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A surveyof colorchartsfor biologicaldescriptionsArthur O.
Tucker',Michael J. Maciarello' & Sharon S. Tucker2
Summary Tucker,A. O., Maciarello, M. J. & Tucker,S. S.: A
survey of color charts for biological descriptions. - Taxon40:
201-214. 1991. - ISSN 0040-0262. Color charts for biological
descriptions have been published since 1776. These have varied in
form to include bound volumes and fans with pigment samples or
color printing and have been used to describe a range of organisms
as specific as one genus to all natural history subjects. We
recommend the format of the second edition of the Royal
Horticultural Society Colour Chart (c. 1986) in conjunction with
the cross-reference for other color charts from the 1966
edition.
The human eye can distinguish about 10 million surface colors in
daylight (Kelly & Judd, 1976). However, the annotation of color
in biological descriptions is inherently difficult because of
differing perceptions and memories of hue, value, and chroma. The
language of color also varies by the system adopted: ACC, CIELAB
(Eurocolor), Chroma Cosmos 5000, Chromaton 707, Coloroid,
DIN-Farbenkarte,Farbenordnung Hickethier, Hesselgren, ISCC-NBS,
Munsell, Natural Color System, OSA-UCS, Ostwald, Plochere, Prase,
Ridgway, or Villalobos (Baumann, 1937; Billmeyer, 1985; Budde,
1953; Foss & al., 1944; Hesselgren, 1953; Middleton, 1949a, b;
Munsell Color Co., 1962; Nickerson, 1947, 1956; Ostwald, 1932;
Rosch, 1972; Villalobos-Dominguez & Villalobos, 1947).
Furthermore, color descriptions are even more difficult because of
the absence of a universally accepted color chart (Barnes, 1949;
Davis, 1956; Middleton, 1949a, b; Patek, 1969; Wyman, 1947). We
have surveyed the available color charts that were published for
biological descriptions (or utilized by biologists) in an effort to
locate the best and to define the practical parametersof the ideal
color chart that are additional to those cited by Huse & Kelly
(1984): "1) availability of a suitable color chart at a reasonable
cost and 2) a readily comprehended vocabulary of color names to
convey impressions of color to those who may not have ready access
to the color chart cited in a description". In evaluating these
color charts, daylight from the northern sky (no direct daylight)
should be used against a neutral gray background (Kelly & Judd,
1976; Huse & Kelly, 1984). We tried to avoid the evaluation of
color nomenclatural systems. The preference of one color
nomenclatural system over another in the past has been tinged with
some emotion and nationalistic pride. In the references cited
above, advocates of each system have claimed superiority over their
predecessors and a consensus is far beyond the scope of a survey
paper on format and practicality.Department of Agriculture and
Natural Resources, Delaware State College, Dover, DE 19901-2275,
U.S.A.2
Parallel Program, University of Delaware, Delaware Technical and
Community College, Dover, DE 19901, U.S.A.
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TAXON VOLUME 40
Harris (1776, 1781,1782) Moses Harris' An exposition of English
insects... includes 72 watercolors (9-12 x 13-26 mm), in a circle
of pure hues, tints, shades, and tones for descriptions of insects.
After over 200 years these watercolors still appear relatively
bright. This hardcover book includes text in English and French and
was later reprinted in a French edition (Harris, 1786). Syme
(1814,1821) Patrick Syme's Werner'snomenclature of colours was
published for use in zoology, botany, chemistry, mineralogy, and
morbid anatomy. The 1814 hardcover edition includes 13 charts with
108 color chips (12 x 9 to 12 x 12 mm), all with common names,
while the 1821hardcoveredition includes 13 charts with 110color
chips (10 x 10 mm), all with common names. This elaborates upon an
earlier system by Werner,a Scotch mineralogist. When available,
animal, vegetable, and mineral examples are given. Todaythese
pigmented mat chips show considerable aging and variation among
copies: blue chips are mottled, green chips have bled to the edge
of the chip, sulphur yellow is now light green, primrose yellow is
now cream, the black and white print on the facing pages has bled
onto the chips, and many colors have bled onto the facing pages.
Merimee (1815) J. F L. Merimee's supplement to C. F
Brisseau-Mirbel's Elemens de physiologie vegetale et de botanique
includes watercolors (6 x 7-11 mm) arranged in three color wheels
designed by M. Gregoire and two strips of grays (7 x 7 mm). After
175 years these watercolors still appear relatively bright. A total
of 83 colors, about one-quarter with common names and many with
Latin names, oriented to botanical descriptions are encompassed in
these cardboard-bound volumes. Sinclair (1825) George Sinclair's
Hortus ericaeus Woburnensisincludes an appendix and color wheel by
George Hayter.This color wheel includes 270 watercolors (2-16 x 7-9
mm), 22 with common names, for descriptions of heaths. After 165
years these watercolors still appear relatively bright. This
hardcoverbook also includes a list of 22 artist colors to
preparethe color wheel. Hay (1845, 1846) D. R. Hay's A
nomenclatureof colours... (1845, 1846) was published for use in the
arts, natural sciences, and manufacturing. This hardcover book
includes 240 triangular of color chips (3.9 on side), in 40 charts;
about 50 %o these chips have common names. Today these pigmented
mat chips are faded in the centers and darkened at the edges.
Ridgway (1886, 1912) Robert Ridgway's A nomenclature of colors for
naturalists... (1912) was primarily published for use by
ornithologists. This hardcoverbook includes 186 color chips (26 x 8
mm), all with common names, in 9 charts. Todaythese pigmented mat
chips show streaking by hand application and smearing from later
use; the colors show darkening
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and mottling, especially the oranges, browns, greens, blues, and
reds, with bleeding of colors onto the facing pages. Ridgway's
Color standards and color nomenclature (1912, but actually
published in 1913 according to Hamly, 1949b) was frequently cited
by ornithologists, mammalogists, and mycologists because of the
large number of colors encompassed. This hardcover book includes
1117color chips (25 x 12.5 mm), all with common names (although the
title page claims 1115colors), in 53 charts. Zimmer (1948) noted
that this was reissued c. 1937 and possibly c. 1940 with no
indication on the title page; these reissues were prepared without
Ridgway's attention and show deterioration today. Hamly (1949a) and
Illman & Hamly (1948) provided Munsell notations, but stated
that there was "no satisfactory way to describe those colors which
occupy positions in the color space between named chips, since the
spacing between the steps is quite variable".Smithe (1974) noted
"many new colors are added, and thirty-four former colors are
omitted or replaced. The addition of new colors does not cause any
confusion, but this cannot be said of the omissions"'Wyman (1947)
noted the absence of a sufficient number of reds and yellows for
horticultural purposes. Today these pigmented mat chips show
discoloration, especially the yellows and yellow-greens, and many
pigments have bled onto the facing page. Illman & Hamly (1948)
compared four copies of this edition and found considerable
variation among copies. Hamly (1949b) stated: "It is unfortunate
that Ridgway chose some pigments which fluoresce and are affected
by humidity, by abrasion, by offsetting, and by hue shift"
Costantin & Dufour (1891) M. J. Costantin & M. L. Dufour's
Nouvelleflore des champignonspour la determination facile de toutes
les especes de France utilized sporocarp and spore color in a
taxonomic key. This hardcoverbook includes, on one chart, 42 color
chips (14 x 5 mm), all with common names. After almost 100 years
these chips still appear relatively bright. Saccardo (1891) P. A.
Saccardo's Chromotaxia seu nomenclator colorum... was published for
general botanical and zoological taxa but was first used by
mycologists and was reprinted in 1894 and 1912 (Stafleu &
Cowan, 1983: 1034). This hardcover volume includes two charts with
50 color chips (30 x 19 mm), all with common names. Synonyms are
given in Latin, Italian, French, English, and German. Today it is
difficult to determine the precise original colors because of
variation of the pigmented mat colors between editions and changes
due to aging. Dade (1943, 1949) related 48 of Saccardo'sLatin color
names to Ridgway (1912), while Kuhner & Romagnesi (1953)
related 50 of them to Klincksieck & Vallette (1908) and Seguy
(1936). Mathews (1895) E Schuyler Mathews' A chart of correct
colors of flowers was printed as a one page supplement to the
American Florist for flower colors. This chart encompasses 36
colors (23 x 20 mm), all with common names. The half-tone mat chips
emphasize pinks and reds and appear mottled and pale today.
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TAXON VOLUME 40
Oberthur& Dauthenay (1905) Rene Oberthtir& Henri
Dauthenay's Repertoirede couleurs... was published for
horticultural subjects, especially composites. The 365 charts are
packed in two cardboard packets (vol. I: 1-182, vol. II: 183-356)
with the text volume (vol. III) of indices and directions sometimes
bound separately. The 365 charts have English, German, Spanish, and
Italian names cross-referredto Saccardo (1891), Mathews (1895), and
Warhurst(1899). A total of 1403 half-tone, semi-glossy to glossy
pigment chips (41 x 31 mm) is encompassed, including 19 silvers,
golds, and other metallics that have no counterpart in plant
colors. After 85 years the colors still appear relatively bright.
Although many, including Maerz & Paul (1950), noted the
"mysterious system upon which the colors are arranged", this later
became the model for the Royal Horticultural Society's color
charts. Klincksieck & Vallette(1908) Paul Klincksieck & Th.
Vallette'sCode des couleurs... was originally published for use by
naturalists, artists, and commercial companies. This hardcover
volume includes 720 color chips (25 x 20 mm), on 24 charts, and 24
common names. Today the pigmented mat chips show streaking from
hand application, and some colors, especially the yellows, have
darkened from the colors on the facing pages. McKelvey (1928) S. D.
McKelvey'sFour charts of selected colors conforming to Robert
Ridgway's color standards and color nomenclature are appended to
her monumental monograph The lilac. The four charts encompass 154
color chips (26 x 13 mm), all with common names. After 62 years
these chips still appear relatively bright. Lewis (1929) Thomas
Lewis published eleven semi-glossy half-tone colors (25 x 14 mm),
none with common names, to representvascular reactions of the human
skin with ten additional colors representing dilution by the basal
skin color. After 61 years these colors still appear relatively
bright. Maerz & Paul (1930, 1950) A. Maerz & M. Rea Paul's
A dictionary of color was published for general use but especially
textiles. This hardcover volume includes 56 charts with 7056
semi-glossy half-tone color chips (17-27 x 13-17mm), 23 % with
common names. A color name bibliography from 32 B.C. to 1928 A.D.
is provided with a polyglot table of color names in English,
French, Italian, Spanish, German, and Latin and dates of color
names. Cross-referencesto Ridgway (1912)and Oberthur& Dauthenay
(1905) are provided, as a good guide to using the charts and notes
on the color names. The blues and greens of the 1930 edition are
lighter than those in the 1950 edition, a yellow pigment has bled
onto the facing pages of the 1930 edition, and the purples of the
1930 edition are brighter and more intense. This was
cross-referredto Saccardo (1891), Ridgway (1912), and Oberthur
& Dauthenay (1905) by Snell & Dick (1957).
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Nicolas (1930, 1938) John Henri Nicolas' The rose manual..
includes four color charts with 36 color chips (189 x 32 mm), all
with common names. After 52-60 years these chips still appear
relatively bright. Crawshay(1930) Richard Crawshay's The spore
ornamentation of the russulas includes eight color chips (23 x 23
mm) on one chart indexed to Oberthiir and Dauthenay (1905). This
system was the first proposed specifically for Russula. Color E is
too dark and should be more similar to the "ocre pale" of Romagnesi
(1967). Schaeffer (1952) reproduced the faulty color printing,
which Pearson (1948) attempted to correct (Rayner, 1969). Seguy
(1936) E. Seguy's Code universel des couleurs was published for
general use. The paperback book has 48 color charts in a strapped
envelope with 720 color chips (26 x 21 mm), 36 % with common names.
The semi-glossy half-tone chips have non-uniform application of
color. Seven complementary colored cards with a hole are provided
for viewing each chip (red card with green chips, etc.). Synonyms
are provided for some common names in Latin, German, Spanish,
English, and Italian. Birren (1939, 1948) Faber Birren's The
American colorist... was published for garden clubs and
horticultural societies. This paperback book includes 552 glossy
half-tone color chips (13-27 x 13-27 mm) on twelve charts. After
48-51 years these chips still appear relatively bright. Judd &
Kelly (1939),Kelly & Judd (1955, 1976), Kelly (1964) Kenneth L.
Kelly & Deane B. Judd's works were published for general use
under the auspices of the National Bureau of Standards,the American
Pharmaceutical Association, and the Inter-Society Colour
Council-National Bureau of Standards (which consists of 20
societies of national scope and individual expert members). The
7500 color names are meant to be used with the Munsell system with
cross-references in the various editions to Ridgway (1912), Maerz
& Paul (1950), Dade (1943, 1949), and Wilson (1939, 1942).
Kelly & Judd also provide standard methods of sample
preparation and viewing. Kelly supplemented these color names with
an undated (1964 according to Anonymous, 1985) paper-bound
"centroidcolor chart" with 251 glossy pigment color chips (23 x 25
mm) on 18 charts (while 267 color names and spaces were printed on
these charts, only 251 centroid colors could be produced in glossy
paints). The names for these colors are abbreviatedbut later
provided by McKnight (1977), and additional information was
supplied by Kelly (1965). Despite the attempts of ISCC-NBS to
create a universal color standard, the British Mycological Society
Sub-committee on Colour stated that "it is too different from the
tradition of colour nomenclature already firmly established in
mycology to be acceptable..' (Rayner, 1970). The ISCC-NBS system
also designated boundaries between color-name blocks, sometimes an
arbitrary decision (Huse & Kelly, 1984), and borderline colors
can be difficult to describe. Kelly (1964) is not recommended for
horticultural subjects (Huse & Kelly,
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TAXON VOLUME 40
1984). Twenty years later (Anonymous, 1985) the colors of the
1964 edition were evaluated, and 27 were found to have shifted
color blocks. Wilson (1939, 1942) The Royal Horticultural Society
first proposed a color chart in 1909 (Anonymous, 1909). Robert E
Wilson's Horticultural colour chart was essentially identical to
the British Colour Council's Wilson colour charts (1938) but
oriented to horticultural taxa. These separate plates have 800
color chips (3 x 31 mm), 25 % with common names, arranged on 200
charts as two unbound booklets in cardboard holders. The
semi-glossy half-tone chips have the darker shades obtained by the
use of intense colored inks rather than by deepening with blacks,
so few equivalents can be given for these intense hues. After 48-51
years these chips still appear relatively bright. Useful
horticultural examples are provided when available. Synonyms in
Dutch, French, German, Italian, Latin, Spanish, and English are
provided with a history of the color name. Good directions for the
application of the colors are provided with a black viewer to aid
in matches. The British Colour Council (1938), Ridgway (1912),
Ostwald (1932), and Oberthur & Dauthenay (1905) are
cross-referred,while Munsell notations were later provided by
Nickerson (1957). Barnes (1949) noted that Wilson was often better
for describing mammal colors than either Ridgway (1912) or Maerz
& Paul (1930). New England Gladiolus Society (1932, 1944) The
New England Gladiolus Society Fischer color chart was published as
one page with 108 glossy half-tone color chips (11-16 x 9-43 mm),
with very abbreviatedcommon names. This chart was first published
in 1932 with instructions by Bibby (1935), and revised in 1944.
After 42-58 years the chips still appear relatively bright.
Villalobos-Dominguez& Villalobos (1947) C. Villalobos-Dominguez
& J. Villalobos' Atlas de los colores was published for general
use as a hardcover volume that includes 38 charts with 8056
(Smithe, 1974, claimed 7279 printed colors) color chips (9 x 9 mm),
most with common names. Each color chip has a 4 mm hole for ease of
comparison. The semi-glossy half-tone color chips are indexed to
Ridgway (1912). The annotation system was based upon a hue
acronym-lightness value-degree of chromaticity, but the "Villalobos
symbols primarily describe the position of a color on a color chart
rather than a specific measurement of color" (Smithe, 1974). After
43 years these chips appear relatively bright. American Dahlia
Society (1948, 1987) The Dahliadel pocket edition of the
horticulturalcolour chart... of 1948 encompasses 168 color chips
(30 x 13 mm), all with common names. The mat pigment color chips
are bound in a ring notebook and indexed to Ridgway (1912). After
42 years these chips appear relatively bright. The
Separationchartfor color classes of 1987 encompasses one chart with
20 glossy pigment color chips (22 x 16 mm), eleven with common
names. The use of this color chart was explained by Anonymous
(1987).
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Baumann (c. 1948) Baumann's Farbtonkarte.Atlas II was published
for use by botanists and zoologists. The cardboard holder includes
680 mat pigment color chips (9 x 19 mm), each chip with an 8 mm
diameter hole, on 24 charts and 24 common names. After almost 42
years these chips appear relatively bright. Cailleux &
Taylor(1952) A. Cailleux & G. Taylor'sCode expolaire was
published for use in agronomy, geology, geography, and soil
science. This paperback volume, bound in a plastic envelope,
includes 260 semi-glossy half-tone pigment chips (9 x 15 mm), every
four chips with a 9 mm diameter hole, on two color charts, all with
common names. After 38 years these chips appear relatively bright.
Munsell Color Co. (1952) The Munsell color chartsfor plant tissues
were preparedby the Munsell Color Co. in collaboration with S. A.
Wilde and G. K. Voigt as an aid in determining mineral deficiencies
and other adverse conditions reflected in leaves. This spiral-bound
notebook includes 321 mat pigment color chips (17 x 12 mm) on 15
color charts, none with common names. After 38 years these chips
appear relatively bright. Wanscher(1953a, 1953b) Johan Henrik
Wanscher's charts were published to describe flowers. The article
of 1953a includes three charts with 24 glossy half-tone color chips
(77 x 14 mm), 21 with common names. After 37 years these chips
appear relatively bright. Cross- references are provided for Judd
& Kelly (1939) and Wilson (1939, 1942). The paperback volume of
1953b includes 24 mat half-tone color chips (19 x 80 mm), all with
common names, on three charts, and a cross-referenceto Wilson
(1939, 1942). Lundstad (1958) provided Norwegian color names.
Bondartsev (1954) Apollinarii Semenovich Bondartsev's Shkala tsetov
[The color chart] includes 105 mat half-tone color chips (15 x 12
mm) on one chart in a paperback volume. After 36 years these chips
appear relatively bright. Palmer & Reilly (1956) Ralph S.
Palmer & E. M. Reilly's A concise color standard was published
for use by ornithologists. The volume encompasses one chart with 47
semi-glossy half-tone color chips (14 x 14-20 mm), all with common
names. After 34 years these chips appear relatively bright. This
was cross-referred to Villalobos-Dominguez & Villalobos (1947).
American Horticultural Council (1957) The Nickerson color fan...
was distributed by the American Horticultural Council (but
published by the Munsell Color Co.) to describe plants. It includes
280 color chips (45 x 19 mm), all with common names and numbers
indexed according to the Munsell system, on 40 pages bound as a
paperback fan in a paper case. After 33 years these chips appear
relatively bright.
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TAXON VOLUME 40
Biesalski (1957) Ernest Biesalski's Pflanzenfarbenatlas fur
Gartenbau... was published to describe cultivated garden flowers.
This includes 450 color chips (20 x 15 mm), with 30 common names,
on 30 pages in a ring binder. After 33 years these chips appear
relatively bright. A 6 mm hole is provided in the center of each
mat pigmented color chip. A horticultural/botanical example is
provided for each chip. Locquin (1957, 1975) Marcel Locquin's
Chromotaxia... was published in 1957 for use by mycologists and
pedologists. The six series of six compensating color filters
(Kodak Wratten of series CC) each encompasses 319 colors, all with
common names; these are enclosed in a cardboard holder. After 33
years these filters appear relatively bright. Names are provided in
English, French, German, and Latin. Criticisms were provided by
Illman (1958). Marcel Locquin's Guide des couleurs... was published
in 1975 for mycologists. This paperback volume includes 11 charts
with 1408 glossy half-tone colors chips (11 x 16 mm), 33 with
generic names. After 15 years these chips still appear relatively
bright. Paclt (1958) J. Paclt's Farbenbestimmungin der Biologie was
published for biologists. The hardcover volume has one page with 92
glossy half-tone color chips (20 x 21 mm), none with common names.
After 32 years these chips appear relatively bright.
Crossreferences are provided to the Munsell system, Wilson (1939,
1942), and Oberthur & Dauthenay (1905) with an extensive
reviewand bibliography. Kornerup& Wanscher(1961,1963, 1967a,
1967b, 1978a, 1978b) A. Kornerup & J. H. Wanscher's Methuen
handbook of colour, first published as Farver i farver, was
oriented to the professional designer, technologist, and art
enthusiast. The 1978b hardcovervolume includes 30 charts with 1266
glossy half-tone with common names. These half-tone color chips are
color chips (30 x 15 mm), 49 %o a series of fine dots and not as
uniform as pigmented chips. The etymology of common names is
provided. "Half-way" color references enable the user to visualize
and specify over 8000 other colors not illustrated. Munsell
equivalents are included. The directions for use, discussion of
color and color names, as well as lists of names of paint colors,
are good. A neutral grey finder with three holes is provided.
Palmer (1962) Ralph S. Palmer's Handbook of North American birds
includes one page with 48 glossy pigmented color chips (14 x 14-21
mm), all with common names. After 28 years these chips appear
relatively bright. This was cross-referredto Villalobos-Dominguez
& Villalobos (1947). A second printing appeared in 1976. Royal
Horticultural Society (1966, c. 1986) The R.H.S. colour chart was
published for horticultural taxa. The first edition has 808 with
common names, on 202 mostly mat pigment color chips (4 x 32 mm), 50
%o charts arranged as bound fans in a cardboard box. A few colors
in the red-purple and
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blue hues were printed by a half-tone screen process to secure
the requiredbrightness. Cross-references are provided for the
British Colour Council (1938), Wilson (1939, 1942), and American
Horticultural Council (1957). This was developed by a committee
composed of Kew Gardens, National Dahlia Society, Royal National
Rose Society, Royal Color Council, and the Royal Horticultural
Society meeting 26 times over one year. The directions for use are
very good. Huse & Kelly (1984) criticized the color groupings
and color names because they do not suggest value and chroma or
sometimes hue. However, Huse & Kelly (1984) provided a partial
concordance of this color chart with the ISCC-NBS color names and
numbers, Munsell notations, CIE chromaticity coordinates, and
daylight reflectance values. Patek (1969) rated this better than
the color charts of the American Horticultural Council (1957) or
Kelly (1964) for the matching of flower colors. After 24 years
these chips appear relatively bright. This was reprinted c. 20
years later by the R.H.S., the Flower Council of Holland (Leiden),
and the International Union for the Protection of new Varieties of
Plants (UPOV), in a plastic case (Royal Horticultural Society, c.
1986). Color names are not given because "the multiplicity of them
defeats their object". The addition of a 12 mm hole in each chip
further aids color matching. Romagnesi (1967, 1985) H. Romagnesi's
Les russules d'Europe et dAfrique du Nord contained a Code des
couleurs..., which was published for spores of Russula. This
includes ten mat pigment color chips (35 x 13 mm), all with common
names, on one page at the rear of the hardcover text. Tables
cross-referred Klincksieck & Vallette (1908), Ridgway (1912),
Seguy (1936), Cailleux & Taylor (1952), and Locquin (1957).
Rayner (1969) remarked that the chips were visually more evenly
spaced and approximated more nearly the actual Russula spore color
than those of Crawshay (1930). A cross-reference of Romagnesi to
Seguy (1936), Pearson (1948), Schaeffer (1952), Locquin (1957), and
Kornerup & Wanscher(1967b) is provided by Bresinsky (1985).
Henderson & al. (1969) A colour identification chart
accompanied the Britishfungus flora: Agarics and boleti of D. M.
Henderson, P. D. Orton & R. Watling. This includes 84 mat
pigment color chips (20 x 20 mm), 76 with common names, on one
trifold page in a packet at the rear,with a full color spectrum for
mushrooms. However,with the trifold, some colors have been folded
onto one another with some obvious damage and hints of bleeding.
Rayner (1970) R. W. Rayner'sA mycological colour chart includes 18
charts with 128 color chips (19 x 13 mm), all with common names;
these charts are enclosed in an envelope to accompany the paperback
volume. The mostly mat, sometimes glossy pigment chips are an
abbreviated version of the 1115colors in Ridgway (1912) (McKnight,
1972). Latin equivalents are given, as well as Munsell equivalents,
determined by D. H. Hamly, R. W. Rayner & E. M. Rayner. This
illustrated Dade's (1949) color nomenclature (Rayner'schips in
Chart I correspond to blocks in Dade's Chart II). Rosch (1972,
1974) The Hickethier color atlas was originally produced by the
color printer Erich Alfred Hickethier but later edited by Siegfried
Rosch. The English edition was limited to 700
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TAXON VOLUME 40
copies. This was oriented to a wide variety of disciplines
including dermatology, horticulture, and orcharding.The atlas
includes 1000very uniform half-tone colors (20 x 20 mm), each
covered with a clear film and spaced next to a 16 x 20 mm hole, on
40 charts in a four-ring loose-leaf notebook. Kevan & al.
(1973) This scale was published to evaluate insect and human visual
spectra. Rather than chips arranged on a chart, formulations of
magnesium oxide and carbon are given to create a gray scale. Smithe
(1974, 1975, 1981) Frank B. Smithe's Naturalist'scolor guide was
published to describe colors in animals and plants but especially
for birds. The vinyl covered spiral notebook of the 1975 edition
includes eight charts with 86 glossy pigment chips (32 x 25 mm),
all with common names. This is based upon Ridgway (1886, 1912) and
descriptions of bird plumage published by Ridgway between 1900 and
1919. The 1974 and 1981 supplements provide additional
cross-references with the notations of Villalobos-Dominguez &
Villalobos (1947) and Hamly (1949a) as well as Munsell color
notations. Graf(1976) The ninth edition of Alfred Byrd Grafs
Exotica includes, on the end page, a chart with 84 glossy half-tone
color chips (22 x 13 mm), all with common names. This is
cross-referredto Maerz & Paul (1950) and the Royal
Horticultural Society (1966) and has been reprintedin editions of
Exotica ever since. Kuppers(1978) H. Kiippers'sDuMont's
Farben-Atlaswas published for general use. This paperback volume
includes six charts with 5566 glossy half-tone color chips (10 x 10
mm), none with common names. Moser (1978, 1983) Meinhard Moser's
Die Rohrlinge und Blatterpilze (Polyporales, Boletales, Agaricales,
Russulales) includes 56 glossy color chips (19 x 10 mm) on a loose
sheet in a pocket, and a 19 x 10 mm mask. This color chart only
includes shades of browns as half-tone reproductions of
streakedwatercolors. Gerhardt(1984) Volume 1 of Ewald
Gerhardt'sPilze includes 28 glossy color chips (9 x 22 mm) on one
page. This color chart only includes shades of brown as half-tone
reproductions of streakedwatercolors;the intensity of color also
varies within each chip. Conclusions From our survey of available
color charts for biological descriptions, we have found that the
following practical attributes facilitate easier matches with
living material: 1. The ideal color chart should have non-fading
and non-bleeding mat pigments, not semi-glossy or glossy
half-tones. The half-tone color charts published in the past
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2.
3. 4. 5.
have not been uniform, and the matching of living mat materials
with semi-glossy or glossy color charts is difficult because of
reflectance. The ideal color chart should be arrangedas fans with
chips arrangedin single rows. Matching living specimens with a
multiplicity of colors on one page in a bound volume is physically
difficult. The color chips should be perforated by holes. The
placement of living materials next to the color chips is difficult
and induces reflectance. The optimum size of the color chips is
30-40 mm. Largerchips are a waste of pigment, while smaller chips
are difficult to compare with living materials. The ideal color
chart should be accompanied with a cross-reference to previous
color charts.
With these considerations, we recommend the format of the Royal
Horticultural Society's colour chart (c. 1986) in conjunction with
the cross-referencesfrom the 1966 edition. In 1990 the cost of this
color chart was ?28.75. However, it was designed for horticultural
taxa and cannot be expected to include the full range of biological
colors. Thus, the ideal universal biological color chart still
awaits publication. None of the color charts that we have examined
properly includes the multitude of metallic colors of zoological
subjects. Some colors, such as the vivid colors of spore prints of
Gymnopilus, are difficult to match with any existing color chart
(Singer, 1986). A comprehensive cross-referenceto all other major
charts also needs to be assembled in the fashion of Huse &
Kelly (1984), preferably with Latin equivalents as provided by
Steam (1983).Acknowledgements
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