Warschauer Ware 2008

8/2/2019 Warschauer Ware 2008

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An edited version of this chapter was published as

Warschauer, M., & Ware, M. (2008). Learning, change, and power: Competing

discourses of technology and literacy. In J. Coiro, M., Knobel, C. Lankshear, & D. J.Leu (Eds.)Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 215-240). New York:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.


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215

Chapter 8Learning, Change, and Power:

Comptn Fm of Tcnoloy nd Ltcy

Mark WarsChauer

University o Caliornia, Irvine

Paige Ware

Southern Methodist Uni versity

A Gg Lk (2004) xp, gg w cm w mg.E w ccp mwk, m-wk p w c gcc. T w tcnoloy ltcy g c c b m m w. H-c, c b w b c p-b x, p m c cc . c w wm b pm w g cg, p-gpc c x b cg cmp mg mk-g, c x, cc ( A. Lk & Fb,

1999). p gwg g w, w, c w ppc- m mg. W w c p, cg mpcmpc pcc, c p b cx, pp, (A. Lk & Fb, 1999; Nw L Gp, 1996). T ppc- cgz mgc w g c c k pcc g wg, b k,kwg, b cmpx w gg mkgmg m mp x mbc c (, .g., B, T, &Tk, 2002; T Lc P, 2002; z & Wc,2000; Wc, 2003b).

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216 Wc W

cp, w c w p bw cg c cmm m, w m cg gw g m. W w xm m cmm c -

g cg c w b g, cg, pw. g m, mp pc g c z m g wg. T cg m-wk xm w c mg c w bc m cmmc c-g (T). F, pw mwk c p cc cg c cmc q. W c c mwk, w w c gg xmp - w c c p kg b c pc pgm. W cc b cg ppc mpc

mwk cg g b mkg cmm- c c cg., cmpx w c

cgc c, bc w pp w mm mwk. T c w c. N-, w b c c cg gw mk c mg ccc c- c c c ccp. B zg mb w-gg g, c mwk, m q w mwk, w m p pm -

cp c mg c c g p-b p cfc mg g, cg, pwmwk, b w w wk c cp.

Learning Framework: Raising Test Scores

T w p g mwk cc w w c-g cgg c, b w w cg cc g g, w cm c mpm g g c z g wg (

Tb 8.1). Fm ppc, cmp mp wm c m (wg , m, ), ccg (wg bckb pjc), g -m (wg pgmm c k p gg b- g-gg c).

W pm c cg pcc mb cm, g mwk pm b q . T b c g c b g c c p m wk . b kw c cg, c b (.g., 2001)

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 217

Bck (.g., 2000), c w c b mk w cg, , , w c. T , g, gwg b c w k g c cm c w w cg m c m bz c. A mj c wk Lc c Ec B g, wc Tcg Am b Jonl of Tcnoloy, Lnn, nd amnt,

b b c R, w c m mp - (R & Abm, 2004; R, Bb, & Hgg, 2004;R & P, 2002). c q , g xpm, q-xpm, c .

O b , cg m ,w c b Fc Wm (2004), w z m Pgmm Am (PA), - cm cc 2000 15-- 32p mgg . T PA m pc c g c, w cg 174,227 31 c.T c gc zb g c wg c w cmp m, c m bckg c c w c- . c, cc m c p c m q -m Wbpg, g c w. N c gc c w c cc cmp, w c cmp -p p w cm; m cmp c p c w gcm, w g g c.

Table 8.1 Learning Framework

Concul Fmwok: Lning

Cnl Mos: Mdi in

educion

Radio

Film

Television

Computer

educionl

tcnology

Blackboard

Overhead Projector

Sofware Programs

Digital Whiteboard

Computer Internet

Lning Sysm

Programmed

Instructional Kits

Language Lab

Computer Lab

rsniv Jounls: Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment

Ky Woks: Becker (2000); Cuban (2001); Fuchs and Woessmann (2004)

Filds of Inquiy: Educational technology, Educational administration, Educational

policy

tg of Ciiqu: Technology as a match or schools and learners

Gol: Raise test scores and improve student learning

rsc Ins: Technologys impact on learning and literacy outcomes

Q2

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218 Wc W

T mbg bc gg pb - p b wc mc cmp mg c- c . A c b ODw, R, Bb,

Tck- (2005) PA pm c m k w cmp w c m. T cg wg c 986 -g cw pc cmp m c. T w cc w cmp, b w m; g g pp w p c w b g wg c, xmp, w g mkg mmp c c pp m w gc w b g wg c. T g pw mm p pg, g mcc w

c PwP q c cm c( c Wc, Kb, & , 2004).B g , mb m pcc -

g p c pcc / cm pc w cg. m- 26 cmp pmm 19922002, Gbg, R, k (2004) cc wg pc m cb, , c cmp c-m cmp w pc--pp m, m gg m wg, pc wwk g g g q.

O b g cmp wg m pp z m pc--pp m. A b R P (2002), cmpgc wg pm b pc b cmp, p-c--pp b m wg b - g-g , pc w g kbg. A w-p (R, Hgg, & Hm, 2004) m pc w cmp-g b gmm pg cck, wc, g, Eg-c c b pc-pm c. -

, g w cmp-b wg m w b g m , c p c m m p cmp pp c, b -c, pc wg b (R &Abm, 2004).

F, m c k mpc wg pm pcp -- pp pgm ( wc cc pp g c m). T g cpgm , w mg m-c - , c b mpm g wg

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 219

c mpm (Wc, 2006). m ( pp m p c) pp pgm c pcp m c gc g g w-

g Eg gg (Gk & Dm, 2005), bpp b mg w c p xpc cg pp m (Jk, 2004).

T b m w-b cc c bc g ppc. T mk -w pp c --pcc (T, 1980), zg c (, .g., & L, 2002), x g m-gm (.g., Rc Lg, 2004), m wg - ( Wc & W, 2006) wc pp c g wg b b wc k c b g c

c mm px pm - k g, g, cqg m. T m cw b mx, w cm p p b cg mpm ( & L, 2002) b cc b mc c c g g m (P,H, OQ, p, & B, 2003).

T pmg g mwk c cg m-g p bw cg c. A c p m , m pc cg mk c b w ( c

L & Kz, 2000; Wc, 2003b). c, m c cxcg c w w g, c c c pc g cg, g, w w c, c bg w .

, cg w pc w b g mpc b pg p b c cg, cg g w (Lk & Kb, 2003; , 1995; Wc, 1998). T p-cb g w c b Dw (1938), w cmm,Pp g pggc c p-

pc g g m (p. 48). Tpcb k m w pw g m pc ( xmp z, Rg, & Dw, 1997;Wc, 1999).

F, mwk b c z m b b m cg-c c. Wc cg pgm p mp xg c m- b m, m. mc m , c, ppg w k 21 c c (g mm, kwg

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220 Wc W

pc, m cq, c.) g b g wg ( Wc, 2006). T m c -b c c, w, w c g

wg m b m g g m p.F, g wbck c, c c p, w g p m xmp c c-g cmp wg pp pc--pp.

T g w w g c wg xmp.

Example: What Counts as Learning and Literacy at an Elementary School?

A p gz -c cmp jm cb w-cm, w-pmg, m c (, 2004, 2005). T25 c w j cb wk g ,c m, pb m wpp w cc p b 15,000 cmm . Nw-pp bw c cmm (b pcc g, b bkb m, b p p) pp c (m , wg). T c pjcqck p cmp k, cg g pgp,kbg, w pcg, pg, wg, g .

, g, c pcp pbm w pjc,xpg, T c b c (E. , p cmmc-, Dcmb , 2004). T jm pjc, wc w bg pp c, w c mg cg, c cmm w w gg, pp- g . pcp , c wc c c c ccm p c w-pmg c.

Change Framework: A New Gutenberg Revolution

A cc p g mwk c b cn m-wk ( Tb 8.2 ). Fm ppc, w cg bgg m g, wg, cmmc, pc kwg, m wg b p-m pg p 15-c Ep.

Tw c mp ccz c cg. O , m cmmc cg (T) cmp p m m cmmc. , p m pc kwg, wg p-m gg, wg, p (H, 1991, p. 39). O

Q3

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 221

, m c mk cmp p m w cmm-c. g, pm p m pp cx bk c (, .g., c B, 1991).

T ccc T x (Wc, 1997, 1999): () w c w cmmc, bgg c bw x pc, c

mgg, c, -m; (b) w gb m m--m cmmc, w b b b; (c) w c px cg m ;() mcz mm c, kg g m g- cg, pcg, / g , mc, pgp,, m; () w x mm b -pb gb c g m c m pg, bg,pc, bg; () k pb m ww cc b, bgg m m m gb m b .

T cg mwk m c m (T, 1998), w c (.g., Nw L Gp,1996), gm (.g., G, 2003; k, m), cmp wg (.g., B, 1991; Lw, 1992). xp mb c j, c Compt nd Compoton; ko: a Jo-nl of rtoc, Tcnoloy, nd Pdoy; e-Lnn. K cc c Abg mmc, w c g mm c, Wc c Ec, w c gm c.

Table 8.2 Change Framework

Concul Fmwok: Cng

Cnl Mos: Mns of Communicion

Language

Writing

Print

ICT

Ci of Win Wod

Papyrus

Codex

Book

Screen

rsniv Jounls: Computers and Composition; Kairos: A Journal of Rhetoric,Technology, and Pedagogy; and E-Learning

Ky Woks: Bolter (1991); Gee (2003; 2004); Kress (2003); Landow (1992);

Murray (1998); New London Group (1996); Tuman (1992)

Filds of Inquiy: New literacy studies, Cultural and media studies, Game studies,

Computers and writing

tg of Ciiqu: Schools as conservative institutions

Gol: Make schooling relevant by valuing new literacies

rsc Ins: Relationship between home and school literacy practices

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222 Wc W

T bjc cq mwk c c -. Ac cg ppc k c k g cgz c w c cgg, bjcg -

m c m c (, .g., G, 2004).T k m m c, b c m cb pcg c m c w m p w pp cg c (, .g., H & cz,2002; Lmk, 1998).

Ec cg c pc wc w g m g. , xmp, 75% pp w cc (N/N Rg, 2004), m m bb cc (B,2005). Bb pc b mc g c,

c K (K, G, & g, 2003). c , w,Jp bcm cg cmp bb -g-p bb cc g pcg (B, 2005). xpc p mb bb (R, 2005), c- m bb b (B, 2005). Rp pm p wm m, wc mk m w m m ; w, xmp, w mgg pp -m mg ( & L, 2004). Nw m bcmg wp, b

gg c mpc mkb p. Bggg, xmp,b x w g, b w c w pg p-g p pc c ( c Wg, 2003).

Rc cg c m cg ppc b c pg ( c G, 2003, 2004). F,ltcy cmpg b w pp mk x cc mg, w w m b c . c, c pcc bg p c cg fx, w pwcc bw c-b m-b c. T, c-

g, c, c, c w bg cmp w.Fm ppc, cg mpc c, c, c,b mbm c c , , c c c . F, cg c m p w xp c , cg w cmm pcc c w c.

Rc pg mwk m q c --c c pcc, cg p c pcc pc c. T p mgc ppc

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 223

gp cmmc, w c xp c m w cgg w, b, , j, c , g

cm, x mm pc (,.g., Lm, 2000). c, c - xm cmp-g x mm (H & N,2005).

T cgg c pcc c c b c b cp. W gg g : mm, g cmmc, -gm-c c.

Multimedia. K (1998, 1999, 2003; K & Lw, 1996, 2001)

z xbk, wpp, g, cg b, cmp m-m xm gmm mm g. H p w gg g b qc m, mg g b pc, p, m. T pm cmb- m w m m ( pg c w m), c ( mc mc m) ( q w m mgwc cc g m c).

Tg -g mm g cmp -c cmm cg pjc , H N (2005)

m w cmbg mg x c cmb w pb c pc m. c g, mgc wk pp w ccmp, m bcm pg- mb w c mg c , cc xc mg mb. O g -g w-p b N (2006) gc-gg w c mz (ppg mc -p) g p (w p mg g pc k m cmpx mg ), w gg pg (.., p bw w w gg

w k k), mpc p (w g - g p mg w w g pc g cmbg m).

Digital communication. T pc g cmmc b, cpg m -m, c m,bg, mgg, x mgg. A B (1999) p , c b m m pc- m mb pp-b wg (.g., Wb , m -m) m pc- m pc (.g., c, mgg, x mgg),

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224 Wc W

w bg ccpg m p. Rc cc cm-mc c c g c m, w pp cc , gg cc

m b pk/w mp gg c.F xmp, Lm (2000, 2003, 2005, 2005b) c xgpc A mmg W W Wb, -m, mgg, c m m c H wk m k cc x mmg p xp g p wcg mxg c, mb, c w m, ccg pcc p c m c cpcc c.

m cg w c cmmc pcc

c g, Okb (2005, 2005b) c x- gpc g Jp mb p, pc xp c x mgg p-c c c m Jp g . T c m, xmp, fxb c xpc mb x mg (wg b c cc- kpg c, pg pc pc pp cmmc), w x mgg c mb cpc (b wg c m xcg w pp p), gm f m ( wc x mgg p mc-

c pc mg).

Video-gaming. G (2003) m bk, b x gm pg b -gm, p 36 g c p-cp mb -gm, b b m c.T c mc pcp (g w c mp g m), bm-p bc k pcp (gbc k cx b g pc -c w ggg b m), gp pcp(g g gp b g , g,

pcc g c, g, c). w-pbk, G (2004) cq m xpc cc bw p cmpx g c g -gm w m w c c . G wk w x b k (2005, m) gpc pcp p OGm ( kw ORG: p O R-PgGm). k xm g wg pcc k pc b w gm ( c, , ) gm ( c b, bg, c ), ccg

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 225

-gm c pmg g p -c, c, w-gg c c pp .

g c q c c m

cg mwk. T : W c c? w -gmg, xmp, w gm-b G pc N (Pc,2002), wc k c m gm - m w x ; cm (Lw, 2005), wc cp m gm pc m; (m, 2003), wc g -gm c wm, wp, cc, m, m, m, x, , c-, . T c mc -c, b m; c c kw c c b x x m (K, 2003)

w g.A c q : W c p? N , -c, pgm w c q b pm px W W Wb (Lw, 1992; , 1998); w wm g gm pg g cmp-c m (Pc, 2002).

A q : W c g? w c g b m cz c c, w w c g m w c bg p , mp m bgc g? T b g 21-c gp

pm g pcp w m c (K, 2003;Nw L Gp, 1996), wc mpz m cm b g ppc b g ccp.

F, q w --c c m mc c cmc cc. A b g p wg q w b c m b --c c w bg ggm wcmc c g m ( c xmp & Dc-A, 2004; W & Wc, p). A ck c - g pc w cg cmm gmz

ggm w --c c (H, 2003; H & cz,2002). c m, w, q pg gmc, cc, m, cmm, cmc cm. Tcmpx m wg xmp.

Example: What Kind of Change Occurs in Community Technology Projects?

O m pm m gw cg k pc , w, 2000, m c-g cp b pjc kw H---W p cmp cc c c ( x

Q5

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226 Wc W

Wc, 2003b). A - cmp kk w p p m Nw D. Tg cmp mw b, m p g w,

pc g jck b b cmpm. Kb w p. T cmp w cc g -p cc. A b p kp cmp cc g. N c c wp, w ccp c mnmlly nvv pdoy.

T c w fck g m w cck g bjc; c m; c, cp, p; c pgm c c W P; g ; cg bckg wpp. T pgm w b c g-m c k gbkg pjc m

w bg w b p cmp g. V- cmp kk, w, c mw .T cc w c m c. N pcc pgm b m b, pc c wp H, gg c kw. mp jck b, b m m w pwg w p pgm pg cmpc gm. T w gz m cmm gz pg pjc cc kkb w mm p, c, cb c. P

gb xp cc c cwk w -g bc p pg kk g mwk.

A c xmp c cmpx cm m cg wg pjc cc w-cm, pm Ac Am-c cmm cg. T G Hm pjc, cNm g (2002) p, w p g mwk c F Dm (, 1996; G & , 1987) wc c cm-m c p b c cg gmc b c Wz. T wk xp -

c cp c ww wk pcp wxcg g g cmmc. G Hmpjc p m b pcpg c, cg c- cmm p (b pc ) wp m cmc k c cmp p c pbm g, w p m w pp p c k w c p .

Dp b, cNm g (2002) gg m m pjc, cg m m p mg Ac Amc c w pgm;

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 227

bg -pcg mg m c c p; m m p, m wmw pp c m. F, bc g

xpc c, c g pcp c mb cwk p p .T H W G Hm xpm m

m cg mwk, , gg c. J bc c w m wb gg w xp m. B xmpgg gz m mg c, m, cm-m mmb, c cg m. Bc cg cg g pp cmc cm, c m k w wc

m w c c c mpc cc c.T , c m c mp c cmc xm cc x wc w c mpwg pp b cc g cx xg b mm w.

Power Framework: Interacted vs. Interacting

T pw mwk pp m cmpx ( Tb8.3). T ppc w cg mwk -c p fx, q w c pc-

c. c cg ppc, w, c cg- c pcc bg m c cg c, cmc, c pw (c g, c-qg, pg m q kwg, pg

Table 8.3 Power Framework

Concul Fmwok: pow

Cnl Mos: Indusil

rvoluion

Steam Power

Electricity

ICT

accss Nod

Phone Line

Internet

Licy Mod

Print literacy

Electronic literacies

rsniv Jounls Information Technology, Education, & Society

Ky Woks Castells (1996/2000); Cummins and Sayers (1995); Warschauer

(1999; 2003b)

Filds of Inquiy: Sociology, Economics, Development studies, Critical pedagogy

tg of Ciiqu: Unequal power structures

Gol: Empower youth through knowledge, access, and skill with socially

relevant tools

rsc Ins: Relationship o access and use to educational and social equity

Q6

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228 Wc W

pc mm) xg mg (c x mgg).

T pw mwk w g mwk

c cm c g mp. w c g pcz c , w, c w c,cmc, c, gc cx p cc c-, c, cmc cm, ppp c-g c .

T cgc p cc pg pw mwk. g m g (1996/2000,1997, 1998/2000), cc w cg pg c, c, cmc, w q cc cg c g cqc

cmm. H p wc m pg bcm ntctn, w k, kwg, c c c mm cc cmmc, w pg bcm ntctd, m p cc ppckg ccw m cgc bck m cp-m (1998/2000, p. 162). wk p m mp pw mwk, m cg bg pg g cpm, wg m pw 18c cc 19 c. m w p cgc q cc cmp cmpg -

cc cmpg p cc w, pcp m c.A m mp m c ppc T

cc c bg w p c 21 c. w, w c cc c w cg m-p w m pp w c .T mwk m w mp , , pm g c (, .g., B ., 2002; T LcP, 2002; z & Wc, 2000; Wc, 2003b), w c g mc pcc ( cg mwk

m ) b k, kwg, bmg mkg. A gp c xmg g c c g c Nw Lc Ppc (L, Kz, , &mmck, 2004), wc w -c c - c g wg w mc g gk g b cc cgg kw-g cm. W c w c c c xm pw, wk w c c p- g w 21-c k mg cm c- (, 2003; Lbb & Rkg, 1999; L & Kz, 2000) w

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 229

c m k pgg g w c w cg(Kcm, 2001; m & Lw, 2003).

A mj c pw mwk mm, w wk

gg, c, pw (.g., 1989) p mj wk wm. w c bk (Bw, mm, & , 2007; m-m & , 1995), mm cg p w cg b q pw cpm c. T gg tnfomtv pggcppc c p cg c pmb w c. Tg c m cc ppc, mk cg z w c pbm, p pb m c p pm , cb w p

xp c . mgc ppc w b ccg cm pw ppc, m c g ppc- cp c ( .g., Hg, 2003; . Lk,2003; ck, 2003; Nx, 2003; L, m; Lg, Vg, & Tm, m). T ppc w c g-g cp cmp c bc cc m gg m g gpc wk mx-m- ppc k cc mp c c m g pw . elctonc Ltc (1999),

xmp, Wc p c c g-c g w cg gg wg c m w b c, cmc, pc pwp cc w cg, gg xmp mpwg pcc w c gc .T bk gg w mgw mmg m pg cw pm cg-b c cc cmc c .

w , g m xpc cmp ppc, Wc

c w cg w- g-ccmc-(E) K12 c (2000; Wc ., 2004). T w wmg pg pggc cmp cbwg pjc wk pp c, ww-E ggg m pc k g-Ec g m -p cc . , c cx w-E cc g c , wkcc pp wk, g g-k m, cc m cmp cmpc c cg c g. m c ccz c

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230 Wc W

w cg c- g (Hg, 2002), wc cc b cgc cc ccz g c c cg (

Wc, 2003b x ). T cmp wk c-g .. c w cmpm b c , wcm w pw m p mpm c-g-b c gg pgm (Fg & Wc,2004), Egp (.g., Wc, 2003), w ( w, Wc, 2003b).

Aw W (2003) cmp c ppc,g w , c pgm, . T cmp xm w g E w cg m cx p -

m pc. T cb w Ac Amc L p wkg-c cmm Nw Yk wg pc pp w, pgmg p, gg cb-ww ppg, w g w q m . w, cw, f, c Amc p wg c p m cmp, cckg pcpg mg b bb, wg c w, cg mg Wb pp .

A b Aw, m q, xm b

c p w g E g m g g m cmp (Aw & B, 1999). T cm g pmc b m m cmp, pp g w c c c cp pp gm m cmp.

A cg c pw mwk g bcbw mm gc. q b gbcx p, pw cg, wc mpc c (Wc, 1999), c mg q. T m Ec (Aw & B, 1999, p. 1) wb

pm p -k c cc p c b f c m, g gg c k, c cp, c c b m/ w . T c b w c c -- pp pgm 12 c c (Wc, 2006). T pgm w cc g E c, b cm w m mx w E c,w c gg w b g cg c pp. c m Ec m mpm w cg c (k ., 1975;

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 231

Hw & G, 2003). T , w, c-cmb mm pmm (, , ppcwc mpz c pc; c Gx, 1983).

A m m, w k p xmp bm-p gc, wc c bckg mk c-g m w, c mcm. m mp xmp p m bb, x c q mmc w b xpc.

W w x c pjc w b p cg pw ppc.

Example: Power in the Classroom Through Critical Project-Based Work

O xmp k m Pjc F, -g m-b pj-

c p b w c w p pm p-gm mpzg cc pgg c cg ( xc Wc, 2003b). T pjc k pc V E-m c, c m wb p Ox,, cp L Ag. Ab 80% c L (cg xc, xc Amc, L Amc), mj m m mmb wkg b wb .

T pjc k c c wb (f, p) -. T c bg b mg w c q b

c wb wk. T c q g w q, g m mmb, -, gb p. T cc w, p, m Eg. Aw, c p pc gp m g (zg, xmp, wc p gp b pw p m). T gp w cp PwPp g w p q m pp -w, w w w g p p b c .

W gc c, c -m b c wb wk , g pk cm m m wkg gp. B m b m gpk, w -m b wb gw c c, xpg cc b wb wkg cc cq p (, m c, -p) c w m b b pc cmc cx wb . L, bg -mxcg w c P Rc w c-gwg

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232 Wc W

cmp b w c wk. A , pbc p, g p cmm mmb w mm pc c.

Tg p w cc Pjc F, g p b g pw mwk. cpjc k p c m cg, p m. T gg w c, c-c, , p, cg q pc c c c -b p. c pjc p pk k c mpc cmm. Tg gg g m m c, cg wk, gm gz, b, p-c, c p w, c g b

g b ccmc c p .O c xmp pw ppc cm k m p- - -g c pp c - w c p c w cg pg pp g c-g p g-k w mxm ( x W & Wc, p). Eqpp wpp, w g-p cc, mp w pgm, c, m c , m wm w- pk Eg, g g-ppp gm g w p m c-g .

T pgg g pc c gmk m cm. T ccp c c ppp c-g m. T cb gp -c wc p c w gg g c-g c g cb, m pjc p g c g m. c m pjc-b g c cm, wc c q w pm qc p. b gc m (c bk) w mm m (g xp )

c g-ppp c m, p k m c p-cg c, wc g pbc cp w wk w g p. F,g pc, g c w cg cmpxk bkg w kwg pckgg , mg -m m m , gg pgg m pc m pp c (K, 2003; Nw L- Gp, 1996). c mm pgg p cp- kwg, b , Lk (2003) gg, c wg b w g pcc.

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 233

, m cm bgg mk pggc cg fc p pw ppc. D. J. L, Kcm, D. D.L (1999) p mb m wc

c xp w w g cg xp c -g ( cc -m xcg p mm p- c pjc) wk w g c(c b, c c, c).A w Pjc F, p b cc pjc, b w pjc w mk mp m cm w m w b m cc ccz mc c-b c c.

Dp b c pjc-b g, c c-b ccm gz. Pjc F,

xmp, g c k c mc pjc w g ( c gpg wg), cgc mc pjc-b wk m cgg mp cgm m xbk. c pjc k cb m m p mg, .. c p m c cb pg, cmp c pc c Jp (g & Hb, 1999). F, cm c- w E c g p c, m w m c pjc-b c cc m w c xm m

(Wc ., 2004). Pjc F w p m b c c, bcm c p-cp m c. T p (. g, pcmmc, J x, 2005) b cc gg c- c m pjc b g c c. k c pjc w b mpmw .. c w b ppg cg c, mg w m pcb cp c cc p m pc c g.

T mmz, mwk g, cg, pw m

w cmc c k b c cg.T m c b g c g, c ppc m k cm w g c. , m m -g wk cg-m g b m b b c c cg ppc ( G,2003, 2004; K, 2003; Nw L Gp, 1996).

Tg w c c mwk b gm p-pc cg cg c, w pwmwk bg b b g g, w mmzg

Q8

Q9

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234 Wc W

m, w m, g gcg c c cx. T g g p-pc k mb c mpm -

g wg. T wk, g, c g pmc g-k xm, w g- wbck c cm c, pc c cmg p pm b 21-c c. T g cgppc ck - w c bg m, b mwk c mp cc w c m- m c. A pw mwk c cg cg bc b cx wkg xp b c, c, cmc pp.

Conclusion

Lc cgg pp b m ,g m c cmmc, pp gc, mp cm, m c cb, cg.Ec, w, w w cg m, m, , pgmm c k ggbp cm, g b bmp c pm (b, 1986). g-kg c ccb , m c k cg m c w m pm g m b z xm. A m m, g cg cc c cm, mwk cg c c g pw, w w cgmg b p c b c, c, cmcpp c gc .

T mpc cg g mp. A c m mc c --c c, Tc pp, w cg px, c-c, cmmc. Ec c -c c k pcc xp c w p c, xg p bg w gg k k g b cc c xpg kwg cm. , w, mp -w cg w c gm m c-b c. R, c m k w ckwg ppp m c cmpx c pcc bg c. Bg bw c m m - w c k c x pcc c c, Dc-A (2004) cmpg

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 235

m cm gmz p-p mc gcc wk x.

Tm pgg, k gg b mm c-

g (Bw ., 2007; mm & , 1995) b cw c p p pc c gg g c, mm pjc-b g, xmp m-c c wkg w g pp mg pgm ( xmp W & Wc, p). Am, pc w mbc cg -c 21 c, m b wg k b -mccm pcb z , w cc-m xp m pm.

F c c cg c q

c mg ppc. Rc ccgwk w c c bg cm k -g b cc g g ( , 2003;L ., 2004), wk gg cmmm p pm (Kcm, 2001) ccppc c g-k g gm. Lg-c, q- c c c w c b , b mg c q g c b b w pw mwk cgz mp, g cxz, cgg m c w kwg cm. Egpc

q wk, , c p c b p cg-g m T c, wkpc, m, . cq c w, w p, c cb c g cgg c, g, , b w bm kg b cc ppc k cc c cmc q pw mwk.

mm, xmg c c pg c- mp g mwk c cgw b g cx wc c pc k pc. mwk c c-

g w cp, b cg w wp cg c m m pppcc , pp , w.

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Q11

Q12

Q13

Q14

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mpg Fm Tcg Lc 239

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240 Wc W

Wc, . (1999). elctonc ltc: Ln, clt, nd pow n onln dc-ton. w, NJ: Lwc Ebm Ac.

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Commncton, nd Tcnoloy Pom, 3, 130.

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COMMENTS

Q2 A: T m cc 32 c.

Q3 A: P pp cmmc .

Q5 A: m b cpz?

Q6 A: Y m w c pcg w m m m.

Q8 A: P .

Q9 A: P pp cmmc .

Q10 A: P pb c.

Q11 P pp pg mb.

Q12 A: P .

Q13 P pp pg mb.

Q14 P pp pg mb.

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