TURN TO SOLAR, Greetings from TEAM SAURYA ENERTECH 2/18/2013 1
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TURN TO SOLAR,
Greetings from TEAM
SAURYA ENERTECH
2/18/2013 1
Technical Session-Components & Technology
2/18/2013 2
•Solar Panels- the essential component that changes light into electricity •Inverters - the component that transforms DC into AC. Stand Alone Inverters - for off grid situations •Charge Controllers - controls the energy flow and protects your battery •Solar Batteries - "tolerant" batteries that survive frequent charging and discharging •Grid- Electrical network for transportation of electricity from production sites to users. •Solar insolation data- solar energy data on energy received at a certain area at different times of the year. •Net-metering – metering in which consumption as well as generation of electricity can be taken into account •kiloWatt-hour- Unit of electricity
PV Terminology
2/18/2013 3
4
Grid Tied Solar System components
Solar Panel PCU: Grid Connect Inverter & Controls
11KV/33KV Grid
Power evacuation Transformer & controls
System Block Diagram Data Logger and Monitor
Array of Solar Panel
String connector and
DC safety unit
DC to AC Inverter &
Power conditioning unit
DC
DC
AC AC
Power Evacuation
Transformer and
Switchgear panel
Synchronize and
Transmit power to 11kV
or 33kV Electrical Grid
sub-station
AC
Electric Power
Data logger to monitor
Power generation
Information
2/18/2013
PV Modules
2/18/2013 5
Part 1: Learning Objectives
• Learn how a PV cell produces electricity from sunlight
• Discuss the 4 basic types of solar energy producing technologies
• Understand the effects of cell temperature and solar insolation on PV performance
• Gain understanding of module specification
• Identify the various parts of a module
2/18/2013 6
Solar Cells and the PV Effect • Usually produced with Solar grade silicon
• Doping agents create positive and negative regions
• P/N junction results in 0.5 volts per cell
• Sunlight knocks available electrons loose
• Wire grid provides a path to direct current
2/18/2013 7
Inside a PV Cell
2/18/2013 8
The Cell, The Module and The Array
2/18/2013 9
Available Cell Technologies • Single-crystal or Mono-crystalline Silicon
• Polycrystalline or Multi-crystalline Silicon
• Thin film
– Amorphous silicon
– Cadmium Telluride
– CIGS
– Organic
• CSP
2/18/2013 10
Monocrystalline Silicon Modules
• Most efficient commercially available module (15%-20%)
• Expensive to produce
• Circular (square-round) cell creates wasted space on module
2/18/2013 11
Polycrystalline Silicon Modules
• Less expensive to make than single crystalline modules
• Cells slightly less efficient than a single crystalline (14% - 16%)
• Square shape cells fit into module efficiently using the entire space
2/18/2013 12
Amorphous Thin Film
• Most inexpensive technology to produce
• Metal grid replaced with transparent oxides
• Efficiency = 6 – 9 %
• Can be deposited on flexible substrates
• Less susceptible to shading problems
• Better performance in low light conditions that with crystalline modules
2/18/2013 13
Concentrated Solar Power
Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors to
focus a large area of sunlight onto a small area. Electrical power is
produced when the concentrated light is directed onto photovoltaic
surfaces or used to heat a transfer fluid for a conventional power
plant.
Concentrated solar power systems are divided into
• Concentrated solar thermal (CST)
• Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV)
• Concentrating photovoltaics and thermal (CPT)
14 2/18/2013
Example of CSP- Tower Technology
15 2/18/2013
How do you choose best Technology for your system
Most Important Criteria
• Money- Thin Film
• Land- Crystalline/multicrystalline Silicon
• Novel applications- CdTe, CIGS
• R&D- Gratzel, organic
2/18/2013 16
Selecting the Correct Module
• Practical Criteria
– Size
– Voltage
– Availability
– Warranty
– Mounting Characteristics
– Cost (per watt)
2/18/2013 17
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve
2/18/2013 18
Voltage Terminology
• Nominal Voltage – Ex. A PV panel that is sized to charge a 12 V battery, but reads
higher than 12 V)
• Maximum Power Voltage (Vmax / Vmp) – Ex. A PV panel with a 12 V nominal voltage will read 17V-18V
under MPPT conditions)
• Open Circuit Voltage (Voc ) – This is seen in the early morning, late evening, and while testing
the module)
• Standard Test Conditions (STC) – 25 º C (77 º) cell temperature and 1000 W/m2 insolation
2/18/2013 19
Effects of Temperature
• As the PV cell temperature increases above 25º C, the module Vmp decreases by approximately 0.5% per degree C
2/18/2013 20
Effects of Shading/Low Insolation
• As insolation decreases amperage decreases while voltage remains roughly constant
2/18/2013 21
Understanding Electrical Characteristics
2/18/2013 22
Electricity Terminology
• Electricity = Flowing electrons
• Differences in electrical potential create electron flow
• Loads harness the kinetic energy of these flowing electrons to do work
• Flowing water is a good conceptual tool for understanding
2/18/2013 23
Electricity Terminology
• Voltage (E or V)
– Unit of electromotive force
– Can be thought of as electrical pressure
• Amps (I or A)
– Rate of electron flow
– Electrical current
– 1 Amp = 1 coulomb/second = 6.3 x 1018 electrons/second
2/18/2013 24
Electricity Terminology
• Resistance (R or Ω)
– The opposition of a material to the flow of an electrical current
– Depends on
• Material
• Cross sectional area
• Length
• Temperature
2/18/2013 25
Electricity Terminology
• Watt (W) are a measure of Power
– Unit rate of electrical energy
• Amps x Volts = Watts
• 1 Kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watts
2/18/2013 26
Electricity Terminology
• Watt-hour (Wh) is a measure of energy
– Unit quantity of electrical energy (consumption and production)
– Watts x hours = Watt-hours
• 1 Kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 1000 Wh
2/18/2013 27
Power and Energy Calculation
• Draw a PV array composed of four 50 watt modules.
• What size is the system in watts ?
2/18/2013 28
Electricity Terminology
• Amp-hour (Ah)
– Quantity of electron flow
– Used for battery sizing
– Amps x hours = Amp-hours
– Amp-hours x Volts = Watt-hours
• A 200 Ah Battery delivering 1A will last _____ hours
• 200 Ah Battery delivering10 A will last _____ hours
• 100 Ah Battery x 12 V = _____ Wh
2/18/2013 29
Types of Electrical Current
• DC = Direct Current
– PV panels produce DC
– Batteries store DC
• AC = Alternating Current
– Utility power
– Most consumer appliances use AC
2/18/2013 30
Meters and Testing
Clamp on meter Digital multimeter
• Never test battery current using a multimeter!
2/18/2013 31
PV Wiring
2/18/2013 32
Part 2: Learning Objectives
• List the characteristics of series circuits and parallel circuits
• Understand wiring of modules and batteries
• Describe 12V, 24V, and 48V designs
2/18/2013 33
Series Connections
• Loads/sources wired in series
– VOLTAGES ARE ADDITIVE
– CURRENT IS EQUAL
– One interconnection wire is used between two components (negative connects with positive)
– Combined modules make series string
– Leave the series string from a terminal not used in the series connection
2/18/2013 34
• Loads/sources wired in parallel:
– VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT
– CURRENTS ARE ADDITIVE
– Two interconnection wires are used between two components (positive to positive and negative to negative)
– Leave off of either terminal
– Modules exiting to next
component can happen
at any parallel terminal
Parallel Connections
2/18/2013 35
Quiz Time
• If you have 4 12V / 3A panels in an array what would the power output be if that array were wired in series?
• What if it were wired in parallel?
• Is it possible to have a configuration that would produce 24 V / 6 A? Why?
• Some more problems?
2/18/2013 36
Dissimilar Modules in Series
• Voltage remains additive
– If module A is 30V / 6A and module B is 15V / 3A the resulting voltage will be?
• Current taken on the lowest value
– For modules A and B wired in series what would be the current level of the array?
2/18/2013 37
Dissimilar Modules in Parallel
• Amperage remains additive
– For the same modules A and B what would the current be?
• Voltage takes on the lower value.
– What would the voltage level of A and B wired in parallel be?
2/18/2013 38
Shading on Modules
• Depends on orientation of internal module circuitry relative to the orientation of the shading.
• SHADING can half
or even completely
eliminate the output
of a solar array!
2/18/2013 39
Wiring Introduction • PV installations must be in compliance with the National
Electrical Code (NEC) – Refer to NEC Article 690 (Solar Photovoltaic Systems) for detailed
electrical requirements
• Discussion points – Wire types, wire sizes
– Cables and conduit
– Voltage drops
– Disconnects
– Grounding
2/18/2013 40
Wire Types • Conductor material = copper (most common)
• Insulation material = thermoplastic (most common) – THHN: most commonly used is dry, indoor locations
– THW, THWN, and TW can be used indoors or for wet outdoor applications in conduit
– UF and USE are good for moist or underground applications
• Wire exposed to sunlight must be classed as sunlight resistant
2/18/2013 41
Color Coding of Wires
• Electrical wire insulation is color coded to designate its function and use
Alternating Current (AC) Wiring Direct Current (DC) Wiring
Color Application Color Application
Black Ungrounded Hot Red (not NEC req.) Positive
White Grounded
Conductor
White Negative or
Grounded
Conductor
Green or Bare Equipment
Ground
Green or Bare Equipment
Ground
Red or any
other color
Ungrounded Hot 2/18/2013 42
Cables and Conduit • Cable: two or more insulated conductors having an overall
covering – As with typical wire insulation, protective covering on cable is rated for
specific uses (resistance to moisture, UV light, heat, chemicals, or abrasion)
• Conduit: metal or plastic pipe that contains wires – PVC is a common conduit used
– Using too many wires or too large of wires in a given conduit size can cause overheating and also causes problems when “pulling” wire
2/18/2013 43
Wire Size
• Wire size selection based on two criteria: – Ampacity
– Voltage drop
• Ampacity: current carrying ability of a wire – The larger the wire, the greater its capacity to carry current
– Wire size given in terms of American Wire Gauge (AWG)
• The higher the gauge number, the smaller the wire
• Voltage drop: the loss of voltage due to a wire’s resistance and length – Function of wire gauge, length of wire, and current flow in the wire
2/18/2013 44
Safety Considerations
• Unsafe Wiring
– Splices outside the box
– Currents in grounding conductors
– Indoor rated cable used outdoors
– Single conductor cable exposed
– “Hot” fuses
• Disconnects
• Overcurrent Protection (Fuses & Breakers)
2/18/2013 45
Safety Equipment
• Disconnects – Allow electrical flow to be
physically severed (disconnected) to allow for safe servicing of equipment
• Overcurrent Protection – Protect an electrical circuit
from damage caused by overload or short circuit
• Fuses
• Circuit Breakers
2/18/2013 46
Grounding
• Limit voltages due to: – Lightning – Power line surges – Unintentional contact with higher voltage lines
• Provides a current path for surplus electricity to travel too (earth)
• Two types of grounding: – Equipment grounding (attach all exposed metal parts of PV system to
the grounding electrode) – System grounding (at one point attach ground to one current carrying
conductor) • DC side of system => Negative to ground • AC side of system => Neutral to ground
2/18/2013 47
Batteries
2/18/2013 48
Part 3: Learning Objectives
• Battery basics
• Battery functions
• Types of batteries
• Charging/discharging
• Depth of discharge
• Battery safety
2/18/2013 49
Batteries in Series and Parallel
• Series connections
– Builds voltage
• Parallel connections
– Builds amp-hour capacity
2/18/2013 50
Battery Basics
Battery
A device that stores electrical energy (chemical energy to
electrical energy and vice-versa)
Capacity
Amount of electrical energy the battery will contain
State of Charge (SOC)
Available battery capacity
Depth of Discharge (DOD)
Energy taken out of the battery
Efficiency
Energy out/Energy in (typically 80-85%)
The Terms:
2/18/2013 51
Functions of a Battery
Storage for the night
Storage during cloudy weather
Portable power
Surge for starting motors
**Due to the expense and inherit inefficiencies of batteries it is recommended that they only be used when absolutely necessary (i.e. in remote locations or as battery backup for grid-tied applications if power failures are common/lengthy)
2/18/2013 52
Batteries: The Details
Primary (single use)
Secondary (recharged)
Shallow Cycle (20% DOD)
Deep Cycle (50-80% DOD)
Types:
Unless lead-acid batteries are charged up to 100%, they will
loose capacity over time
Batteries should be equalized on a regular basis
Charging/Discharging:
2/18/2013 53
Battery Capacity
Amps x Hours = Amp-hours (Ah)
Capacity:
100 amps for 1 hour
1 amp for 100 hours
20 amps for 5 hours
Capacity changes with Discharge Rate
The higher the discharge rate the lower the capacity and vice versa
The higher the temperature the higher the percent of rated capacity
100 Amp-hours =
2/18/2013 54
Rate of Charge or Discharge
Rate = C/T
C = Battery’s rated capacity (Amp-hours)
T = The cycle time period (hours)
Maximum recommend charge/discharge rate
= C/3 to C/5
2/18/2013 55
Cycle Life vs. Depth of Discharge
Depth Of Discharge (DOD) %
# of Cycles
2/18/2013 56
Battery Safety
• Batteries are EXTREMELY DANGEROUS; handle with care!
– Keep batteries out of living space, and vent battery box to the outside
– Use a spill containment vessel
– Don’t mix batteries (different types or old with new)
– Always disconnect batteries, and make sure tools have insulated handles to prevent short circuiting
2/18/2013 57
Battery Wiring Considerations
• Battery wiring leads should leave the battery bank from opposite corners
– Ensures equal charging and discharging; prolongs battery life
• Make sure configuration of battery bank allows for proper connections to be easily made
2/18/2013 58
Controllers & Inverters
2/18/2013 59
Part 4: Learning Objectives
• Controller basics
• Controller features
• Inverter basics
• Specifying an inverter
2/18/2013 60
Controller Basics
• To protect batteries from being overcharged
Function:
Maximum Power Point
Tracking
– Tracks the peak
power point of the
array (can improve
power production by
20%)!!
Features:
2/18/2013 61
Additional Controller Features • Voltage Stepdown Controller: compensates for differing voltages
between array and batteries (ex. 48V array charging 12V battery)
– By using a higher voltage array, smaller wire can be used from the array to the batteries
• Temperature Compensation: adjusts the charging of batteries according to ambient temperature
2/18/2013 62
Other Controller Considerations • When specifying a controller you must consider:
– DC input and output voltage
– Input and output current
– Any optional features you need
• Controller redundancy: On a stand-alone system it might be desirable to have more then one controller per array in the event of a failure
2/18/2013 63
Inverter Basics
• An electronic device used to convert direct current (DC) electricity into alternating current (AC) electricity
Function:
Efficiency penalty
Complexity (read: a component which can fail)
Cost!!
Drawbacks:
2/18/2013 64
Specifying an Inverter
• What type of system are you designing? – Stand-alone – Stand-alone with back-up source (generator) – Grid-Tied (without batteries) – Grid-Tied (with battery back-up)
• Specifics: – AC Output (watts) – Input voltage (based on modules and wiring) – Output voltage (120V/240V residential) – Input current (based on modules and wiring) – Surge Capacity – Efficiency – Weather protection – Metering/programming
2/18/2013 65
Solar Site
2/18/2013 66
Part 5: Learning Objectives
• Understand azimuth and altitude
• Explain magnetic declination
• Describe proper orientation and tilt angle for solar collection
• Describe the concept of “solar window”
2/18/2013 67
Site Selection – Panel Direction
• Face south
• Correct for magnetic declination
2/18/2013 68
Orientation and Tilt Angle
2/18/2013 69
Sun Chart for 40 degrees N Latitude
2/18/2013 70
Site Selection – Tilt Angle
Year round tilt = latitude Winter + 15 lat. Summer – 15 lat.
Max performance is
achieved when panels
are perpendicular to the
sun’s rays
2/18/2013 71
Solar Access
• Optimum Solar Window 9 am – 3 pm
• Array should have NO SHADING in this window (or longer if possible)
2/18/2013 72
Solar Pathfinder
• An essential tool in finding a good site for solar is the Solar Pathfinder
• Provides daily, monthly, and yearly solar hours estimates
2/18/2013 73
DESIGN YOUR OWN PV SYSTEM
2/18/2013 74
Designing a PV System
1. Determine the load (energy, not power) • You should think of the load as being supplied by the
stored energy device, usually the battery, and of the photovoltaic system as a battery charger. Initial steps in the process include:
2. Calculating the battery size, if one is needed
3. Calculate the number of photovoltaic modules required
4. Assessing the need for any back-up energy of flexibility for load growth
2/18/2013 75
Determining Your Load • The appliances and devices (TV's, computers,
lights, water pumps etc.) that consume electrical power are called loads.
• Important : examine your power consumption and reduce your power needs as much as possible.
• Make a list of the appliances and/or loads you are going to run from your solar electric system.
• Find out how much power each item consumes while operating. – Most appliances have a label on the back which lists the
Wattage.
– Specification sheets, local appliance dealers, and the product manufacturers are other sources of information.
2/18/2013 76
Determining your Loads II
• Calculate your AC loads (and DC if necessary)
• List all AC loads, wattage and hours of use per week (Hrs/Wk).
• Multiply Watts by Hrs/Wk to get Watt-hours per week (WH/Wk).
• Add all the watt hours per week to determine AC Watt Hours Per Week.
• Divide by 1000 to get kW-hrs/week
2/18/2013 77
Determining the Batteries
• Decide how much storage you would like your battery bank to provide (you may need 0 if grid tied) – expressed as "days of autonomy" because it is based on the number
of days you expect your system to provide power without receiving an input charge from the solar panels or the grid.
• Also consider usage pattern and critical nature of your application.
• If you are installing a system for a remote hospital, you might want to consider a larger battery bank because your system must cover all emergencies.
• Alternatively, if you are adding a solar panel array as a supplement to a generator based system, your battery bank can be slightly undersized since the generator can be operated in needed for recharging.
2/18/2013 78
Batteries II
• Once you have determined your storage capacity, you are ready to consider the following key parameters:
– Amp hours, temperature multiplier, battery size and number
• To get Amp hours you need: 1. daily Amp hours
2. number of days of storage capacity ( typically 5 days no input )
– 1 x 2 = A-hrs needed – Note: For grid tied – inverter losses
2/18/2013 79
Temperature Multiplier
Temp oF 80 F 70 F 60 F 50 F 40 F 30 F 20 F
Temp oC
26.7 C
21.2 C
15.6 C
10.0 C
4.4 C
-1.1 C
-6.7 C
Multiplier
1.00
1.04
1.11
1.19
1.30
1.40
1.59
Select the closest multiplier for the average ambient winter
temperature your batteries will experience. 2/18/2013 80
Determining Battery Size
• Determine the discharge limit for the batteries ( between 0.2 - 0.8 )
– Deep-cycle lead acid batteries should never be completely discharged, an acceptable discharge average is 50% or a discharge limit of 0.5
• Divide A-hrs/week by discharge limit and multiply by “temperature multiplier”
• Then determine A-hrs of battery and # of batteries needed - Round off to the next highest number.
– This is the number of batteries wired in parallel needed.
2/18/2013 81
Total Number of Batteries Wired in Series
• Divide system voltage ( typically 12, 24 or 48 ) by battery voltage.
– This is the number of batteries wired in series needed.
• Multiply the number of batteries in parallel by the number in series –
• This is the total number of batteries needed.
2/18/2013 82
Determining the Number of PV Modules
• First find the Solar Irradiance in your area
• Irradiance is the amount of solar power striking a given area and is a measure of the intensity of the sunshine.
• PV engineers use units of Watts (or kiloWatts) per square meter (W/m2) for irradiance.
• For detailed Solar Radiation data available for your area in India, you can try metereology department: http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/
2/18/2013 83
How Much Solar Irradiance Do You Get?
2/18/2013 84
Solar Radiation • On any given day the solar radiation varies
continuously from sunup to sundown and depends on cloud cover, sun position and content and turbidity of the atmosphere.
• The maximum irradiance is available at solar noon which is defined as the midpoint, in time, between sunrise and sunset.
• Insolation (now commonly referred as irradiation) differs from irradiance because of the inclusion of time. Insolation is the amount of solar energy received on a given area over time measured in kilowatt-hours per square meter squared (kW-hrs/m2) - this value is equivalent to "peak sun hours".
2/18/2013 85
Peak Sun Hours • Peak sun hours is defined as
the equivalent number of hours per day, with solar irradiance equaling 1,000 W/m2, that gives the same energy received from sunrise to sundown.
• Peak sun hours only make sense because PV panel power output is rated with a radiation level of 1,000W/m2.
• Many tables of solar data are often presented as an average daily value of peak sun hours (kW-hrs/m2) for each month.
2/18/2013 86
Calculating Energy Output of a PV Array
• Determine total A-hrs/day and increase by 20% for battery losses then divide by “1 sun hours” to get total Amps needed for array
• Then divide your Amps by the Peak Amps produced by your solar module – You can determine peak amperage if you divide the
module's wattage by the peak power point voltage
• Determine the number of modules in each series string needed to supply necessary DC battery Voltage
• Then multiply the number (for A and for V) together to get the amount of power you need – P=IV [W]=[A]x[V]
2/18/2013 87
Charge Controller • Charge controllers are included in most PV
systems to protect the batteries from overcharge and/or excessive discharge.
• The minimum function of the controller is to disconnect the array when the battery is fully charged and keep the battery fully charged without damage.
• The charging routine is not the same for all batteries: a charge controller designed for lead-acid batteries should not be used to control NiCd batteries.
• Size by determining total Amp max for your array
2/18/2013 88
Wiring • Selecting the correct size and type of wire
will enhance the performance and reliability of your PV system.
• The size of the wire must be large enough to carry the maximum current expected without undue voltage losses.
• All wire has a certain amount of resistance to the flow of current.
• This resistance causes a drop in the voltage from the source to the load. Voltage drops cause inefficiencies, especially in low voltage systems ( 12V or less ).
• See wire size charts here: www.solarexpert.com/Photowiring.html
2/18/2013 89
Inverters
• For AC grid-tied systems you do not need a battery or charge controller if you do not need back up power –just the inverter.
• The Inverter changes the DC current stored in the batteries or directly from your PV into usable AC current. – To size increase the Watts
expected to be used by your AC loads running simultaneously by 20%
2/18/2013 90
Battery sizing:
1.) Daily load requirement: 8390 Wh
2.) We must select an operating voltage for our battery bank. Typical values are 12 or 24 V, but for loads of the size
of ours 24V systems are more efficient. Select battery operating voltage: 24V
3.) Daily battery charge replacement requirement: 8390 Wh ÷ 24V = 349.6 Ah/day
4.) Most PV batteries are lead-acid batteries which cannot be discharged below a certain minimum state of charge
(SOC, usually in the range of 15% for deep-cycle batteries to 50% for standard Pb-H2SO4 batteries). There will
therefore be a maximum allowable depth of discharge, and we must size the battery bank such that we do not
discharge the batteries below that. Assume for this example that we are using deep-cycle batteries. Maximum
allowable depth of discharge of battery: 85%
5.) Select number of days of autonomy: 5 days
6.) Calculate required battery storage capacity: 349.6 · 5 ÷ 0.85 = 2056.5 Ah
PV array sizing:
7.) Let average insolation =5 kWh/m2/day→ 5 hours of peak sunshine
8.) Required peak current rating of the array: 349.6 Ah ÷ 5 h = 69.9 A = 70 A
9.) Factor in a 10% derating factor for dust, mismatch and interconnect losses: 70 ÷ 0.9 = 77.8 A
10.) Our 24V battery bank will actually require 28V of charging voltage (characteristic of the battery), plus there
will be a 0.7V drop across the blocking diode. The required charging voltage is then 28.7V.
11.) Charging power requirement: 77.8 A · 28.7 V = 2232 W = 2.232 kW
12.) Assume that the operating temperature of the solar cells will be 60 oC, which is 35 oC above the standard
temperature at which cells are tested and rated. Also, solar cells lose about 0.5% of their efficiency for each 1oC
rise in temperature above this standard temperature. This means that we must account for approximately a 17.5%
loss in array output power, meaning that the actual array power requirement is:
2.232 kW ÷ (1 - 0.175) = 2.706 kW.
2/18/2013 91
Your solar house is ready
2/18/2013 92
Thank You
2/18/2013 93
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