Vol 4, 1, Cover Page

                     Title:  The  Music  Education  of  Early  Childhood  Majors:  All  God’s  Critters  Got  a  Place  in  the  Choir    Author(s):  Donna  Brink  Fox    Source:  Fox,  D.  B.  (1993,  Spring).  The  music  education  of  early  childhood  majors:  All  God’s  critters  got  a  place  in  the  choir.  The  Quarterly,  4(1),  pp.  27-­‐35.  (Reprinted  with  permission  in  Visions  of  Research  in  Music  Education,  16(4),  Autumn,  2010).  Retrieved  from  http://www-­usr.rider.edu/~vrme/    

It   is   with   pleasure   that   we   inaugurate   the   reprint   of   the   entire   seven   volumes   of   The  

Quarterly   Journal   of   Music   Teaching   and   Learning.     The   journal   began   in   1990   as   The  

Quarterly.     In   1992,  with   volume  3,   the  name   changed   to  The  Quarterly   Journal   of  Music  

Teaching  and  Learning  and  continued  until  1997.    The  journal  contained  articles  on  issues  

that  were  timely  when  they  appeared  and  are  now  important  for  their  historical  relevance.    

For   many   authors,   it   was   their   first   major   publication.     Visions   of   Research   in   Music  

Education  will  publish  facsimiles  of  each  issue  as  it  originally  appeared.    Each  article  will  be  

a  separate  pdf  file.    Jason  D.  Vodicka  has  accepted  my  invitation  to  serve  as  guest  editor  for  

the   reprint   project   and   will   compose   a   new   editorial   to   introduce   each   volume.     Chad  

Keilman  is  the  production  manager.    I  express  deepest  thanks  to  Richard  Colwell  for  granting  

VRME  permission  to  re-­publish  The  Quarterly  in  online  format.    He  has  graciously  prepared  

an  introduction  to  the  reprint  series.  

The Musical Education ofEarly Childhood Majors:All God's Critters Got A

Place In The ChoirBy Donna Brink. Fox

Eastman School of Music

The role of music in contributing tothe general development of theyoung child has been described by

many who write about pre-school education. An exami-nation of books on early child-hood curricula indicates thatmost authors include music asan essential element of youngchildren's educational experi-ence. The expressed values ofmusical experience include theenhancement of the capacityfor self-expression, the pro-motion of the ability to listenintelligently, the developmentof social skills, and the intro-duction to cultural traditions(Greenberg, 1976, p. 7).

A recent content analysis ofover 200 of these textbookswritten between 1887 and1982 found that 70 percent ofthe books mentioned "pro-motes self-expression andcreative pleasure," and 67percent included "fostersmotor and rhythmic develop-ment" as reasons for teaching music to youngchildren (Draper &Gayle, 1987, p. 197). Aronoff

(1988) comments from her experienced per-spective that "traditionally, singing, panto-miming of the words, and rhythm bands (set

orchestrations or grand ca-cophonies!) have been in-cluded in daily preschoolmusic activities. Capitalizingon rhythmic organization asan aid to memory, manyteachers use songs to teachthe word content-bodyparts, arithmetic, social stud-ies, and language acquisitionin general" (p. 18).

In spite of this apparentconsensus, observation ofthe musical experiences ac-tually being provided foryoung children reveals agreat diversity of activities,goals, and quality of in-struction. A major task ofteaching music to youngchildren should be to pro-vide developmentally ap-propriate experiencesclosely related to activitiesin their world, giving them

ample time and space to experiment withand explore all types of sounds-to listen toand interpret sounds with their bodies, voice,and instruments. Music time at school couldoccur whenever there is a chance for musicto enhance learning. While it is importantthat music is a discipline in its own right, it ismost meaningfully taught to young children

A major task ofteaching music toyoung children

should be to pro-vide appropriate

experiencesclosely related toactivities in their

world, givingthem ample timeand space to ex-

periment with andexplore all types

of sounds ...

Donna Brink Fox is Associate Professor at theEastman School of Music in Rochester, NY.Her research interests include music in earlychildhood and the influences on musical de-velopment.

Volume IV; Number 1 27

as an integral part of all activities in the edu-cational program. Many teachers, however,include music only as a large-group activity,during which all children participate in someprearranged musical experience directed bythe teacher. In this setting, music often be-comes an isolated event which takes placeout of context with the rest of the classroomactivities.

Who Should Teach Music toYoung Children?

In order to accomplish this integrated ap-proach to music in the lives of young chil-dren, the question immediately arises: "Whowill provide these experiences?" The answermust be the preschool teacher. A music spe-cialist can have only infrequent contact withany particular group of children and can pro-vide only a series of separated activities, rel-egating music to that isolated spot in the cur-riculum. A second problem concerning mu-sic educators is that few, if any, have trainingin music education for young children. Over20 years ago, the Tanglewood Symposiummade these recommendations about musiceducation and young children:

Music has played a less significant role than itshould in the lives of children, aged 3through 8...We recommend that the MENC,recognizing the unrealized potentials of edu-cation in general and particularly of music inthe lives of children from the ages of 3 to8... apprize college and university music de-partments of the necessity to work closelywith experts in early childhood education toprepare music education students to teachmusic to 3- to 8-year-old children. (Reilly,1969, p. 41)

Unfortunately, these recommendationshave largely gone unheeded. Most collegeand university schools of music have notonly ignored "music in early childhood" top-ics for the music education major but havealso not provided courses and preparation inmusic for the early childhood majors.

Given the renewed emphasis on early child-hood music education, one of the importantareas from MENC, however, it seems timelythat we discuss the musical preparation ofthese teachers and care givers. We are nowaware that the important years from birth toage 7 are being increasingly organized by

adults who are not themselves the parents ofthe children they care for. And if music is tobe offered as part of the daily instructionalprogram within schools, day-care centers,and home-based child care environments,the vast numbers of children involved makeit clear that it cannot always be a music spe-cialist who prepares for these experiences.

Although we have also known for sometime that it is these caregivers who providethe musical models for many young children,we know little of the specifics of the musicprograms within these early childhood set-tings. One of the original projects of theEarly Childhood Special Interest ResearchGroup (SRIG) was to determine the status ofmusic in preschool programs around thecountry, and from 1980 to 1982 one of thetask forces conducted a needs assessment ofteachers responsible for music instruction inearly childhood centers. McDonald pre-sented a preliminary report at the SRIG meet-ing in Miami in 1980 and later reported moredetails of the responses, generally identifyinga minimal level of musical content and cur-riculum in the preschool settings (McDonald,1984). In a more recent study, a survey oflicensed day-care centers in Ohio, Golden(1990) documented that classroom teacherswere primarily responsible for conductingthe music experiences in over 75 percent ofthe responding centers. These teachers de-termined the frequency of involvement, de-signed and organized the music activities,and offered instruction in the regular class-room (Golden, 1990, p. 15).

What Do Teachers Need toKnow?

Is it really possible that we can expectthese teachers to teach music-but evenmore demanding, to teach musically? Canthese teachers be adequately prepared topresent appropriate musical experiences?Doreen Bridges, a distinguished music edu-cator from Sydney, Australia, warns that "lim-ited time allotment and inappropriate coursescannot give musically inexperienced teachersthe skills and confidence necessary to imple-ment effective musical activities for young chil-dren" (p. 44). What level of undergraduateeducation should include this preparation? Or,

28 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning

from another perspective, will only bachelors-prepared teachers be included? Andress ques-tions whether we are ready to offer tonondegreed care givers the appropriate train-ing, advice, and counsel as they design theirmusic programs (1989, p. 23). What shouldthe care giver be able to do in order to presentmusical activities in the classroom?

An effort was made in 1973 to develop anew professional category called the Child De-velopment Associate (CDA) in order to assurethe qualitative staffing of child care programs.The Office of Child Development (OCD) ofthe u.s. Department of Health, Education, andWelfare initiated the idea in 1971 by funding afeasibility study for training persons to workwith 3- to 5-year-olds. The same year, OCDformed a task force of experts in early child-hood education and child development; theydefined six competency areas considered basicfor a CDA and necessary to a sound develop-mental program for young children. In theyears since its inception, the number of CDAshas reached the thousands.

Music was included as one of the six areasof skills and knowledge in the initial guide-lines. Figure 1 indicates the musical compe-tency statements of the task force.

These early statements do not adequatelyindicate specific behaviors that will equip earlychildhood educators to conduct an effectivemusic program. or are current publicationsmuch help in defining these. In the McDonaldand Simon text (1989), brief suggestions forteacher training are included in numerousplaces in the book. The specific section thataddress the competencies of the teacher islisted under the social environment.

How Can Research Inform OurPractice?

Few research studies have examined theissue of teacher training, competency, androle in working in music with preschoolers.Cassidy (1990) found that elementary educa-tion majors who were assigned to teach in aday-care center with children ages 4 to 6were able to include more music in their

4.01 To be able to set up this interest center4.02 Identify the various musical families4.03 Be able to perform simple musical tunes on the flutophone and autoharp4.04 Identify different learning outcomes from each learning activity in the music center

The concept of the music area will be defined by consultants:A. Lectures

1. Explanations and examples of the musical families, e.g. woodwinds, string, percussion2. Uses of the autoharp and flutophone3. Uses of records and record player

BOOKS: (This was a current music series)RECORDS: Hap Palmer's Series

B. workshops1. Making inexpensive instruments, e.g. drums-oatmeal box; banjo-box and rubber

bands; maracas-a can and some beansC. Field Trips

1. Broadway musical shows-New York City, NY2. Art's Music Center-Montgomery, AL3. Tuskegee Institute High School Band Room-Tuskegee Institute, AL

D. Setting Up the Music Interest Center

From the Child Development Associate Set of Competencies for the Purpose of Upgrading the Qual-ity of Child Care and Early Childhood Education. ERlC o. ED 078, 964

Figure 1. Original Competencies Proposed for Childhood DevelopmentAssociates

Volume Iv, Number 1 29

teaching presentations and to structure les-sons that actively engaged the children inmusical behaviors: "[Mlusic methods classshould focus on developing repertoire andplanning lessons that maximize student en-gagement in music" (p. 172). Another recentstudy by Flowers and Codding (1990) thatinvolved early childhood majors and the useof graduate music education students asmentors found that the nonmajors were ableto improve their presentation skills and on-task time in teaching music lessons, as in theCassidy report.

In a study of the effectiveness of preschoolteachers with a limited musical backgroundin teaching music, Young (1973, 1975) con-cluded that the teacher's musical knowledgehad less affect on the children's improvementthan teacher traits such as determination, in-dustry, and willingness to take the initiative.Teachers who are relatively untrained andlack substantial musical ability can be taughthow to conduct an effective music programwith preschoolers and can produce signifi-cant improvement in the musical abilities ofchildren. These findings are similar to thosereported by Greenberg (1972, 1974), whofound that preschool teachers who have lim-ited musical background and apparently loweffectiveness, but who are nonetheless con-scientious and enthusiastic, can do as well inteaching music as teachers with a good musi-cal background and high classroom perfor-mance. Both Young and Greenberg notethat nonmusical factors can be as importantas musical factors in the teacher's ability tofoster musical growth in preschool children.In studies with Head Start teachers in Hawaiiand Texas, a major emphasis of the musicprogram was on a knowledge of the struc-ture of music rather than training the musicalskills of the preschool teacher (Steele &Pruitt, 1971). Cummings (1981) also foundthat teachers felt more successful with struc-tured musical activities than with more impro-visatory singing: "The more structured and fa-miliar activities were rated higher than the lessstructured and less familiar activities .. .Thechildren's response was a direct reflection ofthe leader's comfort" (pp. 118, 120).

Is the preschool teacher skilled enough toprovide these musical models for children's

development? Aronoff (1988) describes herperception of most early childhood class-room music performances thus: "The appro-priate tempo of the song is often ignored, theflow and accuracy of the melody is givenshort shrift. Unfortunately, this practice,more often than not, limits the experience ofthe child's physical as well as feelingful re-sponse to the music itself" (p. 18). AlthoughFlowers and Codding (990) reported thatteachers could learn the presentation skills tobe successful in teaching young children,their performance skills provided a poormodel for children to imitate:

In addition to "time spent in musical activity,"work needs to be done to ensure that musi-cianship is at an acceptable level. It was ob-served that much of the unaccompanied sing-ing performed by these undergraduatenonmusic majors was in an inappropriatelylow vocal range and that the key centersometimes shifted within a given song. Be-cause most music activity in preschools is ledby nonmusic specialists, strategies and re-sources for developing musical performancemust be made available to preschool person-nel (p, 14).

Organizing Instruction for EarlyChildhood Majors

The literature clearly indicates that the mu-sic curriculum at the preschool level must bequalitatively different from the curriculum inthe elementary music program. I have oftendescribed to my early childhood methodsclass (with just a hint of horror in my voice)how my first preschool teaching episodefailed for this exact reason. I had arrived atthe day-care center to present my concept-oriented music lesson, materials and strate-gies carefully sequenced on my lesson plan.But I couldn't even find a way to interest thechildren in what I had to present because Iknew nothing about their world, environ-ment, vocabulary, or learning styles.

Similarly, methods classes and workshopsfor teachers in each of these settings should bequalitatively different. While the content andstructure of the courses for elementary educa-tion majors have been supported morebroadly by publishers of textbooks for thesecourses, the guidelines for teacher preparationin music specifically for early childhood class-rooms have been slower to emerge in print.

30 The Quarterly Journal oj Music Teaching and Learning

McDonald and Simons (1989) make these sug-gestions for early childhood educators:

What makes a good music teacher? Musicalskills are necessary. Ability to sing tunefullyand easily is a skill that can be acquired bymost teachers. Instrumental skills, such asplaying the piano, guitar, or autoharp, add tothe effectiveness of music instruction. Teach-ers who like to dance or move to music anddo it comfortably and with pleasure bring thissecurity and pleasure to their students. Anunderstanding of musical concepts and the

ability to discern the appropriate "teachable"element in a child's song, rhyme, or recordedcomposition make for effective teaching ....Given all these skills, however, the really ef-fective early childhood music educator is theone who understands children as well as mu-sic (pp. 74-75).

In order to specify teaching skills for theeducator, it becomes necessary to delineatethe musical outcomes for the young child. Aknowledge of what preschoolers can andshould do musically will help determine what

Listener: An Awareness of How Sound is Heard1. Perceives differences in sounds2. Perceives multiple sounds3. Perceives relationship of sounds to each other4. Perceives sounds of various textures, timbres, densities, and intensities5. Is receptive to music of other styles, other cultures, and other media from those most

generally known

Performer: An Awareness of How Sound Is Made1. Can perform a repertoire of songs appropriate for the preschool-age child with stable

pitch, pleasing tone, and rhythmic accuracy2. Engages in free and creative movement as well as more structured movement forms3. Demonstrates proper playing techniques for classroom instruments4. Provides an accompaniment for a rote song on a chording instrument

Composer/Improvisor: An Awareness of How Sound Is Arranged1. Experiments with simple improvisation on a chosen instrument and in physical move-

ment2. Is capable of writing in simple form musical ideas that can be fully notated by a music

specialist3. Encourages children in their creative efforts in sound exploration and structuring4. Maintains a climate for creativity in the classroom where each child's contribution is

accepted with interest and respect

Facilitator: An Awareness of the Application of Skills and Knowledge to Musical Encoun-ters in the Classroom

1. Acquires a familiarity with available song collections and recorded material for pre-school age children

2. Uses appropriate methods and techniques in presenting new songsa. by voiceb. by recording

3. Encourages and allows time for children to explore the appropriate uses and diversemethods of playing classroom instruments

4. Provides opportunities for group musical experiences when appropriate5. Structures music "lessons" of appropriate length for preschool children6. Provides opportunities for individual participation in musical experiences when appro-

priate7. Includes music of a variety of styles and cultures

Figure 2. Musical Roles of the Early Childhood Educator. Categories derived fromMENC Teacher Education in Music (1972) and Virginia Curriculum Guide

Volume IV, Number 1 31

Early Ch. Ed.4.294.494.072.832.744.50

3.413.713.73

Mean Rating 0-5)Majors Mus. Ed. Majors

5.004.50

4.004.803.655.004.50

4.334.08

Table1. Attitudes About Music and Music Teaching

Statement

Music is a necessary part of my lifeI enjoy singing along with radio/TVI enjoy singingSing in front of childrenTeaching a new song isMy attitude toward music isRate private lessonsRate school musicAttitude toward music teacher(Taken from Hair and Smith, 1990,p. 25)

skills and knowledge an early childhood edu-cator should possess in order to facilitate themusical development of young learners. TheMusic Educators National Conference haslisted, in the document entitled School MusicProgram Description and Standards, a numberof appropriate musical behaviors as a startingpoint of reference (see Figure 2). For my ownwork in organizing the preparation of earlychildhood majors, I identified the desired be-haviors for children in the areas of singing,listening, playing, and movement, which Ithen used as a guideline for skill developmenton the part of the teachers.

Attitudes About Teaching MusicBeyond the skills and knowledge, how-

ever, it is often accepted that the teacher'sinterest in music and feelings of confidencewith music will affect the issue of whether ornot music is a natural part of the preschoolclassroom (Austin, 1974). Andress (1986)cautions music educators who might be pre-senting workshops to preschool teachers:

The classroom teacher has long suspectedthat many of the activitiespresented in earlychildhood workshops don't work. Thegames were fun for adults, but when used inthe classroom proved bewildering to childreneither due to complicated instructions, socialimplication of the play, or wordiness of thesongs. The greater sorrow is that dedicatedclassroom teachers often blamed their ownmusical inadequacies for the lack of success0986, p. 37).

What do we know about preschoolteacher's attitudes about music and aboutteaching music? How confident do they feelabout presenting lessons? A recent study byHair and Smith (1990) surveyed early child-hood education majors and music educationmajors and reported that "all students in-volved in this study had strong positive atti-tudes toward music, enjoyed singing alongwith songs on the radio and television, andacknowledged the importance of music intheir lives. Music students were only slightlymore positive in their ratings than educationmajors" (p. 25), (See Table 1 for a portion ofthe responses from this report). The earlychildhood majors responding to these state-ments expressed the greatest concern abouttheir skills in singing in front of children andin teaching a new song.

Developing the Musical Disposi-tions of Early Childhood Majors

Dispositions are developed through themodeling of behavior from important othersand practicing the behaviors actually of inter-est. It is important for young children thatthey have teachers who can be musical mod-els for the growth of children's interest inand commitment to music. A teacher whodisplays these musical behaviors will be ableto create in young children the disposition tobe skillful music makers, to be attentive lis-teners, and to be expressive movers.

What are some of the musical roles that

32 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning

LISTENINGPitch:

1. Hear that sounds are relatively high or low2. Hear that tones in a melody move up or

down or repeat3. Hear that a melody may be accompanied

Duration:4. Hear that sounds or silences are relatively

long or short5. Aurally identify beat, metrical accent, and

rhythm pattern6. Become aware that silence is an important

part of the organization of soundsVolume:

7. Hear that sounds are relatively loud or soft8. Hear that changes in dynamics may occur

quickly or slowlyTimbre:

9. Control individual instruments to produceloud and soft sounds

10. Develop skills in playing gradually louderor softer when creating own music or performing accompaniments

Expressive Controls:11. Develop the ability to hear and identify

music that moves relatively fast or slow12. Develop the ability to hear tones that are

smooth and connected (legato) versus de-tached and separated (staccato)

Structure:13. Develop the ability to hear that music is

organized by contrast and repetition

SINGINGPitch:

1. Able to sing in response to short melodicdictation

2. Exhibits understanding of melodic move-ment by singing simple tonal patterns

Duration:3. Increase in ability to control and sustain

vocal sounds4. Demonstrate understanding of rhythm pat-

terns through vocal performance (rhythmicspeech)

Volume:5. Increase ability to control and utilize

dynamics for expressive vocal purposesTimbre:

6. Uses voice with varying timbres to expresscontrasts in moods of songs

Expressive Controls:7. Develop the ability to sing music that is

relatively fast or slow

Structure:8. Identify and sing patterns and phrases that

are alike or different

PLAYINGPitch:

1. Grow in ability to use individual instrumentsto produce high and low sounds

Duration:2. Produce a variety of short/long sounds on

the same instrumentVolume:

3. Control individual instruments to produceloud and soft sounds

4. Respond appropriately with dynamic changeswhich reflect the intent of the music

5. Be able to produce a variety of loud andsoft body sounds

Timbre:6. Produce a variety of sounds on the same

instrument7. Select an appropriate timbre when playing

Expressive Controls:8. Be able to play music that moves relatively

fast or slowStructure:

9. Demonstrate increasing ability to play simplephrases and patterns (rhythmic and me-lodic)

MOVINGPitch:

1. Use movement to illustrate high and low2. Use large body movements to illustrate

upward and downward direction of pitch3. Use hand movements to demonstrate pitch

awareness when singingDuration:

4. Respond with appropriate quality and move-ment to long/short sounds

Volume:5. Become aware that the body can produce a

variety of loud and soft soundsTimbre:

6. Respond to timbre of sound with appropri-ate quality of movement

Expressive Controls:7. Be able to move to music that is fast and slow8. Learn to control stopping and starting move-

mentsStructure:

9. Respond through movement to the overallcharacter or mood of the composition

10. Use appropriate movement to demonstraterepetition and contrast

Figure 3. Musical Behaviors Proposed for Early Childhood Majors

Volume TV, Number 1 33

teachers might play in early childhood class-rooms? This listing is adapted from the 1972edition of TeacherEducation in Music fromMENC (see Figure 3 for detailed listing):

• As a listener, the teacher has an awarenessof how sound is heard;• as a performer, an awareness of howsound is made;• as a composer/improviser, an awareness ofhow sound is arranged; and• as a facilitator, an awareness of the applica-tion of skills and knowledge to musical en-counters in the classroom.

These areas can be used in organizing in-structional courses and/or workshop sessionsfor early childhood educators and caregivers.Teachers need to gain facility in producingand expressing sounds as well as facility inpresenting musical material to children.

Early childhood educators can provide mu-sical experiences that are developmentallyappropriate for preschool children if theteachers have a basic understanding of thestructure of music, a variety of experiences inmusical performance, and a knowledge ofmaterials and repertoire suitable for the musi-cal development of the children. The twonecessary ingredients for musical develop-ment described by Zimmerman (1971) arefirst, the child with the potential to respond,and second, the opportunity to hear musicand participate in musical activities.

It should be our responsibility as collegeinstructors to apply the same model in thepreparation of these teachers. We have thefirst component, preservice teachers with thepotential to respond, and we must providethe second: the opportunity for these teach-ers to hear music and to participate directlyin musical activities. Whether or not youngteachers make the decision to provide musi-cal opportunities for the children in theirclassrooms may be a direct result of theirpositive experiences with music in ourclasses, where they have had the chance tobe active learners, to learn from others, andto celebrate the differences they brought tothe experience. Each early childhood educa-tor is different, and comes to us with 20 ormore years of personal attitudes and feelingsabout music-positive, negative, or some-where in between-but the atmosphere inthe methods class can do much to redirect

34

the focus into positive channels for the goodof the children with whom the teachers willinteract.

All God's critters got a place in the choir,Some sing low, some sing higher,

Some sing out loud on the telephone wire,And some just clap their hands, or paws,

Or anything they got now.-Bill Staines

This delightful folk song, "All God's CrittersGot a Place in the Choir," describes the won-derful musical results that occur when eachparticipant's contribution is valued as a partof the musical community. This same atti-tude should be dominant in our teacherpreparation courses for early childhood ma-jors. If our students can learn to value theirown musical roles in working with youngchildren, and if we can learn to value themusical contribution they are making tothese youngest members of society, the po-tential for enriching the musical lives ofAmerica's children is unlimited.

ReferencesAlvarez,B.]. (981) Preschool music education

and research on the musical development ofpreschool children: 1900 to 1980. Doctoraldissertation, Universityof Michigan.

Andress, B. (989) Music for every stage. MusicEducators journal, 76(2),22-27.

Andress, B. (986) Toward an integrated devel-opmental theory for early childhood musiceducation. Council for Research in MusicEducation, 86, 10-17.

Aronoff,F. (988) Howard Gardner's theory ofmultiple intelligences. International journalof Music Education, 12, 18-22.

Austin,V. D. (1974). Strikinga balance betweenparticipation and perfection: How theteacher's attitude affects early childhood edu-cation. Music Educators journal, 60 0), 32-35.

Bridges, D. A. (989) Effectivemusic lessons foryoung children: Some problems and contra-clictions. International journal of Music Edu-cation, 14, 44-47.

Cassidy,J. w. (990) Effectof intensity trainingon preservice teachers' instruction accuracyand delivery effectiveness. journal of Re-search in Music Education, 38 (3), 164-174.

Cummings, D. Y. (981) Music materials forthree- and four-year-olds in the day-care set-ting. Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State Uni-versity.

The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning

Dietrich, H. (August, 1990). Training of early mu-sic educators. Paper presented at the meet-ing of the Early Childhood Commission, Inter-national Society for Music Education, Lahti,Finland.

Flowers, P. ]., & Codding, P. A. (1990) Teacheron-task, instructional time, and music activityin preschool music lessons: Graduate/under-graduate mentors hip in teacher training.Contributions to Music Education 17, 67-80.

Golden, K. M. (March, 1990) An examination ofthe uses of music in selected licensed pre-schools in the state of Ohio. Paper presentedat the biennial meeting of the Music Educa-tors National Conference, Washington, DC.

Greenberg, M. (1976) Research in music in earlychildhood education: A survey with recom-mendations. Council for Research in MusicEducation, 45,1-20.

Greenberg, M. (974). The development andevaluation of a preschool music curriculumfor preschool and Head-Start children. Psy-chology of Music, 20), 34-38.

Greenberg, M. (1972). A preliminary report ofthe effectiveness of a preschool music cur-riculum with preschool Head Start children.Council for Research in Music Education, 29,13-16.

Griffin, 1. (1968) Using music with Head Startchildren. Bethesda, MD: ERIC DocumentReproduction Service, ED 022 543.

Hair, H. r., & Smith, D. S. (March, 1990) Develop-ment of a profile of the music education train-ing and attitudes of early childhood educationmajors and music education majors at the Uni-versity of Georgia, 1987-1988. Paper pre-sented at the biennial meeting of the MusicEducators National Conference, Washington,DC.

McDonald, D. T., & Simon, G. M. (1989) Musicalgrowth and development: Birth through six.New York: Schirmer.

McDonald, D. T. (984). The creative arts in pre-school education. Newsletter of the EarlyChildhood Special Interest Group, 6, 2-3.

Reilly, M. 1. (1969). Preschool teachers need mu-sic. Music Educators journai, 55(8), 40-42.

Schmidt-Karner, G. (August, 1990) Children learnto play an instrument at an early age-HOWshould their teachers be taught to instructthem- Paper presented at the meeting of theEarly Childhood Corrunission, InternationalSociety for Music Education, Lahti, Finland.

Steele, A. 1., & Pruitt, H. (1971) Music by HeadStart teachers for the educationally disadvan-taged. American Music Teacher, 20 (6), 29-20,37.

Sundin, B. (1979). Music in preschool teachertraining. Council for Research in Music Edu-cation,59,107-111.

Wood, D. (August, 1990) Training early child-hood music educators. Video presented atthe meeting of the Early Childhood Commis-sion, International Society for Music Educa-tion, Lahti, Finland.

Young, W. T. (1975) Efficacy of a self-help pro-gram in music for disadvantaged preschools.journal of Research in Music Education, 23(2),99-108.

Young, W. T. (1973). Music and the disadvan-taged: A teaching learning project with HeadStart teachers and children. Bethesda, MD:ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED110, 165.

Zimmerman, M. P. (1971) Musical characteristicsof children. Reston, VA; Music EducatorsNational Conference. ~

Sewanee Music FestivalJune 26 - August 1, 1993

University of the SouthSewanee, Tennessee

Now in its 37th season, the Sewanee Music Festival offers instrumentaltraining for students from junior high through college and beyond. Allmembers participate in an orchestra and chamber ensembles, studyprivately, practice daily, and attend classes such as theory, composition,or conducting. Rehearsals, classes, concerts, special events, andreacreation round out each day. For more information, contact theDirector, Sewanee Music Festival, 735 University Avenue, Sewanee,Tennessee 37375; phone (615) 598-1225 or 5881.

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