i!itation of the worst stretches of sea defencetogether with a monitoring programme for the shore-one. %he !atter programme wi!!inc!ude geodetic re!e"e!!ing' +athymetric sur"eys' sediment and wa"e studies' sea!e"e! monitoring and the introduction of an ear!y warning system. <ther areas of



acti"ities identified inc!uded a pu+!ic awareness programme' !and use p!anning'mangro"e management' en"ironmenta! awareness' cost reco"ery' income generationand institutiona! strengthening. A mode! for the underta*ing of an economic feasi+i!itystudy is a!so proposed.

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C' %ast a,d C*rre,t %ol)c)es: Dra),age a,d &rr)gat)o,

A "ery usefu! summary of the de"e!opment of the drainage and irrigation system isfound in 155? paper +y >. Stringfe!!ow' as fo!!ows:

&uyana3s drainage and irrigation system was initiated when drainage cana!s wereeca"ated a!ong the two +oundaries of the estate and an irrigation cana! dug throughthe midd!e. %he drainage cana!s often f!owed out direct!y into the sea through a s!uice.%he two drainage cana!s and the irrigation cana! together formed the estate3s drainageand irrigation 6D@I8 system.

%he dams 6roads8 pro"ided access to the who!e !ength of the estate running a!ong +othsides of the drainage cana!s' +ui!t up from the earth eca"ated when the drainagecana!s were constructed. %raditiona!!y the dams a!ong the irrigation cana!s were notused for access as this was +e!ie"ed to !ead to erosion of the dam that cou!d cause

o"ertopping and f!ooding.

%he operation of the system today is sti!! much the same as it was when it wasorigina!!y constructed. ead regu!ators on the feeder conser"ancy or ri"er regu!ate thef!ow of water into the primary distri+utary cana!. In many areas of the country thista*es p!ace +y gra"ity f!ow a!though there are pumps on some dams. %he !e"e! ofwater in the distri+utary cana! is in turn contro!!ed +y regu!ators and each secondarycana! running off the distri+utary cana! has its own regu!ator to ta*e water.

9hen water is re!eased from the conser"ancy' the water !e"e! in the distri+utary cana!

rises and this f!ows into the secondary cana!s when the regu!ators are open. Aschedu!e operates to a!!ow different areas a!ong the distri+utary cana! to ta*e offwater. It is important to emphasise that for the system to wor* efficient!y' water usersmust fo!!ow the schedu!e to irrigate their fie!ds and a!! users in one secondary systemmust carry out fie!d operations together. <rigina!!y' this was not a pro+!em as eachsecondary system was under the management of one estate owner. %he situation is"ery different today.







esta+!ishing the >egiona! $ecuti"e <fficer as the eecuting authority' assisted +y the>egiona! $ngineer and superintendents. %he Agricu!ture and D@I Committee' a!ready

present in most regions' was intended to +e a means of esta+!ishing feed+ac* fromfarmers as they were represented on this.

%he >egiona! Authorities are re2uired +y the Drainage and Irrigation Act' Chapter74.0?' to assess the !e"e! of drainage and irrigation rates per acre on dec!ared D@Iareas and !e"y charges from owners of !and. %hese re"enues are used to pay for theoperation and maintenance 6<@8 of the wor*s in the D@I area that were origina!!yF"estedF in the D@I Board 6that is' under the contro! of the D@I Board8.

%wo comp!ications arise immediate!y: not a!! wor*s in a gi"en dec!ared D@I area areF"estedF' and not a!! D@I areas are Fdec!ared.F %hus <@ for the system is not theresponsi+i!ity of one agency. In dec!ared D@I areas' where wor*s are not F"estedF' the!oca! authorities are responsi+!e for <@. %he percentage of the dec!ared D@I areas

under regiona! contro! "aries considera+!y among the different areas' from ) to100.

oca! authorities are a!so responsi+!e for the maintenance of D@I wor*s outside thedec!ared areas un!ess these are under the contro! of the sugar estates' pri"ate ownersor de"e!opment authorities. %he situation is further comp!icated +y the fact that someD@I areas +e!ong to more than one !oca! authority and a few e"en !ie outside any!oca! authority in a nonorganised area.

ear!y estimates are done to +udget for the costs of regu!ar maintenance of the system

that is main!y manua! wor*. >eha+i!itation wor*' which inc!udes desi!ting of drains +ymechanica! means' maor repairs of structures and rep!acement of gates' is consideredcapita! ependiture and come out of the capita! +udget. %his is prepared under thesuper"ision of the regiona! engineer and inc!udes other wor*s that come under hisresponsi+i!ity. >esponsi+i!ity for upgrading wor*s' which is maor reha+i!itationin"o!"ing part financing from internationa! sources' is underta*en centra!!y +yydrau!ics Department.

%he institutiona! comp!eity regarding responsi+i!ity for <@ is rep!icated in thearrangements regarding rate co!!ection. %he >DCs co!!ect rates from the !oca!

authorities' direct!y from !arge !andowners and a!so from the &o"ernment for State!ands. %he !oca! authorities are therefore the rate co!!ectors for the >DCs. owe"er'they do not !e"y a specific D@I rate +ut !e"y genera! rates from which they arere2uired to pass on a proportion to the regiona! authorities. Conse2uent!y' D@I usersare not +eing as*ed ep!icit!y to pay for the ser"ice they recei"e. In addition' part ofwhat is co!!ected +y the !oca! authorities is used to co"er their own maintenance costsfor the D@I areas under their contro!. Another part is paid to the Conser"ancy Boards.



%he >DCs ca!cu!ate the rates +y estimating the costs for the <@ of the system in thedec!ared D@I areas. %hese costs' minus a 10 su+sidy that is meant to +e paidcentra!!y +y the &o"ernment' are then di"ided across the tota! acreage of the area togi"e per acre costs. %he State #!anning Secretariat must then appro"e the estimates.

%hose in arrears with the payment of rates are re2uired +y the Drainage and IrrigationAct to pay 7 interest on outstanding +i!!s.

>esponsi+i!ity for <@ of the Boerasirie Conser"ancy in >egion ? and the $astDemerara 9ater Conser"ancy in >egion 4 esta+!ished under indi"idua! acts. %heseesta+!ish Boards of Commissioners to o"ersee the necessary wor*s to ensure ade2uatemaintenance and distri+ution of the waters of the conser"ancies. %he conser"anciesare not therefore under the urisdiction of the regiona! authorities. %he commissionersare a!so authorised to !e"y charges to +eneficiaries on a per acre +asis.

Commissioners are +oth appointed and e!ected +y proprietors of the p!antations !istedin the acts' each proprietor entit!ed to one "ote per hundred acres of !and. %he Boardsare re2uired to meet regu!ar!y and to *eep up to date information on the p!antations inthe area recei"ing water from the conser"ancy.

Inade2uate <@ o"er many years means that most parts of the system are +ad!ydeteriorated. Cana!s are fu!! of weeds and !arger "egetation' many are si!ted up andstagnant. %he resu!t is +oth inefficient drainage and irrigation. =armers comp!ain of!ac* of irrigation water when they need it and f!ooding when they are ready to har"est.%he resu!t is !ow yie!ds and "ery inefficient use of water. Irrigation efficiency is

estimated to +e as !ow as () according to one of the few studies done on this. 618

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&&&' Descr)pt)o, o+ the %r),c)pal &ss*es a,d Co,stra),ts

Fac),g the Sector

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A' &ss*es

1. Sea Defences

http://www.guyana.org/NDS/chap40.htm#N_1_



http://www.guyana.org/NDS/chap40.htm#N_1_





a. #rocurement

%he inter"a! +etween the identification of critica! areas and the commencement of physica! wor*s has +een too !ong. %he mo"ement of mega mud+an*s a!ong theshore!ine may resu!t in dramatic changes at any !ocation that re2uire a 2uic* response.

$amp!es of these inc!ude the high rate of accretion in the ope/C!on+roo* area o"erthe past few years that wi!! resu!t in a !arge increase of eca"ation 2uantities under theIDA contract. Any contract sum greater than &H7 mi!!ion must go through the Centra!Board. %his cou!d +e time consuming and !ead to de!ay in proect eecution. Somef!ei+i!ity as to a "ariation to the ru!e in the programme !ife wou!d he!p in theeecution and imp!ementation of proect acti"ities.

In the case of donorfunded proects' it ta*es a+out two years to commence theeecution of physica! wor*s from the signing of the agreement.

#rocurement of 2uarry products is a maor item in sea defence wor*s. nti! recent!ythere ha"e +een on!y two maor supp!iers of 2uarry products in &uyana +ut a third onehas now started operations. %he cost of 2uarry materia! has +een "ery high and it ishoped that the competition pro"ided +y the third 2uarry wi!! +ring those prices down.

+. Institutiona! arrangement

%he Sea and >i"er Defence Board has the !ega! responsi+i!ity for a!! dec!ared sea andri"er defences. %he ydrau!ic Di"ision is the eecuting agency for the Board andcomes under the inistry of Agricu!ture. As such' it shares the institutiona! pro+!ems

common to a!! ministries. %o o"ercome these !imitations' the #roect $ecution nitwas formed in 1554 to manage the donor agenciesfunded programme and traincounterpart staff. It has no forma! !ega! mandate +ut was gi"en some autonomy inaccounting and procurement. $ffecti"e management of the organisation is "ita! for the

+est use of !imited a"ai!a+!e s*i!!s. A !ongerrun concern is that the #roect $ecutionnit was en"isaged as a temporary unit' and after the donorsupported reha+i!itationof sea defences is comp!eted' there wi!! +e a need for an effecti"e' permanent agencyto manage maintenance tas*s and ensure that maintenance wor*s are not neg!ectedagain. %he !essons of the f!ood of 1;)) and the +reaches of the 15;0s and ear!y 1550sought to +e sufficient.

c. Cost reco"ery

New po!icies are needed to ensure ade2uate funding for maintenance of sea wa!!s on acontinuing +asis. %he !ac* of such funding in the past has !ed to se"ere deteriorationof the structures and therefore the current need to recourse to eterna! sources of



funding for maor reha+i!itation. Dependence on annua! a!!ocations from the genera! +udget of the &o"ernment is e"ident!y not an ade2uate so!ution.

d. Contractua! arrangements

Because of the stringent preconditions of the donor agencies' !oca! and regiona!contractors find it difficu!t to pre2ua!ify for some sea defence proects. %hecontractua! arrangements shou!d +e eamined to suit !oca! conditions and encouragethe ac2uisition of re!e"ant s*i!!s +y !oca! contractors.

%he competiti"e contractors may +e ran*ed according to their !ocation and theira+i!ity to underta*e wor*s of "arious cost magnitudes. An approimate c!assificationa!ong these !ines wou!d +e as fo!!ows:

Area -al*e o+ 2orks ), 5S6m

oca! ess than 0.)

>egiona! 0.) to ?.0

Internationa! more than 1).0

%he finances pro"ided under the current donor agencies programme fa!! in the rangeof SH7 mi!!ion and SH14 mi!!ion. %his has !ed to restrictions in the se!ection ofsuita+!e contractors for the $C and IDA tenders' effecti"e!y ec!uding !oca!

contractors. Inc!uding them is !i*e!y to resu!t in su+stantia! reductions in the cost per*i!ometre of reha+i!itating sea wa!!s.

e. =inancing

%he &o"ernment of &uyana has recei"ed funding of approimate!y SH40 mi!!ionfrom four donor agencies for the reha+i!itation of approimate!y (7 *i!ometers of seadefences' +ut it continues to underta*e emergency sea defence and maintenance wor*sto the "a!ue of o"er SH( mi!!ion annua!!y from its own resources.

f. Accounta+i!ity

%he #roect $ecution nit is se!faccounting right now and auditing is +eing done atthe Auditor &enera!3s <ffice. $penditures are recorded under two headings: F!oca!ependitureF and Fspecific ependiture.F %he ydrau!ics Department accounting ismanaged through the inistry of Agricu!ture using the traditiona! pu+!ic ser"iceaccounting procedure. $"entua!!y' one system shou!d +e app!ied in +oth cases.



g. #!anning hori-ons

Besides carrying out the donorfunded reha+i!itation wor*' !aying the institutiona! andtechnica! +ases for a programme that continues indefinite!y into the future is importantnow. =or this purpose the responsi+i!ities can +e defined according to !ength of

p!anning hori-on:

618 Short term 6) years8

%he short term p!an wou!d in"o!"e the reha+i!itation of the critica! coasta! protectionstructures identified under the donor agencies programme' the maintenance of theeisting infrastructure and the reha+i!itation of emergency wor*s that are current!y

+eing funded +y the &o"ernment of &uyana.

6(8 edium term 6)10 years8

%he medium term programme wou!d +e the reha+i!itation of further !engths of seadefences and the esta+!ishment of maintenance and a shore-one management unit.

6?8 ong term 61) years8

Carry out data co!!ection and monitoring programmes to determine critica! areas a!ongthe sea defences for reha+i!itation and continued maintenance.

h. #rotection of mangro"es

%here are two principa! reasons why the sea defences are in such deteriorated statetoday: !ac* of performance of regu!ar maintenance duties o"er the years' and fai!ure to

protect the mangro"e areas that once were "ery pre"a!ent a!ong the coast. %hesecauses were a!so sing!ed out +y Baron Siccama more than a hundred years ago. It isurgent to protect the remaining mangro"e -ones and to carry out a gradua! programmeof reforestation of other areas in mangro"es. $perience throughout the wor!d hasunderscored the necessity of wor*ing c!ose!y with artisana! fishermen and !oca!communities' in designing and imp!ementing such programmes. Simp!e !ega!

prohi+itions against cutting mangro"es do not wor*.

i. Data Co!!ection

Sea defence data need to +e upgraded and a monitoring programme esta+!ished.Immediate re2uirements are hydrographic sur"eys and wa"e measurements. Aeria!

photography to he!p in the determination of !and use pattern' mangro"e etent and sea



defence !ocations shou!d +e carried out and then repeated regu!ar!y to monitorchanges. A programme for monitoring erosion and accretion shou!d +e put in p!ace.

. Costs

%o arri"e at an estimate of costs for constructing sea defences we may assume ana"erage roc* re2uirement of ?0 tonnes per metre which at a p!acement cost of H7'000

per tonne 6recent donor agencies tender prices8 re2uire H1;0'000. Again' if we assumefi!ter fa+ric and earthwor*s to cost an additiona! )' then the costs of sea defenceconstruction using roc*s wi!! +e H?)'000 or SH('()0 per metre or SH(.() mi!!ion

per *i!ometre.

&uyana can i!! afford to continue sea defence construction at this cost and methods toreduce the financia! re2uirements shou!d +e in"estigated.

(. Drainage and Irrigation

a. egis!ation

any pieces of !egis!ation go"ern the management and operation of D@Imanagement in &uyana' +ut together they do not comprise a consistent +ody of !ega!regu!ations. Instead' the resu!t is a set of too comp!e and dissociated regu!ations thatconstrain the smooth operation of the D@I system.

+. u!titude of institutions with di"ided administration

%here are eight different agencies with a ro!e to p!ay in the management and operationof &uyana3s drainage and irrigation system. %he institutiona! framewor* ischaracterised +y !ac* of c!ear po!icy o+ecti"es' inade2uate super"ision andcoordination' mu!tip!e o"er!apping urisdictions' significant "ariations among regionsin organisation and effecti"eness' and imprecise ro!es of the "arious agencies.

c. Shortage of resources

618 %echnica! capacity

%he !e"e! of technica! education in regiona! engineering departments is poor' as is the!e"e! of education in the accounts section.

6(8 #hysica! resources



%he engineers ha"e no transport to get to different D@I areas. Another pro+!em is thatthe ydrau!ics Di"ision does not ha"e a permanent +ase and its current !ocation onomestretch A"enue is not sustaina+!e.

6?8 Nonparticipation of farmers within the system

%he present system a!!ows for minima! in"o!"ement of farmers' a!though they are the +eneficiaries of the D@I system. %hey ha"e a!most no representation or "oice in p!anning and "ery !itt!e participation in maintenance. %hus the group that has thegreatest incenti"e to +e in"o!"ed in de"e!oping an efficient system is ec!uded from it.

648 ac* of coordination with the rest of &uyana3s water management institutions.

itt!e consideration has +een gi"en to the ro!e of D@I in the contet of the country3sentire hydrau!ic system' and its impact on the water +a!ance of the country.

d. =inancing

%he *ey to the deterioration of the infrastructure is the fai!ure to secure financing formaintenance. %he financing of maintenance depends on the co!!ection of drainage andirrigation rates' with the added comp!ication of conser"ancy and !and de"e!opmentscheme rates. >ate co!!ection is current!y on!y a+out ?0. =armers are unwi!!ing to

pay for the poor 2ua!ity of ser"ices current!y +eing pro"ided +y pu+!ic agencies' whi!ethe main reason for the poor ser"ices is the se"ere financia! constraints eperienced +ythese pu+!ic agencies.

?. ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice

a. aintenance and operation

%he Nationa! eteoro!ogica! and ydro!ogica! Station Networ* has +een affectedo"er the past two decades +y the !ac* of spare parts and the rapid !oss of s*i!!ed staff.%his resu!ted in the c!osure of se"era! important stations in the appro"ed 9or!deteoro!ogica! <rganisation Networ* design and the conse2uentia! !oss of data. A!so'most stations are in remote hinter!and areas accessed on!y +y aircraft and other

epensi"e means of transportation.

+. Cost reco"ery

Appro"a! has +een gi"en to institute a system of charges for data supp!ied +y theydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice. It is a ser"iceoriented organisation and forecasts ha"e

+een genera!!y issued free of cost to the media and the inistry of Agricu!ture.



owe"er' charges are usua!!y app!ied to specia!ised data re2uests thus contri+uting tooffset partia!!y the ependitures for these specia! in"estigations and fie!d ana!yses.<"era!!' cost reco"ery has +een "ery !ow and ways need to +e sought to increase it.

c. =inancing

%he Ser"ice has +een recei"ing funds to co"er recurrent operating ependituresdirect!y from the inistry of =inance' during the !ast three years. %he nomina! capita!funds from the pu+!ic sector in"estment programme ha"e +een used main!y toimpro"e wor*ing conditions' purchase much needed automated e2uipment and otheritems to maintain the +asic operationa! status of eisting networ*ing stations.

%he $uropean nion has +een approached to eamine a proposa! for funding aweather radar to impro"e the accuracy of forecasts. owe"er' the ac2uisition wou!ddepend upon the priority p!aced on this proect +y the &o"ernment of &uyana. %he

9or!d eteoro!ogica! <rganisation a!so funds e2uipment and technica! aid pac*agesto upgrade regiona! meteoro!ogica! and hydro!ogica! ser"ices. Ne"erthe!ess' additiona!funding is needed' especia!!y to reopen the stations that were o+!iged to c!ose.

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(' Co,stra),ts

1. Sea Defences

a. #rocurement

%he !ong and stringent tender procedures ha"e +een a constraining factor to the performance of the ydrau!ics Di"ision and the #roect $ecution nit' !owering their rate of eecution of proects and raising their costs.

+. Institutiona! arrangement

%he !ac* of forma! !ega! mandate of the #roect $ecution nit hinders its effecti"eoperation. A!so' the Sea and >i"er Defence Board does not ha"e po!icyma*ingauthority.

c. Cost reco"ery





Inade2uate pro"isions for funding of maintenance in the past ha"e direct!y contri+utedto the se"ere pro+!ems that the sea defence system is eperiencing today. ac* of anade2uate cost reco"ery mechanism for the sea defences a!so p!aces considera+!eadditiona! strain on an a!ready tight fisca! situation. New approaches to finance thisessentia! and ongoing tas* must +e found' apart from eterna! donors.

d. Contractua! arrangements

%he contractua! arrangements for $C and IDA proectfunded tenders restrict these!ection of contractors to those c!assified as internationa!. A re"ision of sucharrangements may !ead to more efficient and epeditious imp!ementation of the

proects.

e. =inancing

9ith no specific mechanism in p!ace for reco"ering the cost of the continuedmaintenance wor* re2uired +y the sea defences' &uyana has +een resorting to donoragencies funding to reha+i!itate the critica! areas. Ne"erthe!ess' on!y the most urgentneeds are +eing met that way' and the insufficiency of funds and !ow sa!aries ha"eresu!ted in capa+!e staff !ea"ing the ydrau!ics Di"ision.

f. $n"ironmenta! constraints

%he widespread !ac* of pu+!ic awareness of the "a!ue of mangro"es for sustainingmarine fisheries and pre"enting f!ooding and erosion of sea defences' has represented

a maor constraint in this sector. $2ua!!y' protection of coast !ands against the sea has +een hindered +y the !ac* of a forward!oo*ing programme +ased on de"e!oping aconsensus with coasta! communities on how +est to manage mangro"es.

(. Drainage and Irrigation

a. %echnica! capacity

%he sector suffers from a maor shortage of trained personne!. %he fundamenta! reasonfor this is the !ow wages offered +y the pu+!ic sector in comparison with the pri"ate

sector' which ma*es it difficu!t to ho!d onto the most capa+!e staff.

+. >esource a"ai!a+i!ity

Shortage of pu+!ic funds has !ed to a se"ere shortage of e2uipment for the ade2uateoperation of &o"ernment institutions in"o!"ed with drainage and irrigation.



c. Nonparticipation of farmers within the system

A maor contri+utor to the di!apidation of the system is +e!ie"ed to +e the distance +etween the users of the system 6the farmers8 and the administrators. %his sense ofiso!ation contri+utes to the !ow rate co!!ection. 9hen farmers do not percei"e any

contro! o"er how the rates are spent' they are far more re!uctant to pay. Any newsystem has to o"ercome this centra! wea*ness.

d. ac* of institutiona! coordination

In particu!ar' there is a !ac* of coordination +etween the management of sea defencesand the management of D@I systems. %his is "ita! +ecause sometimes the two systemsuti!ise the same cana!s and other infrastructure. A!so' responsi+i!ity for operation andmaintenance of a gi"en D@I area may +e di"ided +etween an >DC and one or more!oca! authorities.

e. ow rate co!!ection

%here is insufficient enforcement of payment regu!ations. any farmers aredefau!ters' and a!though one reason for this is that the ser"ices pro"ided are notconsidered worthy of rate payments' farmers are a!so in the position that they canoften escape without paying and therefore ha"e !itt!e incenti"e to pay. A confused !andtenure system and wea*nesses in the udicia! system comp!icate the possi+i!ities ofrate co!!ection.

f. Inade2uate mapping

As stated +y Stringfe!!ow' each D@I area is represented in detai! on drawings he!d atydrau!ics Di"ision in &eorgetown. owe"er' these are not a"ai!a+!e in the >egions.%he drawings themse!"es are o!d and often do not show a!! "ested wor*s or residentia!areas. ore serious!y' wor*s under the responsi+i!ity of the !oca! authorities are notmapped which represents a maor draw+ac* in assessing what the scope ofreha+i!itation wor*s in the D@I areas shou!d +e.

g. <perations of the Conser"ancy Boards

Again' as pointed out +y Stringfe!!ow' these are re2uired to operate the headregu!ators on the conser"ancies +ut in practise !itt!e contro! is eercised and waterusers ha"e a !ot of freedom to interfere with gates. %his is a serious pro+!em asassessment of water a"ai!a+i!ity' not water needs' shou!d determine irrigation f!ow. Infact' the necessary information on the water potentia! of the conser"ancies re!ieshea"i!y' financia!!y and technica!!y' on the sugar estates. Conse2uent!y' the interest of



one group of water users' the sugar growers' tends to guide decisions a+out water use.Idea!!y' a +ody that is independent of the water users shou!d underta*e distri+ution ofwater. owe"er' without the support of the sugar estates' it is !i*e!y that the systemwou!d ha"e co!!apsed tota!!y.

?. %he ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice

A!though there has +een some increase in the funding a"ai!a+!e for this acti"ity inrecent years' !ac* of ade2uate finance is sti!! the maor constraint on its operations.

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&-' Sectoral $b.ect)/es

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A' Sea De+e,ces

1. Short %erm <+ecti"e

%he main short term o+ecti"e is the reha+i!itation of the eisting infrastructure of seadefences. %o achie"e this o+ecti"e' the eterna! donor agencies are funding se"era!

programmes at an approimate cost of &H1')00 mi!!ion annua!!y 6155) prices8.

%he Ita!ian contractors #AC/&$=I are current!y reha+i!itating sea defence wor*s onthe 9est Coast of Demerara' under the <$ I, #roect' in the fo!!owing areas:

>ichmond Anna >egina 1?(? m

and of #!enty A+erdeen 1?10 m

9indsor =orest a Ea!ousie 107( m

,ergenogen Barnwe!! 1(1 m

>u+y e Destine 105) m

Su+tota! 71?) m







%he present strategy is to com+ine the funds from the remaining donor programmes6IDA' IDB and CDB8 to eecute sea defence wor*s $ast of the Demerara >i"er' 9estCoast Ber+ice and Corentyne Coast.

%he areas identified are as fo!!ows:

$ast Coast Demerara:

on >epos ?00 m

usignan 1400 m

%ur*eyen ;0 m

Annanda!e )00 m

ow!ands ??0 m

Su+tota! ?7() m

9est Coast Ber+ice:

Be! Air on Chosi ((00 m

%rafa!gar #ump Station (00 m

Brahan No. 41 ?400 m

Su+tota! );00 m

Corentyne Coast:

,i!!ages 5 10)0 m

on >epos ?) m

,i!!ages 7 ;? ?000 m

C!on+roo* 14)0 m

Su+tota! );) m



In addition' the re!ease of further $$C and IDB funds under the second protoco! wi!! permit the reha+i!itation of the remaining sections of sea defences 9est of theDemerara ri"er and a!ong the $sse2ui+o coast. %he areas identified are as fo!!ows:

9est Coast Demerara:

oo*out Naamryc* (.0 *m

<rangestein (.0 *m

%uchen 1.0 *m

>uim-eight 0.) *m

eguan 1.) *m

9a*enaam 1.) *m

Su+tota! ;.) *m

=unding wou!d +e sought from the Centra! &o"ernment for emergency wor*s ofapproimate!y ;00 metres at a Be!!e A!!iance/>ichmond on the $sse2ui+o coast. It isen"isaged that the Shore-one anagement #rogramme wou!d +e further re"ised toref!ect funding of more physica! wor*s a!ong the $sse2ui+o coast. Areas identified areas fo!!ows:

$sse2ui+o coast:

9indsor Cast!e Sparta 40 m

Better ope 1000 m

Bush ot ainstay (015 m

Centra! &o"ernment is current!y funding the emergency reha+i!itation programme.%he areas identified for this acti"ity are as fo!!ows:

on >epos ?) m

Strathspey $ast 1)0 m

Strathspey 9est ?0) m



Buton 700 m

(. edium to ong %erm <+ecti"es

%he medium term p!an o+ecti"e is to achie"e the continuing too! of a comprehensi"e

maintenance and rep!acement programme for sea and ri"er defences. It is en"isagedthat the cost of this programme wou!d +e approimate!y &H1000 mi!!ion annua!!y'

+eing gradua!!y reduced to &H)00 annua!!y as reha+i!itation impro"es the 2ua!ity ofthe sea defences. %he Centra! &o"ernment and donor agencies wou!d finance it.#artia! cost reco"ery shou!d +e imp!emented at the +eginning of the programme andfu!! cost reco"ery after emergency wor*s ha"e +een comp!eted.

A maintenance programme for the sea defences wi!! inc!ude the fo!!owing:

a. >egu!ar inspection and monitoring and data co!!ection of en"ironmenta! conditions

and structura! response.

+. >epair or rep!acement of components of a structure whose !ife is estimated to +e!ess than the o"era!! structure !ife.

c. $mergency repairs to +reached areas.

d. Identification of 2uantities and costs for p!ant' !a+our' and materia!s to underta*ethe necessary wor*s.

e. $pansion of the foreshore co"erage of mangro"e and courida.

f. Impro"ed institutiona! structures to carry out this programme.

g. #ermanent financing mechanisms at a !e"e! that is ade2uate considering themaintenance re2uirements.

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(' Dra),age a,d &rr)gat)o,

%he primary o+ecti"e of the drainage and irrigation po!icies is to contri+ute to thenationa! goa! of rapid and e2uita+!e economic growth +y faci!itating increasedagricu!tura! production. %o achie"e this primary o+ecti"e' two !ongterm o+ecti"esha"e +een identified' which in turn are +ro*en down into shorterterm o+ecti"es.





1. ongterm <+ecti"es

a. %o de"e!op a system for the operation and maintenance of the drainage andirrigation system that is en"ironmenta!!y' fisca!!y' and institutiona!!y sustaina+!e. %hefo!!owing o+ecti"es need to +e met to fu!fi!! this goa!:

6i8 De"e!op an appropriate institutiona! framewor* for drainage and irrigationmanagement through:

6a8 Increasing farmer participation.

6+8 De"e!oping c!ear ro!es and responsi+i!ities for pu+!ic institutions.

6c8 Incorporating D@I into +roader water management framewor*.

6d8 Impro"ing procurement/contractua! procedures.

6e8 De"e!oping a system for co!!ecting and accessing re!e"ant information.

6ii8 De"e!op a system that secures ade2uate and consistent financing for the operationand maintenance of a!! drainage and irrigation wor*s +y:

6a8 Defining c!ear responsi+i!ities for financing.

6+8 >ationa!ising rate setting and co!!ection.

6c8 Impro"ing the enforcement of rate payment.

6d8 De"e!oping new institutiona! structures for managing ependiture of the ratesco!!ected.

6iii8 De"ise arrangements for monitoring the en"ironmenta! impact of drainage andirrigation wor* 6inc!uding !e"e!s of toins within the system8.

6i"8 Draft and enact new !egis!ation to impro"e and unify current !aws pertaining todrainage and irrigation management' to +ring them into consistency with the po!icyframewor* esta+!ished in this Nationa! De"e!opment Strategy.

+. %o increase the current capacity of the drainage and irrigation system +y impro"ingeisting infrastructure and epanding into new !ands.

6i8 Identify the areas where and epansion of D@I might offer potentia!!y highagricu!tura! returns and carry out the necessary wor*s.



6ii8 >eha+i!itate and impro"e eisting drainage and irrigation wor*s.

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C' Hdrometeorolog)cal Ser/)ce

%he ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice3s main goa!s are: 18 to +e the foca! point for theco!!ection' maintenance and operation of the meteoro!ogica! and hydro!ogica! dataco!!ection networ*' (8 to pro"ide impro"ed ser"ices to users such as airports' the Seaand >i"er Defences Board' agricu!tura! organisations' etc. %he first goa! wi!! +eachie"ed fo!!owing the 9or!d eteoro!ogica! <rganisation guide!ines and technica!regu!ations. A de"e!opment programme wi!! +e instituted as directed +y the

contro!!ing agencies and the 9or!d eteoro!ogica! <rganisation. A!so' possi+!e"enues for epansion wi!! +e identified and their imp!ementation wi!! +e su+ected toa"ai!a+!e resources and manpower.

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-' %ol)c !ecomme,dat)o,s a,d The)r Tech,)cal

1*st)+)cat)o,s

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A' Sea De+e,ces

1. Institutiona! #o!icies

%he first need to attend to is the !ac* of po!icyma*ing authority in this sector. %he Sea

and >i"er Defence Board shou!d +e reorganised to +ecome a po!icy ma*ing +oard. Itshou!d ha"e representati"es from the inistry of ousing and inistry of >egiona!De"e!opment and wi!! +e !ega!!y responsi+!e for the entire coast!ine of &uyana. %heeecuting agency shou!d +e a Shore-one anagement nit outside the pu+!ic ser"ice.%his wou!d a!!ow the unit to attract 2ua!ified staff' pro"ide higher sa!aries and to ha"eits own financia! regu!ation.









(. Costs

>ecent eperience has shown that an urgent priority is reduction of the constructioncosts for the sea defences.

Some approaches to cost reduction that merit ep!oration are:

$amine means of reducing the costs of production and supp!y of roc*s to sites. %he recent

opening of a third 2uarry may he!p in this regards.

In"estigate current designs and propose cheaper a!ternati"es.

<n the first issue of roc* supp!y' the S Army Corps of $ngineers has offered to send a team toassess the o"era!! 2uarry operations in the country. %his offer shou!d +e pursued.

<n the second issue of designs' the N$D$C< section re2uires the !east amount of roc*. %his is

due to the fact that their !owest toe e!e"ation is at 47 ft &D' whi!e that of the S>N3gineeringdesign is at 41 ft &D. %he N$D$C< design shou!d +e used for a!! future wor*s with minormodifications to suit site conditions.

%he D, and S>N3gineering specifications re2uire wor*s to +e performed in the dry. %his wi!!re2uire the contractor to +ui!d an epensi"e cofferdam to *eep the toe eca"ation dry. A!so'continuous pumping during toe p!acing wi!! +e re2uired. It is recommended that contractors +ea!!owed to p!ace the fi!ter fa+ric and roc* underwater during !ow tide periods. ean !ow waterspring and neap are approimate!y 47.( ft. &D and 4;.)4 ft. &D' respecti"e!y' hence p!acementof an underwater toe at 47 ft. &D wi!! +e done at su+merged depths of approimate!y ? ft.

A!though this method may promote more "aria+!e toe a!ignment and !e"e!s' this shou!d not affectthe integrity of the structure. %he function of the fi!ter fa+ric is to pre"ent !oss of under!ayermateria! during tur+u!ence caused +y wa"e and current actions. %hese effects are most se"ere atthe higher e!e"ations of the structure during high tide periods. A!so' the structure toe wi!! on!y +eeposed during periods of !ow foreshore e!e"ations.

?. Contractua! Arrangements

%he types of contractua! arrangements wi!! +e eamined with a "iew of se!ecting those that +estsuit the !oca! scenario. Basica!!y' wor*s may +e underta*en +y force account or +y contractors.se of force account shou!d +e sca!ed down and e"entua!!y a+andoned a!together.

%he si-e of the construction underta*ings funded +y eterna! donors tends to +e such that itec!udes !oca! contractors from +idding for $C and IDA tenders. It is urgent that this impasse +eaddressed especia!!y as the net programme to +e tendered' that funded +y the CDB' isapproimate!y SH mi!!ion and wi!! in"o!"e two separate contracts.

Suggestions for reso!"ing this are:



6a8 Com+ine donor agencies3 programmes to attract internationa! contractors.

6+8 Sp!it indi"idua! programmes so that regiona! and !oca! contractors may participate.

6c8 Separate the supp!y of roc*s from that off construction of the wor*s and treat as two

contracts' the former +eing administered +y the &o"ernment and the !atter +y regiona! and !oca!contractors.

6d8 rge !oca! contractors to form oint "entures.

%he se!ection of the method to +e emp!oyed shou!d +e sanctioned +y the &o"ernment of &uyanaand the respecti"e donor agency and the recommended methods are Nos. 1 and 4 a+o"e for !argecontracts 6o"er SH1( mi!!ion8 and No. ? for sma!!er ones.

4. Cost >eco"ery and =inancia! anagement

In !ight of the e"ident fai!ure of pre"ious modes of financing maintenance of sea defences' it isnecessary to identify other modes that wi!! +e +oth sufficient in magnitude and sustaina+!e. Seadefences contri+ute direct!y to the economic we!!+eing of at !east ;) of the popu!ation' so thefunding source for maintenance must +e +road!y +ased.

%he fo!!owing are possi+!e re"enue strategies for a sea defence cost reco"ery programme:

6a8 Impose a 0.) sea defence !e"y on the "a!ue of a!! imports.

6+8 As the property registry system is modernised' imp!ement a property ta of &H(00 per acre6in 1557 prices8.

6c8 >e!y on genera! +udgetary re"enues to c!ose the remaining financing gap for the maintenanceof the sea defences unti! the a+o"e re"enue sources are fu!!y operationa!.

%he management of +oth the financia! and operationa! aspects of the sea defence system needs to +e as stream!ined and efficient as possi+!e' with +ui!tin mechanisms to ensure continuous!y thatcosts are *ept as !ow as possi+!e. %he fo!!owing po!icy is adopted in this regard:

%he re"enues co!!ected from a+o"e mechanisms wou!d +e deposited in a specia! trust account for maintenance of the sea defences' in the Centra! Ban*. %he Sea Defences Board' in effect anintergo"ernmenta! management committee for the trust account' wou!d monitor the co!!ection of

re"enues' their dis+ursement' and the progress made in the maintenance efforts. It wou!d a!sosu+mit annua! estimates to the inistry of =inance for he re2uired comp!ementary funding fromthe genera! +udget' in the epectation that e"entua!!y this !ine item wou!d +e phased out.

). Areas to +e #rotected

%he strategy wi!! prioritise the areas a!ong the coast!and that re2uire protection. and use andsha!!ow foreshore !e"e!s shou!d +e the main criteria used for se!ection with housing areas +eing



treated as urgent. %hese areas wi!! inc!ude the $sse2ui+o Coast +etween Supenaam and ariasDe!ight' 9a*enaam' eguan' $ast Ban* $sse2ui+o' $ast and 9est Demerara and No. ; and No.;? on the Corentyne Coast.

%he current IDA' IDB and $C programmes wi!! pro"ide protection to some of these areas. =uture

funding shou!d +e a!!ocated to other unprotected and critica! areas in these !ocations.

%he CDB programme is primari!y pro"iding protection to the facade drain in the 9est CoastBer+ice area. %his may not ha"e +een a wise choice and this programme wi!! +e re"iewed.

In areas where there are no residences' retirement of the sea defence !ine' when +reached' may +ethe recommended approach and each case shou!d +e eamined critica!!y. If a sma!! section of aneposed coast!ine is protected' then continued erosion upstream and downstream wi!! re2uireadditiona! !engths of the shore!ine to +e protected or a head!and wi!! +e created. Both scenariosmay not +e the desired so!ution in !ater years.

7. #rocurement

It has +een our eperience that the time span +etween critica! area identification and thecommencement of physica! wor*s has +een too !ong. A!so' critica! areas identified under theCDB programme now support mangro"e trees and the consu!tants were o+!iged to change theo"era!! scope of wor*s. %his has +een communicated to the Ban* and concerns ha"e +een raisedthat appro"a! for this re"ision may not +e forthcoming in a hurry. %his wi!! change the programme and may !ead to increased costs.

It s recommended that the #roect $ecuting nit maintain and update at appropriate inter"a!srecords of critica! areas and that donor agencies epedite procurement procedures. %he !atter may

+e assisted +y using short!ists of !oca! and regiona! consu!tants and contractors maintained +y the#roect $ecuting nit.

. %raining

%raining of !oca! staff shou!d +e acti"e!y pursued. %he S Army Corps of $ngineers recent!yoffered assistance at this area' inc!uding assigning engineers to their research !a+oratories in theSA. %his shou!d +e accepted.

;. <ther Sea Defence #rogrammes

%ogether with roc* armouring protection there are other "ia+!e methods of protection. %heseinc!ude management of mangro"e and p!acement of groynes. Both ha"e +een recommended inthe Swedep!an/SS##A report and their recommendations shou!d +e carried out. angro"emanagement shou!d +e acti"e!y pursued in areas such as ahaica to >osigno! and the !owerCorentyne areas. %his approach may pro"ide protection to coast!ines that otherwise wi!! ha"e to +e retired.

5. and for ouses



No dou+t the sea defence pro+!em continues' main!y' through the insta!!ation of infrastructureand housing in areas adacent to the sea defence !ine. A fina! recommendation is that no !andwithin a certain distance of the sea defences shou!d +e used for the construction of any permanent structure. %his distance wi!! "ary a!ong the country3s coast!ine +ut shou!d not +e !essthan (00 feet. At !ocations a!ong the coast where there is no intensi"e housing de"e!opment' any

p!ans for such de"e!opment shou!d +e assessed ta*ing into consideration the need for present andfuture sea defence protection. 9here possi+!e' future housing de"e!opment shou!d +e restrictedto areas south of the #u+!ic >oad.

Note that a sea defence structure has a design !ifetime and a co!!apse is possi+!e anytime and atany p!ace a!ong the coast!ine. =uture de"e!opment a!ong the coast!ands shou!d +e p!aced with!arge set +ac*s from the sea defences to protect against f!ooding.

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%he strategy for achie"ing sustaina+!e operation and maintenance of the drainage and irrigationsystem wi!! emphasi-e that the new formed D@I Board wi!! ta*e the !ead in de"e!oping asimp!ified' twotier institutiona! structure' which wi!! +e financia!!y sustaina+!e.

1. oca! e"e!

=armers themse!"es wi!! determine the most appropriate institutiona! arrangement for managingthe secondary systems in their !oca!ity' whether through the eisting oca! &o"ernment

Authorities 6&As8 or through the 9ater sers3 Associations 69As8.

6a8 9ater sers3 Associations

%he Board wi!! support and encourage the formation of associations of farmers responsi+!e forthe operation and maintenance of secondary systems. <nce fu!!y operationa!' these 9As wi!! +e se!ffinancing' se!fregu!ating' and se!fgo"erning and wi!! assume fu!! contro! o"er thesecondary system in their !oca!ities. %he Board wi!! a!so propose a !egis!ati"e framewor* withinwhich the 9As wi!! operate. It is epected that each 9A wi!! e!ect an eecuti"e committeethat wi!! +e responsi+!e to regiona! and nationa! farmers3 organisations. %his committee wi!!manage the daytoday operation of the 9A and maintain accounts and records of their

acti"ities.

6+8 oca! &o"ernment Authorities

9here farmers are satisfied with the current institutiona! arrangement' the Board wi!! supportand strengthen the capacity of the &As to administer the operation and maintenance ofsecondary systems +y pro"iding training' ad"ice and support.





9ater users' whether through 9As or &As wi!! +ear in fu!! the costs of the operation andmaintenance of secondary systems. >ates set and co!!ected +y the 9A or &A wi!! e"entua!!yco"er a!! costs associated with the secondary system. In addition' farmers wi!! pay rates to co"ercosts for the operation and maintenance of primary irrigation cana!s' and to contri+ute to theoperation and maintenance of conser"ancies.

A/DA and the $ast Ban* $sse2ui+o ha"e +een identified as suita+!e areas to carry out pi!ot programmes. In these areas the Board wi!! test the "ia+i!ity of 9As and de"e!op the capacity to promote 9As e!sewhere in the country. 9here &As continue to ta*e the responsi+i!ity forsecondary system operation and maintenance' the Board wi!! set up a support programme thatwi!! focus on identifying the main organisationa!' financia! and attitudina! factors impinging onthe efficient and effecti"e management of the secondary systems. %hese issues wi!! +e identifiedthrough sur"eys of se!ected &As stressing maimum feed+ac* from farmers. %echnica!assistance and supp!ies wi!! +e pro"ided to the &As in such areas as accounting' +oo**eeping'rate setting' and co!!ection and management of physica! operations.

%he Board wi!! p!ay an important ro!e in esta+!ishing standards for operation and maintenance'imp!ementation and monitoring of the acti"ities of the !oca! !e"e! entities' and ensuring that thesecondary system functions satisfactori!y' in an en"ironmenta!!y sound manner.

(. Nationa! e"e! 6the Drainage and Irrigation Board8

6a8 Administration

%he new 9ater Board wi!! assist the &o"ernment in de"e!oping po!icies' p!anning' coordinating'appro"ing and regu!ating a!! pu+!ic irrigation' drainage and f!ood contro! proects and districts. Ita!so wi!! ensure comp!iance with nationa! po!icies and norms through monitoring and

super"ision of construction' operation and maintenance acti"ities in the regions.

%he Board wi!! emp!oy its own manageria! and technica! staff to meet its responsi+i!ities. A corestaff wi!! +e emp!oyed immediate!y to he!p in carrying out functions under the Board3s current!ega! mandate' and to eecute the pi!ot programmes as a +asis for imp!ementing new po!icies.

6+8 #rimary system operation and maintenance

%he Board wi!! de"e!op the appropriate institutiona! arrangement for the p!anning' design'eecution' and monitoring of physica! wor*s. %he Board a!so wi!! ensure that any sucharrangement wi!! +e:

6i8 Accounta+!e: management must +e transparent and accounta+!e to system c!ients and&o"ernment.

6ii8 In !ine with nationa! standards the Board wi!! c!ose!y super"ise and monitor a!! wor*s toensure conformity to nationa! standards.



6iii8 >epresentati"e mem+ers of &As' 9As' conser"ancy +oards' and those in"o!"ed withother aspects of water resource management wi!! +e represented in the decisionma*ing process.

6c8 Drafting of new !egis!ation

%he Board wi!! immediate!y commence the preparation of new !egis!ation for the drainage andirrigation sector. In doing so' the Board wi!! re"iew eisting !egis!ation' study c!ose!y the !ega!imp!ications of this Directi"e and the eperiences of the pi!ot programmes and' with the inistryof Agricu!ture' propose changes in the eisting !ega! framewor*.

?. Strategy for Impro"ing and $panding the $isting D@I System

%he fo!!owing ta+!e shows the proposed p!an for reha+i!itating impro"ing and etending physica!wor*s. Besides the medium and !ong term wor*s identified in this ta+!e' onstream proects andemergency wor*s need to +e comp!eted as soon as possi+!e.

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%he strategy for the ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice wi!! !ead to the upgrading of eisting stationsand the wor*ing en"ironment' inc!uding impro"ed communication !in*s to data co!!ectioncenters and automation of stations' p!us the recruitment of 2ua!ified staff. %o achie"e this goa!the fo!!owing steps wi!! +e ta*en:

>eacti"ation of the stations necessary for the design networ* to impro"e forecastingcapa+i!ities.

Impro"ement of the staff3s s*i!!s through seminars' scho!arships' and intheo+ training.

De"e!oping research capa+i!ities and other re!ated s*i!!s.

a. =inancing

%he ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice shou!d +e an autonomous +ody' ha"ing the a+i!ity to:

Approach donor agencies 6internationa! and nationa!8 direct!y.

=i wages and sa!aries.

Determine prices to +e charged for information to offset ependitures of the Ser"ice.

=i a percentage of the +udget from a!! nationa! de"e!opment proects that usehydrometeoro!ogica! information.





It wi!! +egin to !e"y charges on users such as airport authorities that to date ha"e +een recei"ingthese ser"ices free.

+. Institutiona! po!icies

Impro"e the co!!ection/dissemination of hydrometeoro!ogica! information through training andrecruitment of 2ua!ified staff.

Introduce monitoring of ocean parameters re!ating to contro! management.

A precise !ega! framewor* for the operation of the entity re!ating to data co!!ection'information' and monitoring.

c. em+ership

%he ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice shou!d +e a permanent mem+er in the water +oards and re!ated

agencies.

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-&' !ecomme,ded #eg)slat)/e Cha,ges

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A' Sea De+e,ces

In 155( the Sea Defences Act was enacted' repea!ing the Sea Defences Act of 15;;. owe"er'this most recent !egis!ation re2uires modification' as fo!!ows:

1. Short %erm

a. %he !ega! +asis for the specia! !e"ies on imports and property shou!d +e esta+!ished' a!ong withthe structure and functions of the trust account for these funds in the Centra! Ban*.

+. %he #roect $ecution nit shou!d +e merged with the $mergency >eha+i!itation #rogramme.

c. %he eecuting agency shou!d +e an autonomous Shore-one anagement nit.

d. %he head of the proposed Shore-one anagement nit shou!d +e responsi+!e for a!! sea andri"er defence wor*s.

e. %he terms of reference of the #$ shou!d +e re"ised to inc!ude maintenance' training' etc.







f. %he +oundaries of the sea defences shou!d +e etended from )0 to (00 feet.

(. edium %erm

a. %he sea defence !aws shou!d +e modified.

+. %he areas of responsi+i!ity for sea and ri"er defences shou!d +e etended to inc!ude the entirecoast' ri"ers' and streams.

c. %he de"e!opment of housing areas North of the pu+!ic road shou!d +e restricted in popu!atedareas.

d. An emergency committee shou!d +e esta+!ished for disaster preparedness for sea and ri"erdefences.

?. ong %erm

It is foreseen that in the !ong term the three su+sectors' name!y drainage and irrigation' sea andri"er defence' and hydrometeoro!ogy' wou!d merge to form the F=!ood Contro! and 9ateranagement nit.F

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%he new !egis!ation to +e proposed wi!! em+ody the fo!!owing:

1. A system of financing that ma*es the distinction +etween pri"ate and pu+!ic e!ements of theser"ices pro"ided +y D@I and ensures the financia! sustaina+i!ity of the D@I system.

(. New institutiona! arrangements' inc!uding the !egis!ati"e framewor* for the recognition andoperation of 9As' regiona! entities and' at the nationa! !e"e!' the possi+!e merge of the SeaDefences and D@I administration.

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A Ca+inet decision esta+!ished the ydrometeoro!ogica! Ser"ice in 157). In its operationa!mandate there are no !egis!ati"e directi"es to contro! and regu!ate data co!!ection anddissemination acti"ities. Areas occupied +y this Department shou!d not +e distur+ed. A!so' node"e!opmenta! acti"ities shou!d +e a!!owed to disrupt the co!!ection of data.







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-&&' %rel)m),ar &,/estme,t %rogram

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A' Sea De+e,ces

%he &o"ernment of &uyana has +een funding the maintenance and reha+i!itation of sea defenceswor*s annua!!y from its own resources. %he IDA' CDB' IDB' and $$C ha"e pro"ided funds forthe reha+i!itation of critica! sections of sea defences.

1. Identification in"entory of critica! sea and ri"er defence areas

a. Critica! areas

%he areas a!ong the coast that wou!d +e treated as critica! are as fo!!ows: $sse2ui+o coast +etween Supenaam and arias De!ight' 9a*enaam' eguan' $ast Ban* $sse2ui+o' $ast and9est coast Demerara Be! Air/on Chosi on the 9est coast of Ber+ice and No. ; to N<. ;?"i!!ages on the Corentyne coast.

+. Costs of wor*s

%he approimate cost to maintain and reha+i!itate sea defence wor*s o"er the short term wou!d +e a+out &H1')00 mi!!ion annua!!y. <"er the medium term it is en"isaged that it wou!d +eapproimate!y &H1'000 mi!!ion annua!!y' and for the !ong term' approimate!y &H)00 mi!!ionannua!!y' a!! estimated at 155) prices.

(. #ropose financing for a sea and ri"er defence programme "ia a donor agency

%he InterAmerican De"e!opment Ban* has proposed a )year p!an to ena+!e the &o"ernment tocarry out a Shore-one anagement #rogramme of approimate!y SH() mi!!ion' and $$C isa!so proposing an additiona! sum of approimate!y SH(( mi!!ion for reha+i!itation of seadefences.

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%a+!e 401 presents a detai!ed in"estment programme for the area of drainage and irrigation.









%a+!e 401

#roposed In"estment #rogramme for Drainage and Irrigation

ear

1 ( ? 4 ) 7 ; 5 10 1( 14 17 1; (0

>egion (

Ituri+isi Conser"ancy wor*s

Capoey%apa*una Conser"ancywor*s

Dawa #ump station

>e+ui!d o!d seas!uices

Somerset/Ber*sCo-ier

eguan Is!and

9a*enaam Is!and

>egion ?

Boerasirie Conser"ancy

Sa!emu+u +ac*!ands

u+uarina +ac*!ands

>e+ui!d o!d seas!uices

,reedenoop/a Ea!ouise

Cana!s #o!der Secondary D@Iwor*s

#otosiamuni

>egion 4

$ast Demerara cons. dam @structures

Craif>e!ief

Ann3s &ro"eancaster

>e+ui!d o!d sea s!uices

ahaicae!ena

Cane &ro"e

1 ( ? 4 ) 7 ; 5 10 1( 14 17 1; (0

Buton=riendship



%riumphBeter"erwagting

&o!en &ro"e,ictoria

=acade drain &o!den&r./os2uito a!!

>egion )

ahaiconyA+ary >ice De".Scheme

#ar*A+ary

=acade drain @ s!uice #!antersa!!/=arm

>egion 7

Comp!ete reha+. B!ac* Bush#o!der

B!oc* III Area 6!ots )(48

anara+isi Catt!e #asture

Cra+wood Cree*o!eon Cree* etension

$ast Ban* Ber+ice area

ots 1()' $.C. Ber+ice

B!ac* Bush front!ands

aor D@I proects:

Dredge and en!arge %oraniCana!

De". A+aryBer+ice secondaryD@I

ahaicony water contro! proect

ahaica water contro! proect

Cane water contro! proect

Boerasirie/amuni/Bonasi*acons.

ogg Is!and

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